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Sam Shenton | Rodillian Academy | PSYA4 Study Guide
Sam W Shenton
Study Guide for PSYA4 Exam,
for AQA A Psychology.
PSYA4
Study
GuidePSYA4 A2
Psychology
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What is Schizophrenia?
Schizohre!ia is a disorder characterised "y distorted thi!#i!g, imaired emotio!al
reso!ses, oor i!tererso!al s#ills, a!d a distortio! of reality. $he actual term mea!s
slit mi!d.
Aroximately %& of the oulatio! de'elos the disorder duri!g their lifetime, a!d
although it a(ects "oth me! a!d )ome! )ith e*ual fre*ue!cy, it aears earlier i!
me!. +t usually aears i! the late tee!s of males a!d the late t)e!ties a!d early
thirties of females.
$he disorder is of a! eisodic !ature )here eriods of distur"a!ce are i!tert)i!ed )ith
eriods of calm !ormality. $here is also a lac# of co!se!sus "et)ee! rofessio!als
a"out the co!se*ue!ces of ha'i!g the disorder. Early cli!icia!s "elie'ed reco'ery )as
imossi"le, "ut further moder! research suggests t)o thirds of eole )ith the
disorder ma#e sizea"le reco'eries.
Clinical Characteristics of Schizophrenia
$here are t)o mai! classicatio! tools for )hat schizohre!ia is-
o $he +!ter!al lassicatio! system for /isease
o $he /iag!osis a!d Statistical 0a!ual of 0e!tal /isorders
$he mai! di(ere!ce is that the /S0 orga!ises each diag!osis i!to six axes1 le'els.
$his leads to "ei!g a"le to ma#e a thorough diag!osis as they co!sider the erso!s
symtoms i! relatio! to ma!y di(ere!t le'els.
$here are t)o diag!osis methods from the +/. $hese are less se'ere, a!d more
se'ere, a!d are slit do)! i! this )ay-
At least one symptom is needed to
e present for at least one month!
At least t"o symptoms are needed to
e present for at least one month!a. $hought echo, )ithdra)al, or
"roadcast.". /elusio!s of co!trol or delusio!al
ercetio!s.c. 2alluci!atory 'oices- ru!!i!g
comme!tary3 or 'oices comi!g from
a!other art of the "ody5.d. Persiste!t delusio!s that are
culturally i!aroriate or
a. Persiste!t halluci!atio!s a!d half6
formed delusio!s or ideas.". 7eologisms 8!e) )ords9 resulti!g i!
i!cohere!t or irrele'a!t seech.c. atato!ic "eha'iour 8"eha'iour that
is slo) or !early immo"ile9.
d. :ac# of emotio!, moti'atio!, or
sea#i!g 'ery little.
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imossi"le.$here are also t)o tyes of symtoms-
o Positi'e ; a! additio! to the erso!s erso!ality, such as halluci!atio!s
Symptom Sho"s as #or $%ample/elusio!s Stra!ge, u!latte!ed a(ect ?educed ra!ge a!d i!te!sity of
emotio!
:ess eye co!tact, immo"ile facial
exressio!s?educed 0otor
Acti'ity
:ac# of so!ta!eous mo'eme!t ?emai!i!g still for hours
8catato!ia9?educed Seech
@ue!cy
?aid shifts i! toic ?eeat sou!ds a!d i!'e!t !e)
)ords 87eologisms9Alogia ?educed @ue!cy of seech :ess @ue!t seech
A'olitio! /iculty i!itiati!g thi!gs Stayi!g at home )ith !o
moti'atio! to eat or dress&ssues Surrounding Classi'cation and (iagnosis
Ad'a!tages
o Communication Shorthand; a atie!t usually has more tha! o!e symtom,
so it is much easier to sort these symtoms i!to a si!gle diag!osis. $his ma#es
commu!icatio! "et)ee! diag!osi!g rofessio!als much easier.o Aetiology; there is !o o"'ious si!gle cause of schizohre!ia, "ut #!o)i!g the
diag!osis ca! cause research to "egi! i!to the u!derlyi!g cause.
/isad'a!tages
o )isdiagnosis; a! o"'ious ro"lem that leads to i!aroriate treatme!ts a!d
sometimes u!!ecessary i!stitutio!alisatio!.o *aelling; diag!osis leads to la"elli!g, creati!g stigma a!d ossi"ly e'e! a
sef6 fullli!g rohecy.
o $here is also the assumtio! that there are t)o disti!ct categories3 !ormal 's.a"!ormal. $his does!t allo) for a grey area of other ill!esses of a less se'ere
!ature.
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ultural +ssues
lassicatio!s are usually de'eloed "y )ester! 8usually America! a!d British9
ractitio!ers a!d therefore classicatio!s are o!ly rele'a!t to the 'alues of )ester!
eole. $his suggests a! issue of cultural relati'ism, mea!i!g that it is !ot ossi"le to
ma#e assertio!s of )hat is !ormal5 or a"!ormal5 huma! "eha'iour due to cultural
di'ides. A"!ormality is "ased o! culturally secic criteria.
?elia"ility
+! hysical medici!e, a diag!osis is suorted "y la" exerime!t, or cli!ical trials, ect.
2o)e'er, there is !o o"
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Gottesma! 8%DD%9 suggests that schizohre!ia is i!herited through ge!es. 2e studied
4 t)i!s, a!d fou!d that co!corda!ce rate for 0o!ozygotic 80F9 t)i!s )as 4&, a!d
o!ly %H& for /izygotic 8/F9 t)i!s. ordi!e 8II9 co!ducted a similar study a!d
sho)ed a co!corda!ce rate IJ.K& for 0F t)i!s, a!d & for /F t)i!s.
E'aluatio!-
o $he fact that the co!corda!ce rate is !e'er %& clearly sho)s that other
factors are imorta!t as )ello $he small samle of such t)i! studies could lead to u!relia"le results. $hey also
do !ot al)ays use the same diag!ostic criteria, so di(ere!t studies )ill roduce
!aturally di(ere!t co!corda!ce rates.o o!corda!ce rates are also calculated di(ere!tly dee!di!g o! the methods
used, )hich *uestio!s relia"ility of studies.
Adotio! Studies
$ie!ari studied %KK adoted childre! )hos "iological mothers had schizohre!ia.
$hey had a co!corda!ce rate of %& comared to %& i! adoted childre! )ithout
schizohre!ic are!ts. $his is 'ery stro!g e'ide!ce that ge!etics are a ris# factor i!
de'eloi!g schizohre!ia.
>amily Studies
Gottesma! also studied families. 2e co!cluded that there )as a 4J& cha!ce of
de'eloi!g schizohre!ia if "oth of your are!ts are a(ected, as oosed to the usual
%&. $he more ge!etically similar the relati'es, the higher the co!corda!ce rate
"et)ee! them.
E'aluatio!-
o Although this e'ide!ce stro!gly sho)cases ge!etics as a factor, ho)e'er it
could also highlight e!'iro!me!tal a!d social e(ects as the closer relati'es
se!d more time together !aturally.
+iochemical #actors
$he /oami!e 2yothesis
$his theory asserts that excessi'e amou!ts of doami!e or o'erse!siti'ity to the
chemical i! the "rai! to doami!e are the cause of schizohre!ia.
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Stre!gths-
o /rugs )hich "loc# doami!e 8he!othiazi!e9 seem to reduce the symtoms of
schizohre!ia.o :6/oa, a drug for Par#i!so!s disease actually i!creases doami!e a!d aears
to roduce schizohre!ic symtoms6 e'ide!ce that i!creased doami!e creates
schizohre!iaLo Post6mortems of schizohre!ics ha'e sho)! i!creased doami!e arts i! the
"rai!.
:imitatio!s-
o Phe!othiazi!e does !ot )or# o! all atie!ts a!d thus it is !ot "iological factors
of doami!e that cause schizohre!ia i! e'eryo!e.o $heres !o cause a!d e(ect )ith the research that ca! "e esta"lished6 all
correlatio!al.o $his theory is 'ery simlistic a!d has "ee! criticised for exhi"iti!g a!
aetiological fallacy6 it is assumed that "ecause the additio! of the he!othiazi!e
sol'es the issue that it is the lac# of that that causes schizohre!ia6 it is !ot, it is
doami!e.
.euroanatomy ,+rain Structure-
$here is some a!d gro)i!g e'ide!ce that the hysical structure of the "rai! could "e
a cause of schizohre!ia. Szes#s et. al. fou!d that asymmetry is fou!d i! !ormal
"rai!s, mea!i!g that the t)o sides of the "rai!s are di(ere!t, )hile those )ith
schizohre!ia seem to "e di(ere!t, )ith the refro!tal cortex a"se!t.
