Psalms and Wisdom Literature

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PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:

AnIntroduction

DrPaulBCoulter,January2011

www.paulcoulter.net

CONTENTS

Title Page

Introduction 2

PoetryintheHebrewBible 3

WisdomLiterature 5

Psalms 12

Proverbs 24

Ecclesiastes 30

Job 33

SongofSongs 45

Conclusion 49

Bibliography 49


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P a g e |2 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter

INTRODUCTION

ThisstudyisintendedtobeanintroductiontothefivebooksoftheBiblegroupedtogetherintheOldTestament

ofEnglishtranslationsoftheBibleaftertheLawandhistoricalbooks(GenesistoEsther)andbeforethebooksof

theProphets(IsaiahtoMalachi). Thefivebooksintheorderinwhichtheyareplacedare:

Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes SongofSongs

Thebooksdeservetobegroupedtogethersincetheyareclearlydifferentincharacterfromtheotherpartsofthe

OldTestament(withthepossibleexceptionofLamentations,whichwasplacedtogetherwiththemintheHebrew

Biblebut isplacedafter Jeremiah inEnglish translations because itsauthorship istraditionallyattributed tothe

prophet),buttheyreallycomprisebooksoftwodifferentmajorgenres:

a) PoetrythePsalmsareacollectionofpoemsorsongs.b) WisdomJob,ProverbsandEcclesiastesbelongwithinthisgenre.

Havingidentifiedthesetwogenres,however,itmustbesaidthatthedivisionisnotasabsoluteasitmayappear,

foranumberofreasons:

There issomedebateastowhichcategorySongofSongsshouldbeplaced in is itapoeticsongoranexampleoflyricwisdom(seethesectiononSongofSongsforfurtherdiscussion).

Anumberofpsalmscanbeclassifiedaswisdompsalms(seethesectiononPsalmsformoredetail). ProverbsandsectionsofEcclesiastesandJobarewritteninpoetry.

Inadditionitisimportanttorealisethattheliterarygenrescalledwisdomandpoetryarebynomeansrestricted

tothesefivebooks. Asweshallsee,thesegenresarefoundthroughouttheOldTestament(andevenintheNew

Testament). Still,itiswithinthesefivebooksthatpoetryandwisdomareconcentratedintheOldTestament,and

thissectionservesadistinctpurposewithinthecanonofScripture.

Insummary,Iwillarguethatthesebooksservetwoimportantpurposes:

CommentaryontheOldTestamentnarrativeTogether with Lamentations and the Prophetic books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve Minor

prophets(HoseatoMalachi)theyserveasabreakfromandacommentaryuponthenarrativebackbonethat

runsthroughtheOldTestament. TheotherOldTestamentbooks(GenesistoEstherandthebookofDaniel)

arepredominantlynarrative,tellinganunfoldingstoryofGodsrelationshipwithmankindandespeciallywith

Israel. Thesebookssitalongsidethatnarrativeandgiveusinsightsintoitssignificanceandintothespirituallife

ofthepeople.

InsightintoeverydaylifeandexperienceWhereas the narrative books focus on big events, nations and major characters, these poetic and wisdom

books give us insights into the feelings and experience of individuals. In some cases (primarily David and

possiblyalsoSolomon)theinsightsareintothelifeofcharacterswhofiguresignificantlyinthenarrative,butin

otherstheauthorisunknownorrelativeinsignificantinhistoricalterms. Wherethenarrativebooksfocuson

GodsactionsinthehistoryofIsraelandthesurroundingnations,thesebooksfocusontheresponseofGods

peopletoHim. TheyprimarilyrecordthewordsofpeopleaboutGod,includingpraiseanddespair,questions

andstruggles. TheyareaninsightintotheheartofthefaithfulpeoplewithinIsrael. Ifwedidnothavethese

bookswewouldstruggletoknowwhatitwasliketolivealifeoffaithinGodasoneofHispeople.

Beforeconsideringeachbook inturnwemustfirstbrieflyconsiderthetwomajorgenresofwisdomandpoetry

thatcomprisethesebooks.


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POETRYINTHEHEBREWBIBLE

TheplaceofpoetryintheOldTestament

According to Grant Osborne: Poetry is a device that cuts across other genres, being a major rhetorical

techniqueinwisdomandpropheticliterature.1 PoetryisfoundinthreeplaceswithintheOldTestament:

PoeticBooksthreewholebooksareentirelycomprisedofpoetryorsongs:Psalms,SongofSongsandLamentations.

Narrativebookssongsandpoemsarefoundwithinthenarrativebooks,forexample:Genesis49(Jacobsblessing);Exodus15:118 (the songofMosesand Miriam);Deuteronomy 32 (Moses song),33 (Moses

blessing of the tribes); Judges 5 (Deborahs song); 1 Samuel 2:110 (Hannahs prayer) ; 1 Kings 12:16

(IsraelsanswertoRehoboam);2Kings19:2134(IsaiahsprophecytoHezekiah).

