Psy1302 Psychology of Language Lecture 2 What is Language?

Psy1302 Psy1302 Psychology of Psychology of LanguageLanguage

Lecture 2Lecture 2

What is Language?What is Language?

What is What is Psycholinguistics?Psycholinguistics?

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics

Last Lecture: Review

Why psycholinguistics?Why psycholinguistics? Language sets us apart from other animals.Language sets us apart from other animals.

Intellectual curiosity about ourselves should lead us Intellectual curiosity about ourselves should lead us to ask how we understand and produce language, to ask how we understand and produce language, how we use it in everyday situations, and how we how we use it in everyday situations, and how we learn it.learn it.

Knowledge gained through psycholinguistics is Knowledge gained through psycholinguistics is useful in our everyday lives and has applications for useful in our everyday lives and has applications for engineering, education, health, and policy making. engineering, education, health, and policy making.

Last Lecture: Review

What is language?What is language?Harley, T. (1995, p. 8).Harley, T. (1995, p. 8). ““Many introductions to the Many introductions to the

studies of language, linguistics, studies of language, linguistics, avoid giving a definition.”avoid giving a definition.”

““One attempt to side-step the One attempt to side-step the thorny issue of providing a thorny issue of providing a definition is to list properties.”definition is to list properties.”

OutlineOutline What is language?What is language? What is communication?What is communication?

– Examples of animal communication Examples of animal communication systemsystem

– How are these systems similar or How are these systems similar or different than human languages?different than human languages?

How is language special?How is language special?

Today’s Theme: Language and Animal Communication System

A language is a system of signals, such as voice sounds, gestures or written symbols, that encode or decode information.

Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science of studying them is linguistics.

The term "animal languages" is often used for non-human languages. Most researchers agree that these are not as complex or expressive as human language; they may better be described as animal communication. Some researchers argue that there are significant differences separating human language from the communication of other animals, and that the underlying principles are unrelated.

What is language?What is language?

Human Language vs. “Animal Human Language vs. “Animal Language”Language” Is the difference between an Is the difference between an animal animal

communication systemcommunication system and and human human languagelanguage just a matter of degree? just a matter of degree?

Is there a sense in which human Is there a sense in which human language stands above the other language stands above the other communication systems? communication systems?

Echo and Narcissus by John William Waterhouse.

Ahhh…. Leopard is here!!!

Receiver - “Listener”

Leopard is here… gotta

hide up in the tree

Sender - “Speaker”

Signal transmission

Animal Communication Systems

Animal CommunicationAnimal Communication

Why do animals communicate?Why do animals communicate? Learn from each other

information about– Food– Enemies/Friends– Territories (displays)– Location (odors and calls)– Mates– Emotions/feelings/thoughts



From: Ekman & Friesian New Guinea

Fireflies and courtshipFireflies and courtship Fireflies have species- and sex-specific

flash codes used for detecting mates Flash communication in fireflies

(Carlson & Copeland 1985)– Flashing behavior is greatly affected by

fireflies’ state of arousal– Excited fireflies produce rapid and varied luminescent emissions


Bee Dance for FoodBee Dance for Food

The angle from the sun indicates direction of food source. The duration of the waggle part of the dance signifies the distance. Approximately 1 second of dance = 1 km distance.

Bee communicates through a series of complex dances, which can be divided into:– round dance for short-

distance– sickle dance (Italian)– tail-wagging (Australian)

Dances communicates – quality/quantity of the

food– distance and direction

from the hive.



What do the following findings What do the following findings suggest:suggest:

Bees raised in isolation, can dance the Bees raised in isolation, can dance the appropriate dance immediately among appropriate dance immediately among introduction into the colony.introduction into the colony.

ItalianItalian Bees raised with Bees raised with AustralianAustralian Bees do not learn the Australian Bee’s Bees do not learn the Australian Bee’s dance, and vice versa – others cannot dance, and vice versa – others cannot interpret their dances.interpret their dances.



The structure of the bees’ The structure of the bees’ “language” allows it to “language” allows it to convey infinite number of convey infinite number of messages.messages.

However, the message However, the message content is always about content is always about “look for the honey at “look for the honey at location X.”location X.”

The angle from the sun indicates direction of the food source. The duration of the waggle part of the dance signifies the distance. Approximately 1 second of dance = 1 km distance.