Peole )ith the disorder also ha'e u!usually large 'e!tricles i! the "rai!, ma#i!g
schizohre!ic "rai!s lighter tha! !ormal o!es. A!dreaso! et. al. co!ducted a 'ery
)ell co!trolled $ sca! study a!d fou!d that there )as sig!ica!t e!largeme!t of the
'e!tricles i! schizohre!ic "rai!s. 2o)e'er, this )as o!ly the case for me! a!d !ot
)ome! a!d, as such, is lo) i! oulatio! 'alidity.
E'aluatio!-
o ?esearch is dicult to i!terret a!d there ha'e "ee! ma!y co!tradictory
!di!gs.o +t is dicult to esta"lish cause a!d e(ect due to the fact that ma!y of the
articia!ts had had schizohre!ia for a lo!g time a!d "ee! u!dergoi!g
treatme!t, so it is a ossi"le that either o!e of those t)o factors may ha'e
altered the 'e!tricles or the asymmetry.5
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Psychological )odels ,$%planations-
Psychological models ha'e three sectio!s to exlai!i!g schizohre!ia. $hese are-
Social >actors3 Beha'iourism a!d :ear!i!g3 a!d Psychody!amics.
+eha/ioural0 *earning )odel
$his aroach exlai!s schizohre!ia as "ei!g caused mai!ly through oera!t
co!ditio!i!g-
o Early exerie!ce of u!ishme!t for "ei!g odd may se!d a child i!to
)ithdra)al. $his leads to la"elli!g them as odd.o $he "izarre "eha'iour they the! exhi"it may "e re)arded )ith atte!tio! a!d
symathy, a!d thus the i!di'idual co!forms to the "eha'iour a!d to the
stereotye1 la"el.o Beha'iour the! "ecomes more a!d more exaggerated u!til it is e'e!tually
la"elled as schizohre!ic.
$his theory relates to the ideas of 'icarious rei!forceme!t.
E'aluatio!-
o $he fact that schizohre!ics do sho) reso!ses to rei!forceme!t i! theray
sessio!s does gi'e some suort to this idea.o +t ca! "e said to "e reductio!ist a!d mecha!istic, as it simly says that re)ards
a!d u!ishme!ts a!d rei!forceme!ts are reso!si"le for all huma! "eha'iour.o $he theory is ro"a"ly more rele'a!t to the mai!te!a!ce a!d !ot the i!itiatio!
of the disorder.
Social #actors #amily )odels
Early social theorists regarded families as crucial )he! exlai!i!g schizohre!ia.
$he Schizohre!ic 0other is the term gi'e! to a cold mother )ho is domi!a!t a!d
ma!iulati'e, "y "ei!g "oth o'er6rotecti'e a!d re
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o 2o)e'er, families of schizohre!ics do di(er from others of !o!6 schizohre!ics
a!d this theory ha'e therefore ge!erated i!terest i! the e(ects that the family
has o! the =M?SE of schizohre!ia, as oosed to the AMSE.
$%pressed $motion ,$$-
?ece!t research has co!ce!trated arou!d the theory of exressed emotio! 8EE9. $his
is the theory of o'er6 layi!g emotio!s, such as "ei!g o'er critical or o'er co!cer!ed
a"out someo!e )ith schizohre!ia.
Exressed Emotio! 8EE9 is assessed "y tai!g a! i!ter'ie) )ith a relati'e of someo!e
)ith schizohre!ia a!d rati!g-
o $he !um"er of critical comme!ts
o $he !um"er of stateme!ts of disli#e1 dissatisfactio!1 rese!tful!esso $he !um"er of stateme!ts sho)i!g o'er i!de'elome!t )ith the atie!t.
Bro)! 8%DHI9 highlighted that schizohre!ic atie!ts )ere more li#ely to relase )he!
restored to homes that dislayed high exressed emotio!. $arrier et. al. also sho)s
that there is a stro!g correlatio! "et)ee! relase i! schizohre!ia a!d exressed
emotio!.
E'aluatio!-
o +t is @a)ed "y the fact that most research is correlatio!al a!d thus ca!!ot sho)
the cause a!d e(ect of exressed emotio!.o Exressed Emotio! 8EE9 has also "ee! fou!d i! families )ith eati!g disorders
a!d deressio! so there is !ot o!e direct li!# to schizohre!ia.o $here are co!cer!s a"out ho) exressed emotio! 8EE9 is measured as it is do!e
)ith reud argued that co!@icts a!d traumas are imorta!t )he! it comes to exlai!i!g
schizohre!ia. 2e claims that schizohre!ics ha'e retur!ed to the oral stage of the
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sychosexual stages u!der the sychody!amic model. $his is the stage that rimary
!arcissism 8hea'y self6 i!terest i! yourself9 occurs
+! the oral stage, the ego has !ot yet searated from the id. Si!ce the ego "elo!gs to
the reality ri!cile, the model asserts that schizohre!ics ha'e lost touch )ith reality
as their ego is !ot fu!ctio!i!g roerly.
E'aluatio!-
o $he theory is seculati'e a!d has !o o"
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"et)ee! three a!d ftee! sessio!s. $he treatme!t used to "e used exte!si'ely "ut
has si!ce "ee! deemed i!e(ecti'e a!d a"a!do!ed "y most.
Stre!gths-
o $hyra! a!d Adams co!ducted re'ie) of IJ studies to assess )hether E$ had
a!y e(ect. $hey fou!d that, )he! comared )ith simulated E$, more atie!ts
imro'ed )ith real E$, a!d fou!d that there )as some e'ide!ce that E$
com"i!ed )ith a!ti6sychotic drugs had a "etter e(ect tha! drugs alo!e.
Oea#!esses-
o Gree!halgh et. al.s meta6 a!alysis co!cluded that E$ )as !ot a!y more
e(ecti'e tha! a!ti6sychotic drugs i! the lo!g ru!.o Sarita et. al. co!ducted a study i! +!dia a!d fou!d that there )as !o di(ere!ce
or reductio! i! symtoms of NJ schizohre!ics )ho either E$ or simulated E$.
[It is advisable in an exam question to only do ECT as a last resort. There is not
enough modern material on the treatment to gain enough marks- stick to drugs,
kids!
(rug 1herapy0 Chemotherapy
0a!y argue that the i!troductio! of drug theray has re'olutio!ised the treatme!ts ofschizohre!ia.
hlorromazi!e
hlorromazi!e )as used to tra!*uilise atie!ts )ithout sedati!g them. $hese lead
sychiatrists to disco'eri!g its theraeutic roerties for schizohre!ics, )hich
remo'ed the symtoms of delusio!s a!d halluci!atio!s. $he drug )or#s "y attachi!g
itself to the doami!e recetors i! the "rai!, a!d thus re'e!ti!g the doami!e fromdoi!g so i!stead. $his allo)s for imro'ed cog!iti'e a!d "eha'ioural a"ilities, as )ell
as the ositi'e symtoms of schizohre!ia "ei!g co!tai!ed. hlorromazi!e is the
most e(ecti'e drug for treati!g schizohre!ia.
7euroletics
7euroletics are e(ecti'e i! co!trolli!g ositi'e symtoms a!d ha'e allo)ed
schizohre!ics to li'e outside of i!stitutio!s 8accordi!g to ulie!9. $he drugs ha'eallo)ed life i! the commu!ity for schizohre!ics, as oosed to i!stitutio!s, )hile
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co!ti!ued use of the drug hels re'e!t relase. 2o)e'er, the )o!der drugs hye
that rst surrou!ded it has !ot li'ed u to its exectatio!s.
Stre!gths-
o Both drugs reduce symtoms )ithi! J mo!ths of ta#i!g them, "ut the
symtoms ofte! retur! a!d the atie!ts relase 8saccordi!g to ?ze)us#a9.o $hese co!'e!tio!al drugs are good at reduci!g ositi'e symtoms.
o $hey are *uic# a!d easy to ta#e a!d as such mea! that the atie!t ca! ma#e a
fast reco'ery )ith little e(ort
Oea#!esses-
o $hese drugs do !ot seem to "e e(ecti'e agai!st the !egati'e symtoms.o /rugs aear to treat the symtoms "ut !ot get to the root cause of the
disorder.o $here is a! aetiological fallacy surrou!di!g drug treatme!t6
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the trust of the atie!t a!d "uild a relatio!shi )ith them. $his trust )ill allo) more
i!formatio! to "e "rought out. $hey )ill achie'e this relatio!shi "y relaci!g the
atie!ts u!ishi!g co!scie!ce5 )ith a less destructi'e5 o!e. +! the rst i!sta!ces,
the theraist )ill !ot e'e! ma#e eye co!tact )ith the atie!t a!d i!stead
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'oices$arrier fou!d that HN& of his atie!ts had imro'ed after u!dergoi!g full og!iti'e
Beha'ioural $heray, a!d that it is a! e(ecti'e )ay of ma!agi!g their schizohre!ic
symtoms. Oith this, $arrier de'eloed the coi!g strategy e!ha!ceme!t )hich
teaches atie!ts ho) to de'elo a!d aly 'arious coi!g strategies.
