HISTORYOF

PSYCHOLOGY

Davis & Palladino: CHAPTER 1

Religion

Philosophy Physiology

PSYCHOLOGY

Science Art

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History of Psychology

Davis/Palladino: Chapter 1 pp. 24-37

Exercise I

A. Contributions of Wundt and James

B. Professions in Psychology

A. Briefly describe the contributions of Wilhelm Wundt and William James to the development of the field of psychology.

Name ______________________________

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B. List and describe the Psychological Specialties (specialization in the field of Psychology).

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The History of Psychology

Psychology is a relatively new science and has grown from a varied background. The first psychological laboratory was established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Liepzig, Germany. Prior to this point, man’s attempt to understand himself, his fellow man, and his environment was based primarily on speculations. Earlier views of behavior can be found in the writings of ancient civilizations and outstanding religious figures. Philosophers of other centuries introduced many ideas that today serve as a foundation for modern psychology. The roots of psychology are to be found primarily in philosophy and physiology.

Structuralism & Reductionism -–– Wundt was the first person to attempt to apply research to psychology. His method of research was based on introspection or self-observation. His work became known as structuralism. Wundt’s most prominent student, Edward Tichner, furthered his ideas and Tichner’s viewpoint became known as reductionism.

Functionalism – In 1890, William James, the first American psychologist, wrote the first psychological textbook. James felt that psychology should focus on the methods people use to adapt to the environment, satisfy their needs, and increase their abilities. James was particularly interested in consciousness, which he saw as a tool that enables people to select appropriate courses of action. He thought that everything had a function, and his views became known as functionalism.

Psychoanalytic – This early period in psychology was also marked by the appearance of Sigmund Freud’s writings. Freud developed a comprehensive theory of personality based on the concept of unconscious motivation. He believed that the unconscious (thought processes not in our awareness) actively influences behavior. He found evidence for this in his clinical observations of patients in whom unconscious problems showed themselves in disguised forms, often as physical disorders. Freud concluded that most of their unconscious problems were caused by the frustration of basic instinctual urges.

While Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has tended to dominate the study of personality and abnormal behavior, studies in sensation, perception, and learning continued to develop. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, identified the principles of classical conditioning, a type of learning. This set the stage for the development of behaviorism and for the experimental psychology of learning.

Behaviorism (Learning Theory) – No movement or development in psychology has been more vigorous or more influential than behaviorism. In the early twentieth century, John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, realized the importance of classical conditioning to human behavior. Watson, Pavlov, and other early behaviorists felt that psychology should be concerned solely with observable and measurable behavior.

Watson argued that psychology was looking at the wrong problems in the wrong ways. At that time, psychology relied almost exclusively on the technique of introspection, which Watson through was inadequate. Observers who studied only themselves could not possibly produce reliable data for comparison. Watson felt that psychology should not ignore the study of consciousness but should concentrate on the prediction and control of behavior. His observations of the ways in which organisms respond to stimuli in the environment led him to believe that by controlling the environment he could control behavior.

Watson’s contribution was to apply the principles of classical conditioning to human behavior. In the 1940’s and 50’s B. F. Skinner recognized that classical conditioning could explain some basic behaviors that people have, but it did not explain more complex behaviors. Skinner went on to develop the principle of operant conditioning, which states that the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behavior is dependent on the consequences of that behavior.

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Humanism – At approximately the same time that behaviorism was beginning in the United States, Gestalt psychology was developing in Germany. The Gestalt psychologists- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka felt that the mind cannot be analyzed by breaking it down into the elements of sensation as Wundt and Tichner thought. They argued that breaking down mental events into elemental parts as artificial, because people perceive wholes, not elements. The whole is thus the basic unit of perception and thought (Gestalt means “whole”). According to the Gestalt psychologists, the proper subject to be emphasized in psychology is perception. To understand an individual, you must understand how that individual perceives. Gestalt psychologists are thus interested in the principles of perceptual organization. Because of the rise of the Nazis, the Gestaltist movement was short lived in Germany. Most of its members fled to the United States where their work became the foundation for the study of sensation and perception. One of these people who has been extremely influential was Frederick Perls. Perls has been credited with supplying the methodology for therapy to the theory of Gestalt psychology.

Humanistic Psychology, often called “the third force” after psychoanalytic and behaviorism, is a movement that has attempted to build on these other two. Humanists reject the idea that people are governed solely by unconscious forces, and they do not believe that human behavior is merely the result of environmental conditioning. While acknowledging the effects of the unconscious and society’s teaching, they feel that every individual is capable of choosing his or her own course of action, above and beyond that which has been dictated. In other words, unlike B. F. Skinner, the humanists recognize the existence of free will.