Sparrow SongsSparrow Songs

Songs are highly structuredSongs are highly structured– Notes, Syllables, and PhrasesNotes, Syllables, and Phrases


student

teacher

Sparrow SongsSparrow Songs

Songs are highly structuredSongs are highly structured– Notes, Syllables, and PhrasesNotes, Syllables, and Phrases

Songs have fixed meaningSongs have fixed meaning Songs are learnedSongs are learned

– Regional dialectsRegional dialects Learning, however, is innately guided (Marler, Learning, however, is innately guided (Marler,

1990)1990)– Many species of sparrows prefer to learn the songs Many species of sparrows prefer to learn the songs

of their own speciesof their own species– And if they are only exposed to other species’ And if they are only exposed to other species’

songs, they follow species-specific structuresongs, they follow species-specific structure– Learning is subjected to a sensitive period (must be Learning is subjected to a sensitive period (must be

learned within a time period)learned within a time period)


White-Crown SparrowWhite-Crown Sparrow

White-crown White-crown sparrow #1 in sparrow #1 in isolationisolation

White-crown White-crown sparrow #2 w/ tutorsparrow #2 w/ tutor

White-crown White-crown sparrow’s tutorsparrow’s tutor


Vervet Alarm CallsVervet Alarm Calls

Three Calls for Predators. Three Calls for Predators. – LeopardLeopard– EagleEagle– SnakeSnake


Male (KN) Female (LO)

Vervet ‘Leopard’ Alarm Vervet ‘Leopard’ Alarm CallCall


Female (BA)

Vervet ‘Eagle’ Alarm Call

Vervet ‘Eagle’ Alarm Vervet ‘Eagle’ Alarm CallCall


Male (KN) Female (LB)

Vervet ‘Snake’ Alarm Vervet ‘Snake’ Alarm CallCall



Learning is involved in narrowing Learning is involved in narrowing down the referent (the thing being down the referent (the thing being referred to).referred to).

Calls are not involuntary.Calls are not involuntary.


Emotional Response Emotional Response vs. Audience Designvs. Audience Design

Some evidence suggest the calls Some evidence suggest the calls are not involuntary are not involuntary (Cheney & Seyfarth)(Cheney & Seyfarth)

– Females call more for kin than non-Females call more for kin than non-kin presentkin present

– Males call more with female than with Males call more with female than with another maleanother male

– High-rank vervets call more often High-rank vervets call more often than subordinatesthan subordinates



Learning is involved in narrowing Learning is involved in narrowing down the referent (the thing being down the referent (the thing being referred to).referred to).

Calls are not involuntary.Calls are not involuntary. However, No evidence of creating However, No evidence of creating

new calls, or combining existing new calls, or combining existing calls to produce new ones.calls to produce new ones.

Referent is immediate, not Referent is immediate, not displaced.displaced.

No evidence of deception.No evidence of deception.


Japanese and Rhesus macaqueCoos and gruffs

Coo Gruff


Rhesus macaque mother,Japanese macaque infant

Japanese macaque mother,Rhesus macaque infant

Owren, M. J., J. A. Dieter, R. M. Seyfarth and D. L. Cheney (1992).

Control Children: Mainly COOSFoster Children:

Control Children: COOS & GRUFFSFoster Children:


Mainly COOS COOS & GRUFFS (mid)

Side RemarkSide Remark

Observation of asymmetry Observation of asymmetry between production and between production and perception.perception.

Cross-fostered monkey produce own Cross-fostered monkey produce own species signal and not foster parents. species signal and not foster parents.

i.e., limited productive vocabulary, yet i.e., limited productive vocabulary, yet can understand others’ calls.can understand others’ calls.

Hockett

Mollusks vs. PrimatesMollusks vs. Primates

How is Language Special

Adapted from Liberman


Primates likely have:Primates likely have: More complex bodies and brainsMore complex bodies and brains Better at learning and problem solving Better at learning and problem solving More complex social structuresMore complex social structures More complex and flexible behavior More complex and flexible behavior Longer livedLonger lived



Mollusks vs. PrimatesMollusks vs. Primates Which has the more sophisticated Which has the more sophisticated

communicative system?communicative system?

– Frequency and length of communicative interactions?

– Role of communication in social life?– Complexity of psychological states

resulting from communication? – Information content of communicative

exchanges?– Number of distinct communicative

displays?