Stre!gths-
o +t does ha'e a sig!ica!t e(ect o! atie!ts symtoms )he! alied roerly,
accordi!g to Goulds meta6 a!alysis.o B$ does ha'e a lo!g lasti!g legacy, u!li#e drugs )hich ca! lead to immediate
relase after the atie!t stos ta#i!g them.o +t is a more ethical )ay of deali!g )ith the disorder as it gi'es atie!ts more
free )ill o'er their o)! treatme!t tha! the chemical straight
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What is Addiction?
Addictio! is the state of chro!ic or eriodic i!toxicatio! roduced "y reeated
co!sumtio! of a !atural or sy!thetic drug. +t ca! also i!clude other "eha'iours,
i!cludi!g gam"li!g a!d sex. +t i!creases the ris# of disease a!d social1 eco!omic
ro"lems.
)odels of Addiction
+iological )odel
Assumtio!s
o Addictio! is a secic diag!osis6 you are either a! addict or you are !ot a!
addicto Addictio! is li#e all other ill!esseso $he issue lies )ithi! the i!di'idualo $he addictio! is irre'ersi"le
o $here is a! emhasis o! treatme!ts, as the addictio! ca!!ot "e cured.
Some "iologists also say that eole )ho sho) addicti'e "eha'iour ha'e a"!ormal
hysiology. >or examle, Alcoholics A!o!ymous "elie'es that alcoholism is a! allergic
reactio!.
Ge!etics
:erma! et. al. fou!d a li!# "et)ee! smo#i!g a!d ge!es i!'ol'i!g doami!e
regulatio!. $his is, ho)e'er, correlatio! research, mea!i!g that cause a!d e(ect
ca!!ot "e esta"lished. 0ea!)hile, omi!gs et. al. researched ca!!a"is, cocai!e, a!d
heroi! addictio!. 2e fou!d a li!# to ge!es i! a di(ere!t5 "rai! system. Agai!, this is
amily studies ha'e sho)! high rates of co!corda!ce, esecially i! alcoholism.
0eri#a!gas et. al. fou!d that NJ& of "lood relati'es to alcoholics )ere also later
diag!osed as such. 2o)e'er, e!'iro!me!tal factors could "e a cause6 through the
Social :ear!i!g $heory. Adotio! studies are a!other source of #!o)ledge i! relatio!
to ge!es. 2eath fou!d that some eole )ho )ere "rought u )ithout the "iological
are!ts arou!d "ecame alcoholics, )he! their "iological are!ts )ere also alcoholics.
$his is good ge!etic e'ide!ce as it mea!s that e!'iro!me!tal factors ca! "e ousted as
re'ale!t.
$he Physical /ee!de!cy $heory
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$he Physical /ee!de!cy $heory 8P/$9 states that eole "ecome addicted "ecause
they do !ot )a!t1 ca!!ot go )ithout )hat they are addicted to. A! imorta!t asect
of this is tolera!ce to a! addicti'e su"sta!ce. As a erso! co!ti!ues to smo#e, for
examle, he or she "ecomes more tolera!t a!d !eeds to mai!tai! their addictio!
more a!d more i! order to exerie!ce leasure. As )ell as this, stoi!g may cause
u!leasa!t side6 e(ects from )ithdra)al.
Biochemicals
7eurotra!smitters are the most imorta!t6 these are "iochemicals that mo'e "et)ee!
sy!ases 8the gas i! !er'e cells9 to tra!smit messages throughout the !er'ous
system. +f these are altered )ith, the! there is a! e(ect o! mood, cog!itio!, a!d
"eha'iour. $he most imorta!t is doami!e. /oami!e seems to ha'e a role i! mood
a!d emotio!, a!d the "iological re)ards rocess. $here are se'eral doami!e systemsi! the "rai!, "ut the mesolim"ic doami!e system seems to "e the most imorta!t.
ells i! this ath)ay are so!ta!eously acti'e, releasi!g small amou!ts of doami!e
i!to the sy!ases. $his leads to sta"le mood. Altmam et. al. suggests alcohol a!d
!icoti!e e(ects the !er'ous system "y i!creasi!g doami!e le'els. :ie"ma! a!d
ooer also @oated the idea that eole )ho are ro!e to addictio! may ha'e more
se!siti'e mesolim"ic doami!e systems.
='erall E'aluatio!
$here is a de"ate as to )hether eole ca! co!trol their addicti'e "eha'iour. $his ca!
"e summed u i! the >ree Oill 's. /etermi!ism de"ate. Biological model is highly
determi!istic, as it assumes that eole ha'e !o co!trol o'er their addictio!, it ca!!ot
"e treated, a!d the diag!osis is i!credi"ly closed a!d limited i! scoe. :ear!i!g a!d
og!iti'e 0odels "oth allo) for greater >ree Oill o'er addictio!.
$he lo!g6 ru!!i!g de"ate of 7ature 's. 7urture is also re'ale!t i! the Biological
0odel, as it assumes that !urture through lear!i!g a!d cog!itio! is !ear6 irrele'a!t.
$)i! studies also form some "asis of the Biological aroach. 7o t)i! study has e'er
sho)! %& herita"ility, so therefore, !atural Biology ca!!ot "e all to "lame for
addictio!, almost discrediti!g the 7ature side of the Biological model.
?eductio!ism is also re'ale!t throughout the Biological 0odel. $his is "ecause it
simlies the comlexities of addicti'e "eha'iour do)! simly to ge!es, a!d ig!ores
"oth cultural a!d social factors that may also ha'e a "ig imact.
Cogniti/e )odel
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Assumtio!s
o og!itio! is thi!#i!g, so eole are addicted simly "ecause of the )ay they
thi!#o Bec# et. al.s 'iscous cycle clearly sho)s that it is thi!#i!g that causes
addictio!.
oi!g
A #ey idea i! the cog!iti'e model is that eole e!gage i! addicti'e "eha'iour to hel
them coe )ith the stresses of life. Addictio! is thought to full three fu!ctio!s-
o 0ood regulatio!- i!creasi!g ositi'e moodo Performa!ce E!ha!ceme!t- a! addictio! may ma#e someo!e co!ce!trate "etter
or comlete a tas# more ecie!tly
o /istractio!- addictio! may ser'e as a distractio! to less leasa!t life
exerie!ces
2o) these fu!ctio!s are fullled dee!ds o! the addicti'e "eha'iour.
Execta!cy
=ur exectatio!s do !ot ha'e to "e correct to i!@ue!ce our "eha'iour. +f )e feel a!
addictio! may harm us, )e )ill !ot do it. 2o)e'er, if )e feel that it )ill !ot, )e may
)ell do it. 2a!se! et. al. fou!d that those )ho a"use alcohol are more li#ely to "e
those )ho do !ot see as ma!y !egati'e co!se*ue!ces of hea'y dri!#i!g. 0ea!)hile,
he also fou!d that those )ho ercei'e !egati'e e(ects )ill !ot a"use alcohol. $his
sho)s that )hat )e exect to hae! is more i!@ue!tial tha! )hat actually hae!s.
Self6 Ecacy
Self6 Ecacy refers to our erso!al "eliefs i! us. +f )e "elie'e )e ca! deal )ith a!y
!egati'e e(ects of a! additio!, therefore, )e are more li#ely to "ecome addicts.
2o)e'er, esta"lished addicts )ho feel u!a"le to deal )ith )ithdra)al symtoms, or
)ho ercei'e themsel'es !egati'ely may feel that they are u!a"le to *uit a!d sto,
due to their i!a"ility to coe.
='erall E'aluatio!
$he >ree Oill 's /etermi!ism de"ate is rerese!ted o! the >ree Oill side )ith the
og!iti'e model, as it states that addicti'e "eha'iour occurs due to faulty thi!#i!g,
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)hich ca! "e corrected, allo)i!g eole to "e a"le to cha!ge their addicti'e
"eha'iour a!d imro'e, comared to the determi!istic Biological 0odel.
2o)e'er, irratio!al "eliefs are a 'ery erratic )ay to diag!ose such a comlex
"eha'iour, as addictio! is. $houghts ca! cha!ge i! a slit6 seco!d, so there is !o
co!siste!cy i! the models diag!osis of addictio!.
+t could also "e asserted that the cog!iti'e model focuses more so o! sychological
addictio!s tha! it does hysiological o!es. $his mea!s it "ecomes limited i!
exlai!i!g addictio!s such as gam"li!g.
+eha/ioural0 *earning )odel
Assumtio!s
o 7ot all or !othi!g5 categories li#e Biological 0odelo Beha'iour is lear!ed 'ia Social :ear!i!g $heory
o Addictio! is !o di(ere!t to a!y other "eha'iour3 it ca! "e lear!ed a!d u!lear!ed
lassical o!ditio!i!g
lassical o!ditio!i!g i!dicates that )e lear! through associati!g o!e thi!g )ith
a!other. >or examle, )ith smo#i!g-
o M!co!ditio!ed Stimulus ; Sitti!g )ith frie!dso M!co!ditio!ed ?e@ex ; ?elaxed
o 7eutral Stimulus ; Smo#i!g
Smo#i!g the! "ecomes the co!ditio!ed stimulus, )ith relaxatio! the co!ditio!ed
re@ex, as eole associate the relaxatio! )ith the smo#i!g.