Propheticbookssomeofthepropheticbooksareentirelyoralmostentirelywritten inpoetry(Hosea,Joel,Amos,Obadiah,Micah,Nahum,Habakkuk,Zephaniah)while otherscontainlengthyportionsofpoetry

(Isaiah,Jeremiah,Jonah,Zechariah).

Thereareanumberoftypesofpoetry intheOldTestament,includingwarsongsgivingpraisetoGodforgiving

victory(e.g.Exodus15:118;Judges5)andlovesongs(SongofSongs),butthepsalmisthepredominantform. The

bookofPsalmscontainsanumberofdifferentkindsofpsalms,whichwillbeconsideredinthesectiononPsalms.

GrantOsbornewritesabouttheimportanceofpoetryinthenationallifeofIsrael:2

Semiticpoetry had its origins in the religious life of thepeople, both corporate and individual. Prosewas

inadequatetoexpressthedeepyearningsofthesoul,andpoetryasanemotional,deepexpressionoffaithand

worshipbecameanecessity. Themanytypesofreligiousneedcalledfordifferenttypesofhymns. Hebrewpoetry

wasnotrecreationalbutwasfunctional inthelifeofthenationanditsrelationshipwithYahweh. Poetryhada

worshipfunction inmediatingbetweenthepeopleandGodandasermonicfunction inremindingthepeopleof

their responsibilitiesbeforeGod. ThePsalms,for instance,werenotperipheralashymnsoftenare todaybut

were afocalpoint of the service both in temple and in synagogue. It is notwithout reason thatprophetic

utterancesfromGodweresofrequentlygiveninpoeticform. Notonlyweretheymoreeasilyremembered,but

theywerealsomoreemotiveandpowerfulintheirmessage.

For thisreasonhecanclaimthattheology iscentral tobiblicalpoetry.3 Poetryexpressestruth inawaythat

othergenrescannot. RobertAlterwrites:4

|Poetry,workingthroughasystemofcomplexlinkagesofsound,image,word,rhythm,syntax,theme,idea,isan

instrumentfor conveying denselypatternedmeanings, and sometimes contradictorymeanings, that are not

readilyconveyablethroughotherkindsofdiscourse.

LiteraryfeaturesofHebrewpoetry

InmostmodernEnglish translationsof theBiblepoetryhasbeen identifiedby indentationof the text. Within

Hebrewpoetrythereare fourmain features thatcanbe identifiedandwhichare important in interpreting the

poem:

1. MetricalPatternstherhythmofthepoemorsong. IdentifyingthisdependsonknowledgeofHebrewandphonetics. Scholarsdivideoverwhethertobasethemetricalstructureonstressorsyllablecounts. The

metricalstructure ismore important inconsideringhowthepoemshouldbereadaloudratherthanhow it

shouldbeunderstood,hencereaderswhoarenotHebrewscholarsshouldnotworrygreatlyaboutit.

1Osborne,1991,p.174

2Osborne,1991,p.181

3Osborne,1991,p.186

4RobertAlterquotedinVillanueva,2010,p.75


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P a g e |4 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter2. ParallelismHebrewpoetry ismarkedbyparallelsofgrammarand language. The traditionalapproach

(afterBishopRobertLowthin1750)sees3basictypesofparallels:

a. Synonymousrepeatwithlittleornoaddedmeaning(e.g.Isaiah53:5;Proverbs3:14).b. Synthetic(orstep)thesecondlineaddsmeaningtothefirst. Thistypeisfarmorecommonthan

synonymousparallelism. Itincludesclimacticparallelism,inwhichseveralunitsbuildthethoughtto

aclimax(e.g.Psalm8:34;29:1).

c. Antitheticalthesecondlineiscontrastedwiththefirst(e.g.Proverbs3:1). Insomecasesthesecondlinestilladdsclarificationandsocanfallundersyntheticparallelismtoo(e.g.Psalm20:7;Proverbs1:7).

Anotherformofantitheticalparallelismisintrovertedparallelism,wheretwolinescontrastwithtwo

others,ofteninachiasticpattern(e.g.Psalm30:810).

Morerecently,somescholarshavequestionedthisapproach,claimingthatsynonymousparallelism isnot

foundinHebrewpoetryandthatthesecondlinealwaysaddsmeaninginsomesense,ifonlybyclarifyingthe

first. Somecasesofparallelism(especiallysynonymousparallels)areincomplete,withoneelementfromthe

firstlinemissingfromthesecond(e.g.Psalm24:1)andmoreoftenthannotinthesecaseswhatiscalledthe

ballastvariantoccurs,asthemissingelementiscompensatedforbytheadditionofafurtherthought(e.g.

Psalm18:17).