After 450 million years…After 450 million years…

Cephelopods: 15-35 distinct displays

Non-human primates: 15-35 distinct displays



http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/cephschool/WhyCephalopodsChangeColor.pdf


Not just mollusks and non-Not just mollusks and non-human primateshuman primates

For most relatively social adult For most relatively social adult fishes, birds and mammals, the fishes, birds and mammals, the range or repertoire size [of range or repertoire size [of communicative displays] for communicative displays] for different species varies from 15 to different species varies from 15 to 35 displays. 35 displays. -Encyclopedia Britannica,

“Animal Communication”


Human VocabularyHuman Vocabulary

Wordsmith Shakespeareestimated to have 30,000 wordsAverage educated person: 15,000 words

http://www.rhymezone.com/g/shakespeare/coinages//

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/types-tokens/


Unique things about human Unique things about human languagelanguage

Big, discrete vocabularyBig, discrete vocabulary10,000-100,000 “words”… or more10,000-100,000 “words”… or more

We can take action to “change others’ minds”We can take action to “change others’ minds”by informing, persuading, deceiving, etc.by informing, persuading, deceiving, etc.

We can communicate about future, past, and present We can communicate about future, past, and present

Recursive compositionalityRecursive compositionalitymaking bigger messages by combining smaller making bigger messages by combining smaller

ones,ones,more complex meanings by combining simpler onesmore complex meanings by combining simpler ones


Human Language Human Language DesignDesign Duality patterning:Duality patterning: A relatively A relatively

small number of basic elements small number of basic elements to create a larger number of to create a larger number of meaningful elements.meaningful elements.

All languagesAll languages have a systematic have a systematic set of rules for combining the set of rules for combining the former into latter.former into latter.


Hierarchical structureHierarchical structure


Linguistic ProductivityLinguistic Productivity

Infinite number of phrases & sentences

Several dozens of (sounds) phonemes

Large but finite* number of words

Smaller amount of morphemes


Structure Permits Structure Permits CreativityCreativity We are capable of:We are capable of:

– Combining existing Combining existing

phonemesphonemes to form to form

new wordsnew words– ““fax”, “fedex”, “xerox”. fax”, “fedex”, “xerox”. – (Also last names!)(Also last names!)



– Combining Combining morphemesmorphemes

using existing using existing

morphological rulesmorphological rules– COMPOUNDINGCOMPOUNDING– DERIVATIONALDERIVATIONAL

E.g., re + gift, sensation + alE.g., re + gift, sensation + al– INFLECTIONAL INFLECTIONAL

E.g., shoot E.g., shoot shooting, shoots shooting, shoots



– Combining existing Combining existing

words/morphemeswords/morphemes to to

form new sentencesform new sentences


I know what I believe. I will continue to articulate what I believe and what I believe - I believe what I believe is right.

Inflectional Inflectional MorphologyMorphology

English Plural RuleEnglish Plural RuleBucks /s/Bucks /s/

BugsBugs /z//z/

BatchesBatches / /əəs/s/

Longest word in Longest word in English?English? antidisestablishmentarianism (28

letters) floccinaucinihilipilification (29

letters) pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicov

olcanokoniosis (45 letters)


Longest word in Longest word in English?English? a. sensation b. sensational c. sensationalize d. sensationalization e. sensationalizational f. sensationalizationalize


Longest word in Longest word in English?English? GrandmaGrandma Great-grandmaGreat-grandma Great-great-grandmaGreat-great-grandma Great-great-great-grandmaGreat-great-great-grandma

……



Linguistics 101

PhonemePhoneme Basic perceptual units of which speech is Basic perceptual units of which speech is

composed (Liberman, 1970)composed (Liberman, 1970) Units that are used to build morphemesUnits that are used to build morphemes Languages have a finite inventory of Languages have a finite inventory of

these units.these units. They are not units of meaning. They are not units of meaning. They are contrastive: changing a They are contrastive: changing a

phoneme can change meaning (pat vs phoneme can change meaning (pat vs bat). bat).