Oil#er )as the rst to esta"lish a li!# "et)ee! lassical o!ditio!i!g a!d Addictio!.
2e !oticed that eole )ho )ere treated for drug addictio! e!ded u su(eri!g se'ere
)ithdra)al symtoms )he! they retur!ed to the laces they used i!.
=era!t o!ditio!i!g
=era!t o!ditio!i!g dictates that )e lear! through ositi'e a!d !egati'e
rei!forceme!ts. Positi'e rei!forceme!ts create a leasura"le co!se*ue!ce a!d
!egati'e rei!forceme!ts a !egati'e o!e. +! terms of addictio!, these rei!forceme!tsmay 'ary )ith the erso! a!d the su"sta!ce that they are addicted to.
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Social :ear!i!g $heory
Accordi!g to the S:$, )e do !ot !eed to exerie!ce the co!se*ue!ces of a "eha'iour
oursel'es to "ecome addicted. +!stead, )e simly ha'e to o"ser'e others. >or
examle, )atchi!g our are!ts smo#e may ma#e us more i!cli!ed to smo#e. $his also
exlai!s the role of the media.
=utcome Execta!cy 0odel
Someo!e )ith a! addicti'e "eha'iour has articular exectatio!s to )hat is a"out to
hae! )ith their addictio!. $his ca! create a cue to exerie!ce a! addicti'e
su"sta!ce.
='erall E'aluatio!
$he Beha'ioural model is reductio!ist as it reduces a comlex "eha'iour do)! to
simle re)ards a!d u!ishme!ts. +t is also mecha!istic, as it assumes that "eha'iour
is a xed, rigid structure, a!d the same i! e'ery erso!.
$he Beha'ioural model ta#es the !atural side of the 7ature 's. 7urture de"ate, to the
oi!t that it retty much ig!ores a!y "iological a!d !atural factors.
Social :ear!i!g $heory is a"le to ac#!o)ledge the cog!iti'e model i! its !di!gs,
mea!i!g that it is a holistic model. +t is also a"le to exlai! the role of the media i!
addicti'e "eha'iours. =utcome Execta!cy 0odel, ho)e'er, is 'ery simlistic.
Smoing Addiction
&nitiation
Biological 0odel
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$he Biological 0odel exlai!s the i!itiatio! of addictio! through ge!etics. :erma! et.
al. said that the ge!e S:JAN6D ca! ma#e a erso! less ro!e to smo#i!g1 !icoti!e
addictio!. $his ge!e is said to )or# i! the doami!e systems.
og!iti'e 0odel
$he og!iti'e 0odel exlai!s the imitatio! of smo#i!g through the exectatio!s of it.$his might "e erforma!ce imro'eme!t or stress relate. 2erisham suggests that
smo#i!g e!ha!ces co!ce!tratio!, so eole may start smo#i!g "ecause of ho) they
exect it to "e, Self6 Ecacy also lays a art, as eole may thi!# that they ca!
ha!dle a!y ad'erse side6 e(ects that they ercei'e.
Beha'ioural1 :ear!i!g 0odel
Social :ear!i!g $heory dictates that )e may lear! to smo#e "ecause it is all arou!dus. =era!t o!ditio!i!g also lays a art, as eole may "egi! to smo#e "ecause
they are ositi'ely rei!forced )ith the good e(ects.
)aintenance
Biological 0odel
$he Biological 0odel dictates that smo#i!g addictio! i!creases doami!e le'els, )hich
i! tur!, i!creases leasure feeli!gs. 7icoti!e is also 'ery addicti'e6 Schacter asserts
that hysical dee!de!cy occurs to sha#e o( u!leasa!t )ithdra)al symtoms.
og!iti'e 0odel
Bec#s 'icious cycle asserts that eole get i!to a cycle that they ca!t "rea#, of lo)
mood a!d usi!g their addictio!. :o) self6 ecacy also sho)s that eole may "e
u!a"le to coe )ith )ithdra)al symtoms, )hile smo#i!g ca! hel eole coe )ith
stress so they stay doi!g it.
Beha'ioural1 :ear!i!g 0odel
Social :ear!i!g $heory sho)s that )e !d it hard to *uit smo#i!g "ecause it is simly
all arou!d us i! society. Also, lassical o!ditio!i!g also states that "ecause smo#i!g"ecomes routi!e, )e !d it hard to sto. =era!t co!ditio!i!g i! the co!text of eer
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ressure also sho)s that eole may co!ti!ue smo#i!g, as they gai! eer aro'al
for doi!g so3 the oosite of re
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Social :ear!i!g $heory exlai!s gam"li!g as it is re'ale!t i! our culture a!d society
a!d glamorised i! the media. lassical o!ditio!i!g also mea!s that eole lear! to
associate gam"li!g )ith exciteme!t a!d )i!!i!g, )hile =era!t o!ditio!s ro'ides a
ositi'e e!forceme!t of )i!!i!g to i!itiate gam"li!g.
)aintenance
Biological 0odel
$he decisio! arts of our "rai!s are co!trolled "y Gam"li!g "eha'iour6 )e mai!tai!
"ecause )e are simly u!a"le to ma#e the decisio! to *uit.
og!iti'e 0odel
Bec# et. al. says that gam"li!g imro'es mood, "ut losi!g i!'ol'es !egati'e social
a!d !a!cial situatio!s. $his leads to usi!g agai! to create a higher mood a!d may"e
alle'iati!g some of the issues.
Beha'ioural1 :ear!i!g 0odel
=eratio! o!ditio!i!g dictates that re)ards e!courage gam"li!g to co!ti!ue, such
as )ith the good "eha'iour. $he schedule of rei!forceme!t creates i!fre*ue!t )i!s
)hich mea!s you ha'e a stro!g urge to co!ti!ue as you ha'e !o idea )he! the !ext
)i! )ill occur. Social :ear!i!g $heory also exlai!s that you are i!@ue!ced "y the
fello) gam"lers arou!d you, )hich may "ecome your frie!ds, a!d as such, co!ti!ue to
gam"le a lot.
3elapse
Biological 0odel
Oithdra)al symtoms cause you to cra'e adre!ali!e rushes, so you relase to gai!
these.
og!iti'e 0odel
Self6 Ecacy dictates that "ecause you ha'e *uit o!ce, you ca! *uit a!y time. $he
ossi"ility of )i!!i!g )ill also )orm some eole "ac#.
Beha'ioural1 :ear!i!g 0odel
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Social :ear!i!g $heory says that society i!@ue!ces you to retur! to gam"li!g.
ulneraility
3is #actors
Age
?esearch has sho)! that there is a ositi'e correlatio! "et)ee! early i!itiatio! a!d
rolo!ged usage a!d relase. %H.N& of adolesce!ts i! %NI cou!tries )ere classes as
smo#ers6 you!g age smo#i!g is a large issueR
Shram 8I9 co!ducted a la"oratory study o! mice to !d the di(ere!ce "et)ee!
the adolesce!t a!d adult "rai! )he! deali!g )ith !icoti!e. $he rats self6 admi!istered
!icoti!e. 7icoti!e )as fou!d to more se'erely a(ect the adult rats. 0ea!)hile, the
adolesce!t rats did !ot feel as ma!y !egati'e e(ects, a!d i!stead felt more ositi'e
re)ards from !icoti!e. ould it "e that adolesce!t "rai!s are di(ere!t )he! it comes
to addicti'e su"sta!ces, li#e !icoti!eL
Perso!ality
Eyse!c# "elie'ed that there is such a thi!g as a! addicti'e erso!ality, mea!i!g that
some eole are !aturally more ro!e to addictio! tha! others. $here are three
dime!sio!s to this that Eyse!c# roosed-
o Psychoticism ; aggressi'e, imulsi'e, egoce!tric.
o .euroticism ; moody, irrita"le, a!xiouso $xtra'ersio! ; socia"le, li'ely, otimistic.
Eyse!c# has little e'ide!ce to suort his idea of a! addicti'e erso!ality. 2o)e'er,
>ra!cis 8%DDJ9 fou!d a li!# "et)ee! high 7 a!d P scores a!d !icoti!e addictio!.