One of the early influences on humanism was Abraham Maslow. Maslow felt that too much of psychology’s efforts were concentrated on the maladjusted personality. He led the way in this relatively new branch of psychology by focusing attention on healthy people and the way they think, feel, and solve problems. Maslow stressed the unique goals and values of human beings, and is best known for his work on self-actualization, the process of reaching one’s fullest potential.

Out of the work of the Gestaltists and Maslows has come a related view of man from Carl Rogers. Rogers has become one of the leading spokespersons for the Humanistic school of thought. Roger’s theory of personality developed from his own techniques of psychotherapy. His work is often called phenomenological because his approach centers on subjective experience, the personal and separate reality of each individual. Unlike behaviorists, who study human behavior primarily from an external point, Rogers concentrates on meanings, values, and feelings that an individual is experiencing.

New Trends – Recently two offshoots have emerged from third force, or humanistic psychology, which are Cognitive psychology and Transpersonal psychology. Cognitive psychology might be considered an offshoot of the Gestalists in the sense that it focuses on overall mental functioning. Psychologists oriented toward the cognitive school study thinking, memory, language development, perception, imagery, and other mental processes in order to understand human problem solving and insight abilities.

Transpersonal psychology, which may emerge as the “fourth force” in psychology, is the newest and perhaps most controversial of the approaches. Transpersonal psychology, also an offshoot of Abraham Maslow’s work, focuses on the study of personal experiences that seem to transcend ordinary existence. Psychologists in this field are interested in altered states of awareness and the thoughts and feelings that arise during periods of sleep or meditation, while under the influence of drugs, during religious experiences, and while in states of great happiness. Special areas investigated by transpersonal psychology are ESP and other supersensory phenomena that until recently were not considered valid subjects for psychological study.

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History of Psychology

I. In primitive cultures, demons, spirits, ghosts, and other supernatural forces are held responsible for human actions. Shamans, witchdoctors, and priests intervened.

II. Greeks were among the first to look inside the human being for clues to behavior.

Socrates asked questions about the nature of man.

Plato speculated about emotion, perception, and learning.

Aristotle proposed that behavior is subject to the same principles as other natural phenomena and there fore can be scientifically studied.

III. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the insights of the Greeks were lost. Only beliefs in the percepts of the Catholic Church could save a person. Disbelievers were burned at the stake, books were destroyed, and all thinking at odds with the church was stifled.

IV. In the Seventeenth Century, there is still no field of Psychology but the movement shifts from philosophy to science (later physiology).

Psychology emerged from:Philosophy/Physiology – The field of Psychology begins to emerge from these two disciplines.

1879 – Wilhelm Wundt (1879 is the birthdate of Psychology)

Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Liepzig, Germany (GDR). He hoped to uncover the natural laws of the mind by studying perception and other mental functions. Wundt introduced measurement and experiment into psychology. His efforts were an attempt to understand the structure of the mind and his type of thinking became known as “structuralism”.

1880’s – Edward Tichner

Tichner was a student of Wilhelm Wundt’s and brought his ideas back to the United States. He was a college professor until 1927. Tichner said that Psychology was the science of consciousness, or the study of experience. His movement became know as “reductionism”.

1890 – William James (First American Psychologist)

James was a physiologist and read a lot of philosophy. He felt the two converged into psychology and he wrote the first Psychology textbook entitled “The Principles of Psychology”. James attempted to apply biological principles to the mind. He was concerned not only with learning and sensation, but rather with how an organism uses its learning and sensory abilities to function in its environment. He felt we should focus on everyday life. He realized that all activity is functional, therefore, his movement became know as “functionalism”.

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NOTES

Psychoanalytic Perspective –Biological/Instinctual theory. Focus is on unconscious processescontrolling conscious behavior. Behavior is the result of the workingsof the unconscious. Sex is the key determinant of all behavior.The first theory. The first therapy. The most comprehensiveTheory to date.

Behavioral Perspective – Behavior is explained as a result of learning and conditioning.The focus in this theory is on the environment and how theCircumstances in the environment control behavior throughlearning. The theory focuses on only concrete observable measurable behavior. Most scientific of the three theories.

Humanistic (Cognitive) Perspective – Recognizes instincts and learning as a part of the explanationof behavior, however believes that in addition to that thereis something more that human being have which is free will.The ability to choose our behavior. Focus of this theory ison the concept of self. Behavior follows how we see our self.

Additional Viewpoints: Other influences on behavior.