3. PoeticlanguageHebrewpoetryusesanumberofcharacteristic literarydevices. SomeofthesecanbeidentifiedintheEnglishtranslation,whilstothersareonlyevidentintheHebrew:

a. Chiasmthisdevice,whichisalsofoundinmanyNewTestamentpassages,reverseswordsorideasinsuccessiveparallelsectionsformingasymmetricalmirrorimage. Consider,forexample,Isaiah6:10:

A maketheheartofthispeoplecalloused

B maketheirearsdull

C Andclosetheireyes

C Otherwisetheymightseewiththeireyes,

B hearwiththeirears,

A understandwiththeirhearts,andturnandbehealed

b. Paronomasiaplayonwords (e.g. Isaiah5:7,thewords forjusticeandbloodsheddifferbyoneletterinHebrew,asdothewordsforrighteousness andweeping).

c. Alliterationlinesbeginningwiththesameletterofthealphabet(e.g.Psalm119,eachlinewithineachstrophebeginswiththesameHebrewletter).

d. AcrosticseachlinebeginswithasuccessiveletteroftheHebrewalphabet(e.g.Psalm25;34;37;111;112;119;Lamentations3).

e. Assonance similar sounding words (e.g. Jeremiah 1:1112, the words for almond branch andwatchingoverdifferbyonevowelsoundintheHebrew).

4. Imagerytheuseoffigurative languageischaracteristic ofpoetry inmany languagesand isimportanttorealiseifwearetoavoidmistakesininterpretingthemeaningofpoetry. Imagesarefoundintwoforms:

a. Similes an illustrative image introduced with the word like (e.g. Job 30:8; Psalm 1:34; 31:12;Proverbs11:12;Isaiah1:30).

b. Metaphorsuseofanillustrativeimagewithoutthewordlike(e.g.Psalm19:12;Amos4:1). Godismetaphorically depicted as an enthroned king, a shepherd, a warrior, a charioteer, a father, a

shepherd,arock,arefreshingpooletc.


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WISDOMLITERATURE

Whatiswisdom?

Wisdomispopularlythoughtofastheabilitytouseknowledgeeffectivelyandskillfullyinmakingdecisionswith

positive consequences. Although this definition is included in the biblical concept of wisdom, it misses a

fundamentalprincipleinwisdomasdefinedinScripture,whichisitsbasisinareverentialrelationshipwithGod.

Wisdom isalwaystheexerciseofgodlyreasonandunderstanding inthe faceof,andwithtrust in,whatGod is

doinginourtime. GrantOsbornewritesthat,ItsgoalistouseproperlyGodscreationandtoenjoy lifeinthe

presentunderhiscare.5 Wisdom isavitalskillfor lifeandanecessarycomplementtoTorah(instruction or,

morecommonlybutperhapsmisleadingly,law). TheLawofMosescontainsmanycommandments,butitcan

nevercovereverypossiblesituationordecisionthatneedstobemade. Theonlywaytofaceeveryaspectoflife

withfaithfulnesstoGodistodevelopwisdom. Wisdom,inasense,fillsinthegapsbetweentheLaw,orperhaps

weshouldsay itguidesthechoicesoftheGodfearingpersonwithinthe limitsprescribedbytheLaw. Since,as

GraemeGoldsworthypointsout,wisdomisvirtuallysynonymouswithrighteousnessrighteousnessisseento

befarmorethanethicalconformity6. WeneedwisdomifwearetoliveourliveswhollyforGod.

TheplaceofwisdomintheOldTestament

WisdomsayingsarefoundinnumerousplacesintheOldTestament:

Samsonsverseriddle(Judges14:12ff.) ProverbsarefoundinnarrativeandpropheticbooksDavidtoSaul(1Samuel24:13);AhabtoBenhadad(1

Kings20:11);Jeremiah31:29andEzekiel18:2(ajokeaboutabadsituationforparentsbutaworseonefor

children).

Jothamsfable(Judges9:815)andJoashsvariant(2Chronicles25:18). TheparablesofNathan(2Samuel12:1ff.)andwomanofTekoa(2Samuel14:4ff.) AllegoriesinEzekiel(chapters16,17and23),Isaiah(28:23ff.)andJeremiah(18:1ff.) SomePsalmsarewisdompsalmsespeciallywhenthepsalmistturnsfromaddressingGodtoteachingor

warninghisfellowmen(e.g.Psalms1,37and127)ortograpplingwithdisturbing questions(e.g.Psalms49

and73).

Although wisdom clearly predates the wisdom books themselves, it was in the reign of Solomon that wisdom

literature reached its zenith. Much of Proverbs is attributed directly to Solomon, and Ecclesiastes and Song of

Songsaredirectlyorindirectlyassociatedwithhim. DerekKidnerconnectsthisfloweringofwisdomliteraturein

the10th

CenturyBCtothestimulusofSolomonsreignwithincreasedtravel,trade,exchangeofideas,prosperity,

leisureandarts.7 SolomonhimselfwasgiftedbyGodwithwisdomand1Kings3and2Chronicles1tellhowhe

chosewisdomasagiftfromGodinpreferencetorichesorfame. Godsresponsewastogranthimallthree. Sadly

Solomonsquanderedhiswisdom inthe laterpartofhis reign,buthis influencestillhadamajor impactonthe

developmentofwisdominIsrael. TheexampleofSolomonisareminderthatwisdomispracticalskill(hewanted

wisdomtobeable to leadandgiveneffectivelyaccording to2Chronicles1:10)and thatwisdommustbeused

constantlyinacontextofreverentrelationshipwithGodifitistobeeffective.