Peers
Sussma! a!d Ames 8I%9 fou!d that eer usage of drugs is a good redictor of
i!itiatio! amo!g you!g eole. $his mea!s that you!g eole )ith frie!ds )ho smo#e
are more li#ely themsel'es to ta#e u smo#i!g. 2o)e'er, the same eole also fou!d
that family co!@ict, oor suer'isio!, a!d drug6use tolera!ce "y the are!ts, a!d
de'ia!t eer grou "eha'iour all i!@ue!ce i!itiatio!s of addictio!s. $his may suggest
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that eers are
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smo#i!g- adolesce!ts )ho )atched lmes rated PG or ? 8MSA9 )ere JJ& more li#ely
to smo#e tha! those )ho )atch lms of lo)er rati!gs.
or! et. al. 8I9 used i!ter'ie)s a!d *uestio!!aires to re'eal that articia!ts
could-
o Al)ays recall at least o!e gam"li!g mar#eti!g camaig!o ?egarded gam"li!g camaig!s as i!@ue!tial
o >elt the ad'ertiseme!ts )ere fu!!yo >elt the ad'ertiseme!ts as sho)i!g cool eole
o +!dicated the ossi"ility of !a!cial gai!
All these thi!gs are li#ely to attract you!g eole i! ma!y )ays. =ther research,
ho)e'er, suggests that it is the !ature of gam"li!g ad'ertiseme!ts. >or examle,
2yu!g6Soe# et. al. 8IH9 suggested that the !ature of gam"li!g caused the issues,
a!d that the ositi'e e!'iro!me!t of ga"li!g forces eole i!to gam"li!g addictio!.
Positi'e E(ects
>ried a!d :e'y 8II9 re'ie)ed the imact of camaig!s i! the MS. $hey sho)ed that
)ell6fu!ded a!d imleme!ted mass6media camaig!s targeted at the ge!eral
oulatio!, com"i!ed )ith comrehe!si'e to"acco co!trol rogrammes, are
associated )ith reduced smo#i!g rates amo!g the ge!eral oulatio!.
lei! et. al. 8IK9 asserts that, i! adolesce!ts, a!ti6 smo#i!g camaig!s com"i!ed
)ith teleho!e hel ser'ices ca! i!form eole a!d hel cha!ge "eha'iour.
2yu!g6Soe# et. al. 8IH9 also sho)ed that if media rerese!tatio! of gam"li!g )as
!egati'e, the! the e(ect )as to i!@ue!ce attitudes a!d "eha'iour accordi!gly, )ith
'ie)ers "egi!!i!g to see gam"li!g more !egati'ely.
Attriutions 1heory
Attri"utio!s $heory is all a"out )ho you attri"ute as the cause of your addicti'e
stages. +t ca! either "e i!ter!al, or exter!al. Peole )ith exter!al Attri"utio!s i! the
"lame o! exter!al factors, such as ressure, stress, a!d society. $hose )ith i!ter!al
attri"utio!s may "lame their addictio! o! their o)! )ea#!esses, lo) self6 ecacy a!dself6 esteem, a!d "ra'ery or hoeless!ess.
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Social Conte%t of Addiction
/ri!#i!g a!d smo#i!g are socially acceta"le i! the )est6 "ut i! the +slamic )orld,
they ca! "e fro)!ed uo!. 2o)e'er, these addictio!s still occur i! these laces.
$herefore, addictio! models ca! "e accused of "ei!g culture "iased.
Sociocultural "ac#grou!d has also "ee! a domi!a!t factor )ith addictio!. Peole fromlo)er class "ac#grou!ds are more li#ely to ta#e u addictio!s. +f you gro) u )ith
high crime e!'iro!me!ts arou!d you, you are also more li#ely to ta#e u a! addicti'e
"eha'iour. Poor schooli!g is also a ris# factor i! addictio!.
3educing Addicti/e +eha/iour
1heory of Planned +eha/iour ,1P+-
0ai! Assumtio!s
A! i!di'iduals decisio! to e!gage i! a articular "eha'iour ca! "e directly redicted
"y their i!te!tio! to e!gage i! that "eha'iour. $he $heory of Pla!!ed Beha'iour 8$PB9
tried to exlai! this.
$PB i!'ol'es-
i. Attitude ; the i!di'iduals attitude to)ards the "eha'iour i! *uestio!ii. Su"
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)ethodological issueslague $PB6 Self6 ?eort *uestio!!aires, )hich are used to
measure attitudes a!d other arts of $PB, may "e i!accurate a!d o!ly roduce
correlatio!al data. $hey also may co!tai! self6 rese!tatio!al "ias, a!d as such, are
"ad redictors of actual "eha'iour.
$PB as a model for addictio! re'e!tio!
$he $PB ca! "e used to reduce addicti'e "eha'iour. $his ca! i!'ol'e-
o Changing +eha/ioural Attitude; for examle, the MS =ce of 7atio!al /rug
o!trol Policy lau!ched a camaig! to lo)er tee!age mari
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Positi'es-
o hea a!d a'aila"le o! the 7atio!al 2ealth Ser'ice i! the M6 they are
accessi"leo $hey are *uic# a!d e(ecti'e, u!li#e sychological treatme!ts
7egati'e-
o $hey o!ly accou!t for !atural i!@ue!ces, a!d !eglects the !urture side of the
de"ate.o $hey ig!ore u!derlyi!g causes a!d sychological thoughtso $here ca! "e ad'erse side e(ectso $hey could lead to a! aetiological fallacyo /rugs co!trol "eha'iour a!d do!t deal )ith the actual cause of the addicti'e
"eha'iour
Biological $reatme!ts a!d the Aetiological >allacy
$here is the issue of the treatme!t aetiological fallacy. $his mea!s that,
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o Ohe! smo#ers )ere gi'e! o!e follo) u i!ter'ie) %I mo!ths after the rst, the
successful *uitti!g rate )as .N&o Ohe! smo#ers )ere also gi'e! a *uestio!!aire, the successful *uit rate )as
%.J&o Ohe! smo#ers )ere also ad'ised to *uit, N.N& had *uit.o Ohe! A=$A )as used a!d a lea@et )ith to tis to *uit )as gi'e! to the
smo#ers, K.N& had *uit a!d lasted.
Although this might seem li#e small !um"ers, if all GPs co!ducted this the same )ay
)ith all i!formatio! a'aila"le, half a millio! eole )ould *uit smo#i!g e'ery year
8=gde! IH9.
?oom et. al. also co!ducted a study surrou!di!g alcoholism. $hey fou!d that those
)ith alcoholism i! its i!fa!cy, or )ith mild alcoholic te!de!cies, )ere more li#ely to
*uit )he! lectured a"out safe amou!ts to dri!#, "ala!ced diet a!d dri!#i!g, a!d
doctors tal#s. $hese methods )ere i!e(ecti'e )ith more ro"lem dri!#i!g.
Psychological &nter/ention
A'ersio! $heray
A'ersio! $heray is "ased o! u!ishme!t, as oosed to re)ard. Oith smo#i!g, a!
i!di'idual )ill sit alo!e a!d ta#e a u( of o!e cigarette e'ery J seco!ds. $he
i!di'idual )ill "egi! to feel sic#, a!d, through lassical o!ditio!i!g, associates this
feeli!g )ith smo#i!g. $his de'elos a! a'ersio! to smo#i!g
E'aluatio! ; there is e'ide!ce that A'ersio! $heray )or#s, esecially i! multi6
como!e!t rogrammes. 2o)e'er, results lac# co!siste!cy, a!d thus results from the
method lac# relia"ility. +t also focuses o! smo#i!g, a!d !ot the cause of the addictio!,
a!d is!t e(ecti'e i! other addictio!s, li#e dri!#i!g, i! the lo!g term.
ue Exosure
$his i!'ol'es the remise that addicti'e "eha'iours are triggered )he! the cues for
them are existe!t. $his theray therefore hels i!di'iduals "ecome co!scious a"out
cues a!d co!trol their reactio! to them.
E'aluatio! ; it is a 'ery short term method of deali!g )ith addictio!. Agai!, it o!ly
deals )ith the "eha'iour a!d !ot the cause3 though co!trolli!g the cue is more
e(ecti'e that
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$he goal of og!iti'e Beha'ioural $heray 8B$9 is that the clie!t is heled to thi!#
di(ere!tly a"out the addictio!1 "eha'iour that cause them diculty. +! smo#i!g, for
examle, it may "e that the clie!t cha!ges their thoughts a!d "eliefs a"out )hat
smo#i!g ca! do for them, )ith the aim that they )ill stay a)ay from !icoti!e i! the
future.
E'aluatio! ; it is a 'ery e(ecti'e rocess, "ut is more e(ecti'e )he! com"i!ed i! a
holistic aroach )ith medicatio!. +t also ig!ores the root cause, a!d i!stead focusses
o! the "eha'iour itself, a!d ca! lead to the esta"lishme!t of a! aetiological fallacy.
:adouceur et. al. ra!domly allocated JJ athological gam"lers to either cog!iti'e
theray or to a co!trol )aiti!g list. After)ards, J& of the treatme!t grou )ere !o
lo!ger classied athological gam"lers a!d had i!creased i! their Self6 Ecacy.
A!ta"use
A!ta"use drugs ha'e "ee! used successfully to treat addictio!s. $hese drugs create a
!egati'e reactio! )he! com"i!ed )ith addicti'e su"sta!ces, such as alcohol. $his
relaces the ositi'e attri"ute of the drug )ith the !egati'e co!se*ue!ces of the
A!ta"use.