Linguistics 101

Phoneme Phoneme combinationscombinations Rule-governed (Rule-governed (PhonotacticPhonotactic))

For English: For English: – ““tl” can occur in the middle of a word: tl” can occur in the middle of a word:

battle, rattlebattle, rattle– ““tl” sounds ok in these made-up tl” sounds ok in these made-up

words: bettle, vottle words: bettle, vottle – But not here: tled, tloo (tl cannot start But not here: tled, tloo (tl cannot start

a word) a word)

For Tlingit (NW Indian language): OK.For Tlingit (NW Indian language): OK.

Linguistics 101


Linguistics 101

MorphemesMorphemes

Morphemes are the smallest meaningful Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language units of language

Free morphemes may stand aloneFree morphemes may stand alone Bound (a.k.a. grammatical) morphemes Bound (a.k.a. grammatical) morphemes

cannotcannot Morphemes combine to form the words of a Morphemes combine to form the words of a

language. language. – Ex: He’s a regifter! (re + gift +er)Ex: He’s a regifter! (re + gift +er)

Combination is rule governed Regifter but Combination is rule governed Regifter but not not – * Reergift, *Erregift, *Ergiftre, *Gifterre, *giftreer.* Reergift, *Erregift, *Ergiftre, *Gifterre, *giftreer.

Linguistics 101


Linguistics 101

Phrases and SentencesPhrases and Sentences

Words have syntactic categories (S, N, Words have syntactic categories (S, N, V, Adj, etc.)V, Adj, etc.)

The rules of syntax govern how words The rules of syntax govern how words combine into phrases and how phrases combine into phrases and how phrases combine into sentencescombine into sentences– – [The girl][The girl]––*[Girl The]*[Girl The]– [The girl][hit the ball].[The girl][hit the ball].– [hit the ball][the girl].[hit the ball][the girl].

The recursive rules make the linguistic The recursive rules make the linguistic expressions infiniteexpressions infinite

Linguistics 101

LinguisticsLinguistics

Explicit vs. ImplicitExplicit vs. Implicit– Rules of language often implicitRules of language often implicit

Linguistics is a study to make the Linguistics is a study to make the implicit rules explicitimplicit rules explicit

Prescriptive vs. DescriptivePrescriptive vs. Descriptive

Linguistics 101

Implicit Knowledge of Implicit Knowledge of LanguageLanguage Why do we say (3) and (4)?Why do we say (3) and (4)?

(1) I want to sleep

(2) I have to sleep

(3) I wanna sleep

(4) I hafta sleep

“sloppy” or “informal”?

Linguistics 101

Implicit Knowledge of Implicit Knowledge of LanguageLanguage

(5) I want two sheep

(6) I have two sheep

(7) I wanna sheep

(8) I hafta sheep

Are 7 and 8 appropriate sloppy or informal examples of (5) and (6)?

Linguistics 101


(4) I have to sleep

(6) I hafta sleep

Linguistics 101

(8) I hafta two sheep

(9) I have to two sheep

This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I want to vanish. This is the rabbit I want to vanish.

Linguistics 101

This is the rabbit I wanna banish. This is the rabbit I wanna banish. This is the rabbit I wanna vanish. This is the rabbit I wanna vanish.

Linguistics 101


Which is grammatical?Which is grammatical? This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I wanna banish. This is the rabbit I wanna banish.

This is the rabbit I want to vanish.This is the rabbit I want to vanish. This is the rabbit I wanna vanish.This is the rabbit I wanna vanish.

Linguistics 101


This is a rabbit I want to visit.This is a rabbit I want to visit.– I want to visit the rabbit.I want to visit the rabbit.– I want the rabbit to visit.I want the rabbit to visit.

This is the rabbit I wanna visit.This is the rabbit I wanna visit.There is a rabbit. I want to visit the rabbit.There is a rabbit. I want to visit the rabbit.There is a rabbit. I want the rabbit to visit.There is a rabbit. I want the rabbit to visit.

Linguistics 101

NEW VERB: VISIT (instead of BANISH or VANISH)


Which is grammatical?Which is grammatical? This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I want to banish. This is the rabbit I wanna banish. This is the rabbit I wanna banish.

This is the rabbit I want to vanish.This is the rabbit I want to vanish. This is the rabbit I wanna vanish.This is the rabbit I wanna vanish.

There is a rabbit. I want to banish the rabbit.

There is a rabbit. I want the rabbit to vanish.

Linguistics 101

Linguistics 101

Linguistics 101

Linguistics 101

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Psy1302 Psychology of Language Lecture 2 What is Language?