Inadditiontothepresenceofwisdomsayings,wisepeoplearealsomentionedinnarrativebooks:

ProfessionalcounsellorslikerivalsAhithophelandHushaiservedintheroyalcourt(2Samuel15:1217:23) LocalwisepeopleexistedinIsraelitesocietyJonadab(2Samuel13:3);wisewomanofTekoa(2Samuel14),

cityofAbel(2Samuel20:18).

Fourwisemenarenamedin1Kings4:31,buttheirwisdomwassurpassedbySolomon,whohadadivinegiftofwisdom.

5Osborne,1991,p.191

6Goldsworthy,2000,p.189

7Kidner1985,p.1415


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P a g e |6 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter Anofficeofwisemanwasrecognisedalongsideprophetsandpriests(Jeremiah18:18).

Theclassofwisemencameundercriticism inthe lateyearsofthekingdomfromtheprophets Isaiah(44:25)

and,mostnotably,Jeremiah(8:9). Somehave interpretedthesecomments intheProphetsasanattackonthe

very concept of wisdom and the wise. They suggest that the prophets believed in revelation from God

whereas the wise men (and the wisdom books) were simply presenting a concept of life without direct

interventionfromGodinignoranceofconceptslikecovenantwhichwerecentraltonarrativeandpropheticbooks.

ThissuggestioncreatesafalsedichotomybetweenrevelationandwisdomandtearstheOldTestamentapart. The

factthatIsaiahandJeremiahcriticisedthepeoplewhoheldtheofficeofwisemanintheirdaydoesnotmean

thattheywereinconflictwiththeearlierwisdomwritingsanymorethantheirattacksonfalseprophetsintheir

daynegatestheauthorityoftheearlierprophets(orevenoftheirownministries). Theywerespeakinginatime

whenthewisemenwereblindtowhatGodwasdoingandthereforemisleadingthepeople. Wisdom,properly

understood, isno lessarevelation fromGodthanprophecy. Althoughprophecymaybethoughtofasspecial

revelation,asGodspokedirectlytoHispeople,wisdomisaformofgeneralrevelationbasedonthenatureof

theuniverseascreatedandruledbyGod.

Asmentioned inthe introductionabove,wisdom literaturetogetherwithPsalmsandSongofSongs,servesasa

pauseinthenarrativeflowoftheOldTestamentandanopportunitytoreflectonthesignificance oftheflowof

Godsstoryforourlivesinthehereandnow. DerekKidnercapturesthisrealitypowerfullyinrelationtothethree

mainwisdombooks:8

TherecomesapointintheOldTestamentwhenthepilgrimisfreetostopandtakealonglookround. Hehashad

awellmarkedpathtofollow,andstillitstretchesonahead. Butnowhemustrelateittotheworldatlarge,to

thescenespreadoutoneveryside:fromwhatliesrightathisfeet(shrewdlypointedoutinProverbs)towhatis

barelyvisibleatthehorizonthedarkriddleofhowtheworldisgoverned(thebookofJob)andhowitshouldbe

valued(Ecclesiastes).

Whatiswisdomliterature?

ThewisdombooksoftheOldTestamentareJob,ProverbsandEcclesiastes. SomescholarsalsoaddSongofSongs

tothelist. Asnotedabove,however,wisdomalsoappearselsewhereintheOldTestament,anditshouldalsobe

notedthatmanypartsoftheNewTestamentcanalsobethoughtofaswisdom. Forexample,theparablesof

JesusandmuchofHisteaching indiscoursescanbethoughtofaswisdomsayings (e.g.beatitudes,teachingby

questions,useofprovocativeimagery)andsomecommentatorsclassifyJamesasawisdombook(certainlyithas

aninterestinwisdom,accordingtoJames1:5anditsstylebearssignificantsimilaritiestoOldTestamentwisdom

literature). The genre of wisdom literature can, therefore, refer to the books listed above, but it can also

embraceawidevarietyofsubgenresfoundthroughoutScripture:

1. Theproverbthis isabriefstatementofuniversallyacceptedtruth formulated insuchawayastobememorable.

9 The Hebrew wordmashal normally translated as proverb may mean either like (i.e. a

descriptivesaying)orrule(i.e.apotentsaying),anditisusedmorewidelyintheOldTestamenttodescribe

allegory (Ezekiel17:110),aphorisms (Ecclesiastes9:1710:20),popularsayings (Jeremiah 23:28),discourse

(Numbers23:7,18)andsimilitudes(1Samuel10:11). Proverbsperseoffer:

Instruction(e.g.Proverbs22:1724:22) Admonitionorprohibition(e.g.Proverbs8:2431,33) Exhortationorcounsel(e.g.Proverbs22:28)

Theydothisthroughavarietyofliterarytechniques:10

Synonymousparallelsusesimilaritiesoranalogiestomaketheirpoint(e.g.Proverbs22:2227) Antitheticalparallelsusecontraststomaketheirpoint(e.g.Proverbs11:131) Factual,experientialorinstructional statements(e.g.Proverbs17:27)

8Kidner,1985,p.11

9Osborne,1991,p.195

10SeeAtkinson,1996,p.26ff.foralongerdiscussionofhowvariousproverbsfunction


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P a g e |8 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter1) Practicalorientation

Thereisaconcernforthepassingonofthewisdomofthepasttotheyoung. Wisdomliteraturecentreson

properetiquetteandspeech(Proverbs29:20),selfcontrol(25:28),familyrelationships(10:1),materialwealth

(11:4). Italsoasksdeepquestionslikewhytherighteoussuffer(Job),whytheevilprosper(Psalms49;73)and

whatpurposelifehas(Ecclesiastes). Majortopicsdiscussed,accordingtoDerekKidner,includeGodandman,

wisdom,thefool,thesluggard,thefriend,words,thefamily,lifeanddeath. GrantOsbornewritesthat:11

Sincewisdomwritingsdealsoconstantlywiththepragmaticsideoflife,itiseasytomisusethemtosupport

an earthcentered lifestyle. Yet this very aspect makes wisdom literature so valuable for the modern

Christianwhoseeksarelevantreligion.

Wisdom literaturecallsustosurrendereveryaspectof lifetoscrutinyanditseesGodswisdomexpressed

and echoed everywhere except where man, the rebel, has presumed to disagree and to disrupt the

pattern.12

It ismanssinthatcauseswisdomnotalwaystotriumph,andsinat itsheart istherejectionof

GodandHisways. Thisrealisationpreparesusforthesecondgreatthemeofwisdomliterature.

2) DependenceonGodTheothermajorfocusofwisdomliteraturewhichmustbeheldinbalancewithitspracticalorientationifwe

aretoavoidtheearthcentredlifestyleOsbornementionsisitscalltodependenceuponGod. Accordingto

Derek Kidner, it is this that keeps the shrewdness of Proverbs from slipping into mere selfinterest, the

perplexityofJobfrommutiny,andthedisillusionofEcclesiastesfromfinaldespair.

13

TheGodcentredfocus

ofwisdomisseeninthreewaysinthewisdomliterature:

a. Wisdom is founded on reverence for GodThe foundational principleofwisdom is thefearof theLordcombinedwiththe injunctiontoturnawayfromevil(Job1:1;28:28;Proverbs3:7;8:13;16:6).

The fearof theLord is themilieuor spherewithinwhich truewisdom isattainable.14

In fact, the

precept thatthefearof theLord is thebeginningofwisdom is found indiffering forms inallof the

wisdomandpoeticbookswiththeexceptionofSongofSongs:Job28:28;Psalms111:10;Proverbs1:7;

9:10; Ecclesiastes 12:13. It is vital to remember in reading wisdom literature that this attitude of

reverenceforGodisfoundationaltowisdominallitsformsandinitsapplicationtoalloflife. AsDerek

Kidnerwrites:15

thefearoftheLordthatfilialreverencewhichtheOldTestamentexpoundsfromfirsttolastisnot

amerebeginnerssteptowisdom,tobeleftbehind,buttheprerequisiteofeveryrightattitude. Only

sowilltheworldbeseentherightwayup,andlifebegintorevealitsintendedpattern

b. WisdomconnectsdailyexperienceswiththecentralityofGodscovenantalthoughGodscovenantwithIsraelisneverexplicitlymentionedinthewisdombooksitistheimpliedbackgroundtoallthatthey

teachaboutpracticalliving. Wisdomcomplementsthecovenantratherthandenyingorchallengingit.In

fact,wisdomisidentifiedwithTorahorinstruction(e.g.Proverbs3:112;4:45)andthewisdompsalms

makethelinkwithGodsTorahexplicit(e.g.Psalms1and119). WisdomliteratureremindsusthatGods

presencecannotbeconfinedtothepropheticandpriestlyspheresoflifeitembraceseveryaspectof

dailyexistence.

c. WisdomispersonifiedasanextensionofGodProverbspresentswisdomasacraftsmanwithGodinCreation(Proverbs8:2930),afemaleteacherinvitingstudentstolearnfromheratthegatesofthecity

(1:2021; 8:136), and a hostess inviting people to her banquet (9:112). This is in contrast with the

adulteress

(2:16

19;

7:6

27)

and

the

foolish

hostess

(9:13

18).