In many cases, these can be listed as $biological interventions%. &'& exam board $&%
believes that they are behavioural as they use the principals o# conditioningT.
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&s Psychology a Science?
What is Science?
$he )ord scie!ce comes from the :ati! scie!ta, mea!i!g #!o)ledge. 2o)e'er,
!ot all #!o)ledge is scie!tic. Scie!ce is co!cer!ed )ith )hat )e #!o) to "e true, as
oosed to )hat )e "elie'e to "e true. $he term scie!ce is also used to descri"e a
system of o"tai!i!g #!o)ledge.
7ey #eatures of Science
$here is !o a"solute agreeme!t as to )hat co!stitutes scie!ce, "ut the follo)i!g
characteristics are ge!erally agreed to "e the #ey characteristics-
="
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Science /s8 non9 Science
$here are ma!y )ays i! )hich )e ca! disti!guish scie!ce from !o!6 scie!ce, mai!ly
usi!g the #ey characteristics of scie!ce.
S+E7E 7=76 S+E7EScie!ce uses emirical6"ased measures.
="ser'a"le measures e*uate to e'ide!ce.7o!6 scie!ce is mai!ly i!tuiti'e.
$he rocess of gatheri!g scie!tic
i!formatio! is co!trolled a!d systematic.
7o!6scie!tic i!formatio! is gathered i! a
more ra!domised a!d u!co!trolled
fashio! )ith !o systems or 'aria"le
co!trol.Scie!tic i!formatio! te!ds to "e
u!"iased a!d o"
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$he use of Emirical 0ethods
Emirical 0ethods are- )ethods that rely on direct sensory experience, and can be
measured. A fu!dame!tal characteristic of scie!ce is its relia!ce o! these tyes of
methods3 most !ota"ly- o"ser'atio! a!d measureme!t. +t is argued that true
kno"ledgeca! o!ly "e o"tai!ed through o"ser'atio!, exerie!ce, a!d measureme!t3
a!d !ot through i!tuitio!, erso!al oi!io!, or "eliefs. $his led to the 'ie) that all
scie!tic e'ide!ce should "e "ased o! Emirical 0ethods.
So, for examle, )ith the s)a!s, you )ould ha'e to sit at a o!d a!d cou!t the
!um"er of )hite a!d other coloured s)a!s that s)am ast you. $his o"ser'atio! is a!
Emirical 0ethod.
$he Ge!eratio! of :a)s a!d Pri!cials
Scie!tists aim to ge!erate #!o)ledge that ca! "e ge!eralised to the oulatio!- ie.
The results can be applied to other individuals "ho "ere not tested, to locations other
than the ones tested, and to di*erent times. +f, a!d o!ly if, a study has "ee!
relicated a!d the samle of articia!ts that ha'e "ee! studied is truly
rerese!tati'e, researchers should "e a"le to de'elo ge!eral la)s a!d ri!cials6
ho)e'er, u!li#e other areas of scie!ce, sychology does !ot ge!erally tal# a"out la)s
a!d ri!cials.
So, )ith the )hite s)a!s, after ma!y ai!ful years of researchi!g, you may de'elo
the la) that there is !o such thi!g as a!ythi!g "ut a )hite s)a!.
Ohy is it that Psychological research does!t associate )ith la)s a!d ri!cialsL
+! the rese!t, Psychological e'ide!ce o!ly e'ery suorts a theory.
7o amou!t of research i!to )hat has hae!ed i! the ast ca! fully guara!tee that it
)ill co!ti!ue to "e true i! the future. $his mea!s that regardless of ho) much
e'ide!ce is gathered i! fa'our, o!e iece of e'ide!ce to the co!trary ca! disro'e the
e!tire theory. All that ca! "e claimed is that theories i! sychology remai! useful a!d
ca! redict outcomes. $his mea!s, all6i!6all, that !o theory ca! "e solid roof of
a!ythi!g.
alidating .e" 7no"ledge
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7o matter ho) good research is, it is !ot useful u!less other eole #!o) a"out it8R9.
Pu"licatio!s are e'eryo!es ultimate goal, artly "ecause it distri"utes !di!gs, "ut
also "ecause it allo)s the !e) #!o)ledge to "ecome 'alidated.
2o) is ?esearch CalidatedL
Ohe! )e read !e) research, ho) do )e #!o) it is 'alidL $he a!s)er- eer re'ie)R
Ohat is Peer ?e'ie)L
Ohe! Psychologists ha'e researched )hat they )a!t to u"lish, they reare a draft
docume!t a!d se!d it to a
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>or examle, Garcia a!d oelli!g sho)ed that rats could lear! to a'oid dri!#i!g )ater
if there )as a J hour ga "et)ee! dri!#i!g it a!d "ei!g sic#. All other )or# has sho)!
that a co!ditio!ed reso!se )as !ot ossi"le )ithout a ga of a fe) mi!utes at the
most. $his research )as reurthermore, o!ly "io6sychologists a!d "eha'iourists are a"le to co!!e
themsel'es to Emirical 0ethod3 others )ish to i!clude *ualitati'e data, such as
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feeli!gs a!d thoughts. 0iller 8%DN9 says sychologists )ho try to "e scie!tists are
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:a"oratory exerime!ts use emirical methods )hich roduce !di!gs )ith high
relia"ility a!d thus high le'els if relica"ility.
2o)e'er, these la"oratory studies do lac# 'alidity as they are articial to real life a!d
as such do !ot rerese!t )hat sychologists !eed to #!o). +t is also a reaso!a"le
assumtio! that *ualitati'e methods should "e used at aroriate oi!ts i! order to
ro'ide data a"out !atural huma! "eha'iour. +t is therefore i!aroriate to ha'e
sychology usi!g a ure form of the scie!tic method a!d to this, sychology is !ot a
scie!ce a!d should !ot )a!t to "e.
A!ti6 ?eductio!ism
A!ti6 ?eductio!ist aroaches are scie!tic so lo!g as they aim to "e o"
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:oo#s o!ly at o"ser'a"le "eha'iour, so methods are emirical, a!d the methods a!d
theories are falsia"le. 2o)e'er, articia!t 'aria"les are more commo! lace.
og!iti'e Aroach
Emirical methods are used so !di!gs ca! "e relicated a!d theories are falsia"le,
"ut hard to isolate 'aria"les a!d cog!iti'e rocesses. Particia!t 'aria"les ca! a(ectresults more so tha! Biology or Beha'iourism.
Social
Some *ua!titati'e a!d emirical methods are used, "ut most data is *ualitati'e a!d
uses o"ser'atio!s. $his mea!s 'aria"les are dicult to co!trol.
Psychody!amic1 >reud
A"stract theories are used that are !ot falsia"le. 0ethods roduce *ualitati'e date
tha! ca!t "e reeated or ge!eralised.
(esigning Psychological &n/estigations
Samples and 1arget Population
+t is imorta!t that are !um"er of thi!gs are e'ide!t )ith samles, i!cludi!g-
o ?erese!tati'e to the )hole oulatio!
o 2a'e a 'ariety of eole )ith a 'ariety of characteristicso 7ot "ias grous so that the results ca! "e ge!eralised.
$here are ma!y di(ere!t tyes of samles-
o ?a!dom Samle
o E'eryo!e has a! e*ual cha!ce of "ei!g ic#ed3 fair3 good 'ariety of eole3 "ut
mea!s some may !ot "e rerese!ted.o Systematic Samleo +!'ol'es ta#i!g e'ery V from a samli!g frame3 !ot truly ra!dom or
rerese!tati'eo =ortu!ity Samle
o Studyi!g )hoe'er is a'aila"le3 easy a!d *uic# samle3 !ot rerese!tati'eo Self6 Selected Samle
o Peole 'olu!teer to ta#e art3 sa'e times time a!d roduces a large samle3
"ias to)ards certai! grous36
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o Stratied Samleo All su"grous are i!cluded i! roortio!ate !um"ers a!d ra!domly o"tai!ed3
lots of time a!d mo!ey to carry out.
;uestionnaires
Questio!!aires are a tye of self6 reort method, )hich i!'ol'e as#i!g set *uestio!s.
Ad'a!tages
o :arge amou!t of data collected *uic#ly
/isad'a!tages
o Bad *uestio!s ; leadi!g *uestio!s may suggest ho) the researcher )a!ts you to
a!s)er a!d u!clear *uestio!s may "e a! issue.o Poor a!d u!rerese!tati'e samle ; see a"o'e !otes o! samli!go Social /esira"ility ; eole simly say )hat is socially correct5o Ethics ; co!de!tiality is usually a! issue.
=ther self6 reort methods i!clude i!ter'ie)s a!d case studies. $hese ofte! create
*ualitati'e data.