The Biological Perspective – An approach to Psychology that explains feelings, thoughts and behavior as a result of biological processes. This additional causal factor in behavior would look at things like Genetics, Biochemistry, Anatomy and Physiology as influences on behavior also.

The Sociocultural Perspective – An approach to Psychology that explores how cultural values and economic political systems influence behavior. This causal influence considers things like Social Norms, Economic and Political Systems and Interpersonal Relationships as additional causal factors. Bio/Psycho/Social

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ConsciousReality

UnconsciousInstincts

Superego

EGO

ID

Positive

Conflict

Negative

Stimulus/

Response

Consequences

Imitation

Choice

Self

SelfActualize

PerceptualExperience

Approval

OpenModify/Change

Self

RigidMaintain

self structure

Ideal SelfPerceived SelfReal Self

Disapproval

Three Schools of Thought in Psychology

Psychoanalytic Biological/Instinctual

Basic Belief – Behavior is not necessarily what it seems but is based on unconscious processes.

Behaviorist Most Scientific

Basic Belief – We can’t understand what goes on inside people so the emphasis is on observable, measurable behavior.

Humanism Most Philosophical

Basic Belief – Human beings have a free will. Behavior is a reflection of our self-concept.

MAJORTHEORIST Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud

Followers of Freud

Alfred Adler

Carl Jung

Neo Freudians Karen Horney

Erich Fromm

MAJORTHEORIST B.F. Skinner

Respondent Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Applied Conditioning to Human Behavior

John Watson

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura

MAJORTHEORIST Carl Rogers

Early Gestaltists

Kurt Koffka

Max Wertheimer (1930s)

Wolfgang Kohler

Self Actualization (1950s)

Abraham Maslow

Gestalt Psychology (1960-Present)

Fritz Perls

Humanism Carl Rogers

Scope of Theory – Study of the unconscious, including inner drives, urges and thoughts.

(Focus in on the Unconscious)

Name of Therapy – Psychoanalysis

Area of Influence – Hospitals, Clinics, Private Practice (Influence declining)

Scope of Theory – Studies the observable external environmental influences that control behavior through learning.

(Focus in on the environment)

Name of Therapy – Behavioral Therapy

Area of Influence – Education (all types) Therapy, Control of Behavior

Scope of Theory – Studies the more abstract nature of people. Interests in both the dynamic and behavioral aspects of behavior only as they relate to the betterment of humankind.

(Focus is on the self)

Name of Therapy – Client Centered Therapy

Area of Influence – Counseling, Education, Human Potential

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Cognitive PsychologyStudy: Thinking

Memory Language

Offshoots

Transpersonal PsychologyAltered States of Consciousness,ESP, Sleep, Meditation, Peek Experiences,Drug Experiences,Imagery

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The Profession of Psychology

Psychologists and the profession of psychology have often been misunderstood. The field emerged from older disciplines, yet in and of itself is new. The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in 1892. Today this organization has over 52,000 members and over forty specialized divisions. Twenty of these divisions have more than 1,000 members.

People are curious about psychology, yet it also seems mysterious. Partly this is because the psychologists’ work, more than most professions, seems to influence us directly. It is precisely because psychology is seen as touching us so intimately that the public has developed ideas of its own about the profession, its members, and their objectives.

Estimated Number of Clinically Trained Professionals Providing Mental Health Services in the United States

Profession Number

Psychiatrists 40,900

Clinical psychologists 77,500

Social workers 194,600

Marriage and family therapists 47,100

Psychiatric nurses 16,600

Counselors 111,900

Psychosocial rehabilitation providers 100,000

The field of Psychology has changed so rapidly that the public’s view of it is often outdated.

The psychology of 1980 is not the psychology of 1940; it is not even the psychology of 1960. The field has changed drastically in the last two decades. When changes take place so rapidly, it can easily lead to confusion. In the 1990’s, Psychology has become more acceptable than ever before.

In the minds of most people, psychology is associated with correcting something that has gone wrong. It is true that sometimes this is their role, but they are also involved in many other things. The psychologist may work not only with the very maladjusted, but the very well adjusted. From the laboratory animal to the human being, and from infancy to old age. Today psychology is not only interested in abnormal behavior, but are as concerned with potentialities as with limitations.

The lay person seems to have the opinion that psychologists have all the answers. Their roles are many, but only one of which may involve “providing answers”, or what is commonly called treatment. Treatment is probably a poor term though, because psychologists don’t “treat” people as much as work with them to help a person change a behavior.