3) IndirectauthorityWisdomliteratureassumesdivineauthorityratherthanexplicitlystatingit(asintheProphets). Wisdomhas

authoritybecause:

11Osborne,1991,p.191

12Kidner,1985,p.12

13Kidner,1985,p.17


15Kidner,1985,p.19


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P a g e |10 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter2) Misunderstandingwisdomtermsandcategories,aswellasstylesandliterarymodese.g.inProverbs14:7

misunderstanding themeaningoffool(someonewhorejectsGodsperspectiveonliferatherthansomeone

of low intelligenceor limitededucation)andofstayingaway (notseeking instructionoradvice fromhim

ratherthantotallyavoidinghim).

3) Failure to follow lines of argument For example, Job 15:20 (spoken by Eliphaz) as Gods truth and soconcludingthatwickedpeoplearealwaysunhappy,withoutreadingJob17:116where Jobhimselfactually

refutesEliphazsargument, revealing it tobe false. There isadanger in failing toaskwho isspeakingand

whethertheirwordsareapprovedthatwemayactuallyendupapplyingwhatthebookasawholecondemns.

Thefollowingprinciplesmayhelptowardsamorefaithfulinterpretationandapplicationofwisdomliterature:

1. NotetheformofthewisdomsayingIs it a proverb or a longer didactic saying? Is it allegorical? If it is a dialogue or imagined speech, is it

presentedascorrectorincorrect? Inthecaseofindividualproverbsbesuretoreadparallelsayingstogether.

Forexample, readingonly the firsthalfofProverbs13:24may lead toharshdisciplineofchildren,but the

second half is a necessary corrective that shows discipline must be done because of love and then done

carefully.

2. AskwhethertheimmediatecontextisimportantIt is insomesectionsofProverbs,namelychapters19and3031,butnot inmostotherpartsofthebook,

whichcontaincollectionsofsayings. Becausethereisnologicalargumentornarrativeconnectingthebulkof

proverbs in the book of Proverbs, sayings on a similar theme can then be collected together and cross

referenced to build a more complete picture of the wisdom of Proverbs on that theme. In Job and

Ecclesiastes,contextisvitallyimportant,astheultimatemeaningofthebookisonlyclearfromareadingof

thewhole.

3. DeterminewhetherhyperboleispresentGiven the fact that wisdom literature is written as poetry, it is necessary to look out for statements that

deliberatelyexaggerateorgeneralisethetruthbeingpresented.Forexample,doesProverbs3:910promise

prosperity to all whoare faithful toGod? Howdoes this compare withProverbs23:45 with its warnings

aboutstrivingtogetrichandthetransienceofwealth? DoesProverbs22:2627prohibitallborrowing,such

asmortgages? GrantOsbornewarnsthat,Wisdomsayingsarewritten inordertoberemembered,andso

theytendtobepithystatementsthatpreferrhetoricalskilltoaccuracy.21

4. GetbehindthemeaningofculturallyboundimagerySincemanywisdomsayingsdependonancientcustoms,theuniversalprincipleunderlyingobscurepassages

mustbe identifiedandappliedtocomparablesituationstodayforustoaccuratelyandrelevantlyapplythe

truth. Forexample,Proverbs11:1teacheshonestbusinesspracticesevenifweightsandscalesarenolonger

usedandthetruthofProverbs25:24aboutmarriagestillappliesevenifwenolongerhaveflatroofs.

5.

Remember

that

wisdom

sayings

require

wisdom

to

be

used

effectively

Thisisperhapsthemostimportantprincipleinapplyingwisdomliterature. Knowingalotofwisdomsayings

doesnotmakeapersonwise. Wisdom,aswehaveseen,isanattitudetolifethatflowsfromaproperrespect

forandsurrendertoGod. Whenapersonapproacheseveryaspectoflifewiththatattitude,wisdomsayings

become powerful and effective tools to be applied to real dilemmas. Solomon knew and recorded many

wisdom sayings,butwhenhisheart turnedaway fromGod hemade foolishdecisions, failing toapply the

wisdomcontainedinthesayings. Wisdomsayingsarenotintendedtobeauniversalguideastohowtoactin

anyspecificsituation. Theyareintendedtoprovokeustocarefulconsiderationofthepossibleoutcomesof



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P a g e |11 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterthechoiceswemightmake. So,weshouldnotbesurprisedtofindproverbsthatappeartoconflictwithone

another. AclassicexampleistheadjacentsayingsinProverbs26:45. Arewetoanswerafoolaccordingtohis

follyornot? Theanswerdependsonourspecificsituation. Weneedtousegodlywisdomtodecidewhatis

appropriate,awarethattheconsequencemayeitherbethatwebecomeafool(ifweanswerwhenweshould

not)orthatheisallowedtothinkthatheiswise(ifwedontanswerwhenweshould). Presumably inthis

instancethecorrectactiondependsonourjudgementabouthowthefoolislikelytorespond. Isheopento

hearingwhatwewillsay?Theenvironmentmustalsobeconsideredforexample,whoelseisthereandwhat

influencewill theirpresencehaveonhim? This isthekindofwisdomaChristianneedsconstantlyasthey

decide when to share with nonbelievers about their faith sometimes it is appropriate, but in other

circumstancesitmaybeunhelpful. AcomparisonwithfamiliarEnglishproverbsmaybehelpfulinillustrating

this need for discernment further. Consider the proverbs Many hands make light work and Too many

cooksspoilthebroth. Bothcontaintruthandyettheysayoppositethings. Whichisappropriatedependson

thetaskathandandwhotheproposedhelpersare.