Correlation 3esearch
orrelatio!s simly sho) that t)o 'aria"les aear to "e co!!ected, i! a ositi'e 8o!e
u, t)o u9, or !egati'e 8o!e u, t)o do)!9 fashio!.
Ad'a!tages
o ausal relatio!shis ca! "e ruled out if !o correlatio! existso a! mea! that relatio!shis "et)ee! 'aria"les ca! "e studied e'e! if it )ould
"e u!ethical to ma!iulate them.
/isad'a!tages
o orrelatio!s ca!!ot sho) cause a!d e(ect6 simly that the t)o 'aria"les ha'e a
stated relatio!shi.
*a $%periments
$he aim is to co!trol all 'aria"les so you ca! focus o! the +C a!d the /C. $hey are
co!ducted i! a! articial setti!g.
Ad'a!tages
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o Caria"les are co!trolled so you #!o) results are reeata"leo a! sho) causal relatio!shis "ecause o!ly t)o 'aria"les are acti'e6 +C a!d /C.
/isad'a!tages
o Ecological 'alidity is a! issue "ecause of the articial setti!g
o /ecetio! as ofte! used )hich "reaches the BPS code of Ethics
o /ema!d characteristics ca! "e a! issue as articia!ts #!o) they are "ei!g
studied.
#ield $%periments
>ield exerime!ts are those co!ducted i! a !atural setti!g "ut )here 'aria"les are still
co!trolled a!d altered accordi!g to the research
Ad'a!tages
o ausal relatio!shis ca! "e esta"lishedo Ecological 'alidity is more so tha! :a" exerime!ts as it mea!s that real life
factors are ta#e! i!to accou!to /ema!d characteristics "ecome less of a! issue.
/isad'a!tages
o 0ore li#ely that extra!eous 'aria"les are a! issueo ="ser'atio! must resect ri'acy6 !atural o"ser'atio!s may !ot allo) i!formed
co!se!t.
.atural $%periments
Caria"les are !ot co!trolled or ma!iulated "y the exerime!t. +!stead it is o"ser'ed
as a !atural accorda!ce.
Ad'a!tages
o +t is ossi"le to study 'aria"les that )ould "e u!ethical to ma!iulate
/isad'a!tages
o You ca!t ra!domly allocate articia!ts to a co!ditio!5 as it is !aturally
occurri!g. You also ha'e !o co!trol o'er a!ythi!g so it is dicult to say )hat
causes )hat to occur.o Some grous of i!terests are hard to !d i! e'ery6day life
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o /ecetio! is easy to use as it is easy to !ot gi'e i!formed co!se!t or
co!de!tiality.
3eliaility and Consistent 3esults
?elia"ility relates to ho) co!siste!t a!d dee!da"le a test is. A relia"le test carried
out i! the circumsta!ces, )ith the same articia!ts, should al)ays gi'e !ear e!ough
the same results. $here are di(ere!t tyes of relia"ility-
o +!ter!al relia"ility ; ?esults )ithi! the exerime!t should "e co!siste!t
throughout.o Exter!al relia"ility ; ?esults should "e reeata"le a!d co!siste!t regardless of
)he! the exerime!t is "ei!g carried out.o +!ter6rater relia"ility ; test should gi'e co!siste!t results regardless of the
researcher.
alidity and Accurate 3esults
Calidity measures ho) )ell a test measures )hat it claims to. $here are di(ere!t tyes
of 'alidity-
o +!ter!al Calidity ; $he exte!t to )hich the results are caused "y the +C a(ecti!g
the /C.
o Exter!al Calidity ; 2o) ge!eraliza"le the results are to the )ider oulatio!.o Ecological Calidity ; 2o) )ell the results re@ect real life.
Calidity ca! "e assessed i! di(ere!t )ays-
o >ace 'alidity6 does it loo# li#e its realLo omariso! ; does it comare )ell )ith existi!g data that is already acceted
as 'alidLo o!curre!cy ; do the results correlate to existi!g dataL +f yes, the! the data has
some 'alidity.
+oth can e impro/ed
$here are se'eral )ays "oth relia"ility a!d 'alidity ca! "e imro'ed-
o Pilot studies; trial ru!s of a! exerime!t that highlight if a!ythi!g !eeds
cha!gi!g. Calidity a!d relia"ility of the test is assessed i! ad'a!ced )hich gi'es
oortu!ity for imro'eme!t.
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o Standardising research; creati!g secic i!structio!s a!d rocedures to do
the test )ith. $his results i! co!siste!cy amo!g ho) the rocedure is carried
out. $his reduces the romi!e!ce of di(ere!t 'aria"les i!ltrati!g the
exerime!t. $his )ill therefore hel to imro'e internal /alidity, e%ternal
reliaility, a!d inter9rater reliaility.
$thics
&mportant &ssues=
Ethics are imorta!t i! sychology. Psychology should try to imro'e u!dersta!di!g,
a!d "e "e!ecial to eole i! imro'i!g their *uality of life. Oithi! this, sychologists
must "eha'e i! a! ethical ma!!er. Ethical guideli!es are i! lace "y the British
Psychological Society 8BPS9 i! the M. 2o)e'er, are these ade*uate a!d aroriatelyaliedL
1he $thical Guidelines ,+PS-
+!formed o!se!t
o BPS guideli!es state that e'eryo!e should "e gi'e! +o !o) aims a!d !ature of study "efore the "egi!!i!g
o Al)ays #!o) that they ha'e the right to )ithdra) at a!y time
BM$R
o M!der %Js ca!t gi'e co!se!t 8though a are!t ca!9o Pu"lic1 !aturalistic o"ser'atio! may !ot ha'e co!se!t6 "ut must o!ly ta#e lace
i! oe! au"lic areas )here eole )ould exect to o"ser'edo +ssues may still "e raised after co!se!t. 0e!ges 8%DHN9 re'ie)ed % MS
studies a!d fou!d DH of them had!t gi'e! all the i!formatio! i! their co!se!t
forms.
/ecetio!
o +f articia!ts ha'e "ee! decei'ed they ca!!ot gi'e + 8see a"o'e9
o 2o)e'er, some researchers aims must "e hidde! other)ise the exerime!t
)ould !ot "e 'alid
$he BPS guideli!es state that decetio! is o!ly )arra!ted if there is a
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as is ossi"le should "e gi'e!, e'e! if it is o!ly a small amou!t, so that articia!ts
are !ot comletely decei'ed3 the se'erity of decetio! di(ers, for examle, 0ilgrams
study 'ersus a! u!exected memory test6 t)o di(ere!t le'els of decetio!.
Protectio! from 2arm
?is# of harm should "e !o greater tha! that of e'eryday life. Some eole may faceris#s i! their li'e, "ut that does !ot )arra!t lea'i!g articia!ts i! this situatio!
'ul!era"le. $his is hard to determi!e as researchers do !ot al)ays #!o) )hat might
"e harmful.
/e"rie!g
o ?etur! articia!ts to re6 research stateo Esecially imorta!t if decetio! has "ee! used
?esearchers must fully exlai! )hat has hae!ed, a!d tell the articia!ts that they
may )ithdra) their data if they do !ot agree or )arra!t the cause.
o!de!tiality
o 7o articia!t should "e ide!tia"le
?esearchers ca!!ot use !ames i! reorts, a!d articia!ts must "e )ar!ed if their
data is !ot goi!g to "e comletely a!o!ymous. 2o)e'er, some grous may "e easily
ide!tia"le.
Se!siti'e Social +ssues
>i!di!gs from research may )ell highlight social issues. Socially se!siti'e research is
that )hich is de!ed as ha'i!g imlicatio!s for the i!di'iduals i! the research, or forsocial grous i! the )ider oulatio!. Examles i!clude ge!e research, or )here a
factor such as someo!es race or sexuality is used as the +C.
Proaility and Signi'cance
&nferential Statistics and Chance
You ca! !e'er "e %& certai! that results are !ot do)! to cha!ce3 so i!stead of
proving a hyothesis, you ha'e to "e co!te!t )ith !di!g out )hether its likely to
"e true or !ot. $his is called statistical signicance. +f they are, the! it mea!s that
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they actually mea! somethi!g3 ho)e'er, if they are !ot, it mea!s that your results
ha'e hae!ed y cha!ce a!d you ca!t actually add a!ythi!g i!to them.
>sing Statistical 1ests
$he rst thi!g you do )rite a !ull hyothesis. At this stage, you assume this is correct.