Psychologists and psychiatrists are not the same. Psychiatry is a branch of medicine, and the psychiatrist has a medical degree, as well as further training in psychiatric treatment. Their treatment methods include the use of medication in addition to psychotherapy techniques.

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The psychologist, on the other hand, is not a medical doctor. In the state of Pennsylvania, a person must be licensed (by the state) in order to practice psychology. A license can be obtained by passing a national exam. Specific degrees and supervised training are required before a person can take the exam. A minimum of a Ph.D. degree is necessary to obtain a license. A person can have a Ph.D. degree in psychology, however, and not be a licensed psychologist.

Most psychologists specialize in a certain area. His/her training emphasizes general overall knowledge as the necessary condition for later specialization. The psychologists training, at least in the early years, involves much that is broad and general, rather than narrow and specialized. Specialization, however, usually takes place after the doctoral degree.

Everyone sees himself as a psychologist in some ways. It is the nature of man to have ideas and feelings about how children are best reared, what makes for a successful marriage, or how the student should study, etc. This can make psychology a difficult profession. Most people would not think of telling the physician how he should practice, or what he should prescribe, but the attitude towards the psychologist is a different one. Where problems of human behavior are involved, however, there is noticeably less reluctance on the part of the average person to diagnose a situation, prescribe a solution, or even treat what seems like the problem.

The future of psychology is bright indeed. Professionals in this field are increasingly being called upon to help improve the human condition whether it’s in the family, the workplace, or schools, or for individuals. Where behavior, attitude, or motivation is, psychology is. If the present direction continues, the field of psychology will become less and less mysterious and awe oriented, and move towards becoming the field that helps make people’s lives better.

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What Psychologists Do

Experimental Psychologists – use scientific methods to carry out experiments designed to develop a basic understanding of such concepts as learning, memory, motivation, sensation, and perception.

Clinical Psychologist – generally focuses on abnormal behavior in an effort to understand, diagnose and change it.

Social Psychologist – usually a researcher concerned with the behavior of people in social situations, that is, in the presence of at least one other person.

Personality Psychologist – studies the whole person in an effort to discover the basic underlying dimensions of behavior such as introversion-extroversion and to find means of measuring and describing individuals on those dimensions.

Counseling Psychologist – helps people to improve personal or educational difficulties that they are experiencing.

Industrial Psychologist – usually works for a business enterprise, applying psychological knowledge to such areas as personnel policies, working conditions, production efficiency, and decision-making.

Developmental Psychologist – studies normal behavior development from infancy to adulthood, including the development of learning, perception, social behavior, and motivation.

Educational Psychologist – studies the educational process with the hope of developing better educational systems and is responsible for implementing these systems.

School Psychologist – generally works with a single school or school system, helping teachers with classroom problems of a psychological nature and providing some student counseling and guidance.

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Emerging Fields of Specialization

Forensic Psychology – applying psychological principles to the problems of law enforcement and the courts.

Environmental Psychology – the study of the relationship between people and their physical settings.

Program Evaluation – psychologists evaluate the effectiveness and cost of government programs meant to alleviate social problems.

Quantitative Psychology – specializing in measurement and statistics.

Where Psychologist Work

Subfield Percent

Clinical-counselingEducationalExperimentalIndustrialPersonality-socialDevelopmentalQuantitativePhysiologicalOther

49.015.19.97.77.24.22.62.02.3

Total 100.0

Employment Setting Percent

CollegesHospitals and clinicsSchool districtsBusiness-industryConsulting and private practiceCriminal justice systemResearch establishmentGovernment agenciesOther

46.318.410.33.28.01.11.05.16.6

Total 100.0

Membership of the American Psychological Association

General PsychologyTeaching of PsychologyExperimental PsychologyEvaluation and MeasurementPhysiological and Comparative PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

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Personality and Social PsychologySociety for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)Psychology and the ArtsClinical PsychologyConsulting PsychologyIndustrial and Organizational PsychologyEducational PsychologySchool PsychologyCounseling PsychologyPsychologists in Public ServiceMilitary PsychologyAdult Development and AgingSociety of Engineering PsychologistsRehabilitation PsychologyConsumer PsychologyPhilosophical and Theoretical PsychologyExperimental Analysis of BehaviorHistory of PsychologyCommunity PsychologyPsychopharmacologyPsychotherapyPsychological HypnosisState Psychological Association AffairsHumanistic PsychologyMental RetardationPopulation and Environment PsychologyPsychology of WomenPsychologists Interested in Religious Issues (PIRI)Child and Youth ServicesHealth PsychologyPsychoanalysisClinical NeuropsychologyPsychology and Law

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