6. ReadthewisdomliteratureasawholeThe threebooksofProverbs, JobandEcclesiastescomplementoneanotherandadd together toprovidea

morecompleteunderstanding ofwisdomthantheydoalone. ThiswillbediscussedfurtheraswelookatJob

andEcclesiastes,butitisimportanttorealisethatthelargelypositiveandalmostidealisticoutlookofProverbs

isbalancedbythegloomyperspectiveofmuchofEcclesiastes andtherawbrutalityofJobsstory. Ifanyof

thethreepartsweremissing,biblicalwisdomwouldbelikeastoolwithtwolegsunstableandtreacherous.

InthewordsofGraemeGoldsworthy:22

All threebooks complementoneanother inencouraging thebeliever tousemindandfaculties to try to

understandlifeinGodsuniverse,butalsoinrebukingthearroganceofthosewhowouldclaimtohaveitall

together.

ChristthewisdomofGod

OneothercommentonaChristianunderstandingofwisdomisimportant. AswithalloftheOldTestament,the

wisdom literature finds itsfulfillment inChrist. This isnotso immediatelyobviousas itmaybe inthenarrative

books, whose story leads inevitably to the need for a Messiah and provides patterns which He can fulfill (e..g

sacrifice / kingship), the books of Torah, whose instruction reveals the nature of sin and whose priestly and

sacrificial systems provide the template for the Messiahs redemption of Gods people, or the Psalms and

prophets, which include messianic prophecies. Christ, however, isdescribed byPaulas thewisdom ofGod (1

Corinthians1:24,30). HewasthefulfillmentofwisdominthesensethatHelivedtheperfectlywiselife(Hewas

awareoflivingaccordingtowisdomseeMatthew11:19)andHeconfoundedworldlywisdomthroughHisdivine

foolishness(Godswisdomappearsfoolishinsinfulhumaneyes). Hecametoexemplifywisdombutalsotomake

it possible for the failure of human sinfulness which wisdom accentuates to be healed and for a Godcentred

approachtoalloflifetoberestoredinthosewhofollowHim. AllwisdomisfoundinHim(Colossians2:3),andso

fortheChristianthedesireforwisdomcannotbeseparatedfromadesiretoknowChristmoreandtogrowinHim.



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PSALMS

ThesignificanceofthebookofPsalms

PsalmsisperhapsthebestknownandbestlovedbookoftheOldTestamentamongChristians. Ithashadaunique

impacton publicChristian worship,with some traditions singingonly psalms, many liturgies including readings

from psalms and many popular hymns and choruses being paraphrases of the psalms. The Psalms have also

provenpopular inprivatedevotionalusebyChristiansand inpastoralsituationswherethey lendthemselvesto

beingreadtothosewhoaresuffering,afraidorbereaved. TherelevanceofthebooktoChristiansisbecauseof

thewayinwhichtheyexpressfeelings,fromdespairtoelation,inpowerfulanddynamiclanguage. Thetheology

ofthisbook isoneofworshipandatrulybiblicalconceptofworshipwhichembracesalloflife. GrantOsborne

summarisesthebooksmessageasfollows:23

Primarily, thePsalms centeruponworshipandprayer; theydemonstratebetter thananyotherbiblicalgenre

IsraelsGodconsciousness.Theymakenoactualtheologicalstatements,buttheirveryGodcenterednessishighly

theological. EveryareaoflifeisrelatedtoGod,andheisseenassovereignoverall.

Althougheachpsalmhasitsownmood,structureandmessage,acrossthebookasawholetherearetwomajor

theologicalthemesthatemerge:

a. GodssovereigntyandHisfaithfulnesstoHiscovenantpromisetoHispeopleGodshesed,orcovenant faithfulness, isamajorthemeofthebook (thewordappearsaround130times).