You the! choose a sig!ica!ce le'el6 the le'el of roof that youre loo#i!g for. $he
smaller the sig!ica!ce le'el, the stro!ger the e'ide!ce that youre loo#i!g for that
your results are !ot
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Choosing a signicance level is a compromise. I# the margin you choose is too big
then you risk a Type error/ too small, a Type 0 error is risked.
arious Ways to test signi'cance
You ca! !e'er "e %& sure that a hyothesis is correct. Sig!ica!ce le'els are
assig!ed to esta"lish the ro"a"ility of a results "ei!g do)! to cha!ce. +!fere!tialstatistical tests hel to decide )hether to re
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)ea#!ess of i!dee!de!t grous desig!s is that the articia!ts i! o!e grou may "e
'ery di(ere!t o! some ra!dom 'aria"le from the other grou, e.g. o!e grou may
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for a sig!ica!t di(ere!ce. +f the aim is to test for a correlatio! "et)ee! t)o
'aria"les, the! the aim is to test for a sig!ica!t associatio!8
:e'el of 0easureme!ts1 $yes of /ata
/ata ca! "e roduced at !omi!al, ordi!al a!d i!ter'al le'els-
.ominal datais the most "asic le'el of measureme!t. A! examle is a fre*ue!cy
cou!t of a disti!ct category, such as the !um"er of aggressi'e a!d !o!6aggressi'e
acts i! a! o"ser'atio!.
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)ann9Whitney > test
0a!!6Ohit!ey M is a test of sig!ica!t di(ere!ce for u!related data. $he research
desig! must roduce u!related data 8e.g. i!dee!de!t measures9. $he le'el of
measureme!t ca! "e either ordi!al or i!ter'al.
Chi9suare test
hi6s*uare tests for di(ere!ce )he! the data is !omi!al a!d u!related. $he research
desig! must roduce u!related data 8e.g. i!dee!de!t measures9. $he le'el of
measureme!t must "e !omi!al 8e.g. categories9.
Analysis of ;ualitati/e (ata
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o ="ser'ers may "e "iased i! ho) they i!terret data. $herefore, i!ter6 o"ser'er
relia"ility !eeds to "e esta"lished.o Ethical reaso!s mea! that !aturalistic o"ser'atio!s ca! o!ly "e do!e )here
eole )ould exect to "e o"ser'ed
Particia!t ="ser'atio!
$his is )here articia!ts ully structured i!ter'ie)s are )here
articia!ts a!s)er a xed set of *uestio!s, a!d this is !ot cha!ged for a!y
articia!t. $his creates *ua!tati'e data. +!formal a!d1 or M!structured i!ter'ie)s
ofte! ha'e a "asis, "ut there is !o set structure, a!d *uestio!s are oe! for
articia!ts to a!s)er ho) they choose. $his creates *ualitati'e data.
Ad'a!tages
o >ully Structured +!ter'ie)s are *uic# a!d easy to a!alyseo +! a comromise, "oth closed a!d oe! *uestio!s could "e used to gai! a mix of
data tyeso M!structured i!ter'ie)s ca! create lots of detailed a!d i!sightful *ualitati'e
data.
/isad'a!tages
o :eadi!g a!d dou"le6 "arrelled *uestio!s are articular issues for researchers toa'oid
o Qualitati'e data is hard to a!alyse
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o Structured i!ter'ie)s limit ho) the articia!t ca! reso!d
ase Studies
ase Studies are detailed studies of o!e i!di'idual, grou, or e'e!t, usi!g ma!y
di(ere!t methods.
Ad'a!tages
o :ots of data is o"tai!ed, )hich other studies simly ca!!ot gi'eo $his data may gi'e i!sights i!to rare situatio!s
/isad'a!tages
o Caria"les are !ot co!trolled i! the study mea!i!g a si!gle cause a!d e(ect
ca!!ot "e o"tai!edo ?esults ca! rarely "e ge!eralised to the )hole oulatio!, as the samle sizes
are or examle-
o A!alysis of a tra!scrit or 'ideo i!'ol'es ide!tifyi!g stateme!ts. /i(ere!t
researchers may read di(ere!t thi!gs i!to each stateme!t
o Such a!alysis may gi'e "asis for hyothesis. $he hyothesis is therefore grou!di! the data, ho)e'er, it is still su"
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o +t is imossi"le to chec# )hich categories to use, or )hether stateme!ts use a
secic category.o +t is dicult to ma#e decisio!s o! )hat to i!clude i! the )rite u )ith *ualitati'e
data.o $here are su"
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+ar Charts
Bar harts ca! "e used. $hey-
o Are used to rese!t !o!6 co!ti!uous data 8)he! data falls i!to categories9o Bar charts colum!s do !ot touch each other.o Sho) a full 'ertical scale, or sho) )he! it is !ot rese!t, as this ca! other)ise
"e misleadi!g
6istograms!
2istograms ca! "e used. $hey-
o Are used to sho) data o! a co!ti!uous scale of measureme!t
o Each colum! sho)s a class i!ter'al, a!d the colum!s touch each othero All i!ter'als are sho)!, e'e! if there are ! scores for them
o +t is the height of a colum! that sho)s the !um"er of 'alues i! a! i!ter'al
#reuency Polygons
>re*ue!cy Polygo!s ca! "e used. $hey-
o Are similar to histograms "ut use li!es i!stead of "arso a! "e com"i!ed together. $his is useful )he! ma#i!g comariso!s "et)ee!
t)o thi!gs
Scatter Graphs
Scatter Grahs ca! "e used. $hey-
o Are used to sho) relatio!shis "et)ee! t)o co6'aria"les. A correlatio! co6
ecie!t is roduced, ra!gi!g from 6% 8a erfect li!ear !egati'e correlatio!9 to
X% 8a erfect li!ear ositi'e correlatio!9 i!dicates !o correlatio!. +! correlatio!
studies, this is sho)! o! scatter grahs.
$hese sho) correlatio!s. A correlatio! ca! "e either- ositi'e, !egati'e, or !o!6
existe!t. Positi'e correlatio!s are )he! the +C i!creases3 so does the /C. 7egati'e is
)he! the +C i!creases, the /C decreases. 7o correlatio! is rese!t )he! there is !o
li!ear atter! of the +C cha!gi!g the /C.
3eporting on Psychological &n/estigations
Speci'c Structure of 3eports
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All of this should "e )ritte! i! the Nrderso!5 a!d i! formal la!guage. A reort should
i!clude-
1itle; )hat the study is a"out, a!d ide!tify the +C a!d /C.
Astract; o!cise summary of )hat the study is a"out, ofte! !o more tha! %I
)ords. +t should i!clude a "rief descritio! a"out the aims a!d hyotheses, themethod, a!d the results. +t should also co!tai! @a)s to the study6 this is a lot to t
i!to a ti!y sace.
&ntroduction ; ge!eral o'er'ie) of the area "ei!g studied, i!cludi!g existi!g
theories, a!d closely relati!g existi!g studies.
Aim and 6ypothesis; the aim is, i! o!e se!te!ce, somethi!g that gi'es the urose
of the study. $he hyothesis is )hat is actually goi!g to "e tested, a!d should i!cludethe +C a!d /C.
)ethod ; $he method descri"es ho) the exerime!t )as carried out. Someo!e
should "e a"le to relicate the study from the method, so it !eeds to "e detailed. $he
method should i!clude i!formatio! o!-
o $he desig! of the exerime!t, i!cludi!g- the research method3 the research
desig!3 the 'aria"les3 order e(ects3 co!trolli!g extra!eous 'aria"les3 materialsused3 ethical issues "ei!g dealt )ith
o $he rocedure used, i!cludi!g a "lo)6"y6"lo) accou!t of )hat hae!ed, a!d
ho) the articia!ts #!e) )hat )as hae!i!g through ho) i!formed co!se!t
)as gathered
o $he use of articia!ts, i!cludi!g- the !um"er3 the demograhics3 a!d the
samli!g method
o $he resources used, i!cludi!g materials a!d aaratus.
3esults; i! the form of either descriti'e or i!fere!tial statistics, results should "e
clear a!d i!clude grahs, ta"les, a!d charts. $his also !eeds to i!clude )hy certai!
tests )ere chose!, a!d exlai! a!y u!exected !di!gs.
(iscussion; this co!tai!s a! exla!atio! of the !di!gs, the imlicatio!s of the
study, the limitatio!s a!d modicatio!s of the study, the relatio!shi to "ac#grou!d
research a!d suggestio!s for further research.
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3eferences; this co!tai!s all "oo#s a!d "ac#grou!d research you ha'e used, li#e a
"i"liograhy.
Appendices; a!y materials used, as )ell as ra) data a!d statistical calculatio!s.
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$/aluating 1heories
$/aluating 1heories 1he )ythical Sheet
Criteria 7ey Point,s- to ConsiderAssumption
s
Ohat assumtio!s u!deri! the theoryL 2o) logical a!d cohere!t are
the assumtio!sL
$ecti/enes
s
/oes the theory ro'ide a cohere!t exla!atio! of sychologyL +s the
theory em"edded i! a! aroach that ca! address a )ider ra!ge of
sychological he!ome!aL Are there imorta!t thi!gs it ca!1 ca!!ot
exlai!L6ypotheses /oes the theory ge!erate testa"le hyothesesL
$/idence
/oes research suort or challe!ge the theoryL 2o) sou!d is the
e'ide!ce for a!d agai!stL /oes the e'ide!ce come from a ra!ge of
research methods or