This isclosely related to the themeof the king,which emerges repeatedly in theroyalpsalms scattered

throughoutthebookaswellasthepsalmsofcovenantrenewal,twopsalmsthatcelebratethecovenantof

GodwithDavidandthepsalmsthatrecountthehistoryofIsraelandGodsactionsontheirbehalf.

b. TheethicalresponsibilityofGodspeopleastheyconnectfaithinHimwitheverydaylifeThepsalmscoverthefullrangeofemotionandfeelingtowardsGodfromangeranddespairtoelationand

jubilation. Throughoutitall,however,thereisanawarenessoftherealityofsin,bothofothers(especiallyin

thelaments)andofthepsalmist(inthepenitentialpsalms),andofthegoodnessofGodslawandthebenefits

of living in obedience toHim (especially evident in thewisdom and didactic psalms). The psalms present

ethical guidance in four major ways according to Gordon Wenham: by contrasting the righteous and the

wicked(asinpsalm1),byupholdingthestandardsoftheDecalogue(TenCommandments),byremindingthat

Godisthesovereignjudge,andbyencouragingthereadertoimitateGod.24

Datingandauthorship

Psalmsisacollectionofpoemsorsongsbyvariousauthors. Itispossible,therefore,toconsiderthedateofeach

individualpsalm,whichwilldependonaconsiderationofitsauthorshipandlanguage(seethesectiononPsalm

titlesforconsiderationofauthorship),butitisalsopossibletoconsiderthedateinwhichthebookwascollected

togetherintheforminwhichwenowhaveit. Giventhatsomepsalms(e.g.Psalm137)areclearlybasedinthe

periodoftheExiletherecanbelittledoubtthatthebookasawholewaseditedtogetherintheperiodafterthe

returnfromExile,thatisafter537BC.

TypesofPsalms

Different scholars have proposed various ways of categorising the psalms. German scholar Hermann Gunkel

(18621932) identified five types:hymns, community laments, individual thanksgiving songs, individual spiritual

laments, and poems of mixed types (including enthronement psalms, victory songs, processional hymns, Zion


24Wenham,2005,p.179ff.


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P a g e |13 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoultersongs, enthronement songs). He attempted to explain the place of each of these types in Israel's communal,

public Temple worship, which he called their SitzimLeben ("original lifesetting"). More recent studies have

focused lesson trying toplaceeverypsalm inaspecificcontext in Israelspublicworship, recognising that the

psalmsalsohadaroleforindividualsintheirexpressionoffaith.

WalterBrueggemannsuggestsasimplercategorisationintothreetypes:

1. Psalmsoforientation(includingpsalmsofcreation,Torah,wisdom,retribution,andwellbeing)2. Psalmsofdisorientation(including personalandcommunallaments)3. Psalms of a new orientation (including psalms of individual and communal thanksgiving, royal and

enthronementpsalms,psalmsofconfidence,andhymnsofpraise).

ClausWestermannclassifiedpsalmsbasedontheextremesofpraiseandlament:

1) PraisethesecorrespondtoGunkelshymnsandthanksgiving songsandaresubdividedintotwoforms:a. DescriptivepraisecelebratingGodsactsinthepresentandHisbeing.b. DeclarativepraisepraisingGodforspecificacts. Thesecanbeeitherindividualorcommunal.

2) LamentscryingouttoGodeitherasanindividualoracommunitybecauseofanenemy.3) Lamentandpraiseinthesepsalmstheenemyismoreperipheralandthefocusismoreonthepsalmistand

hisGod. Thereisacyclemovingfromprayertopraise. Theturningpointisusuallyadirectword(salvation

oracle)fromGodwhichpromisesHisprotection,victoryandblessing.

4) Othertypesincludingenthronementpsalms(Psalms47,93,9699),wisdompsalms(Psalms1,10,12,15,19,32,34,36,37,49,50,52,53,73,78,82,91,92,94,111,119,127,128,139),songsofZion(Psalms46,48,76,

84,87),atriumphalhymn(Psalm68),creationpraise(Psalms8,104,139)andpsalmsofpenitence(Psalms6,

32,38,51,102,130,143).

Thesedifferentsystems illustratesomethingofthecomplexityoftryingtocategorise150songs. The following

categorisation is largely taken from Grant Osborne and Fee and Stuart.25

It must be remembered that these

categoriesarenotmutuallyexclusiveandanypsalmmayfitintomorethanone.

1. LamentsorcomplaintpsalmsThe lament is themostcommontypeofpsalmandexpressesdistressaboutacurrentsituationaswellas

askingGodforhelp. Lamentscanbeeither:

a. IndividualPsalms3;57;13;17;22;2528;31;3840;42;43;51;5457;6971;120;139;142b. CorporatePsalms9;12;44;58;60;74;79;80;94;137

Laments,therefore,containthreecharacters:God,theselforcommunity,andtheother(theenemy). They

oftenfollowthefollowingstructure,althoughfewhavealloftheseelementsinthisorder:

i. AddresstoGod(oftenwithaconfessionoffaith)andcryforhelpii. ReferencetoGod'spastmightyactsiii. Description of the distress (concern with the opponents, the psalmist, and God), often in highly

figurativelanguageandsometimestakingtheformofacomplaintagainstGod.

iv. Confessionoftrust(confidence)v. PetitionforGodtohear,todeliver,andtovindicatethepsalmist,defeatinghisenemiesvi. Aconfessionofsinoraffirmationofinnocencevii. Voworpledgeofpraise

It is importanttonotethatalthough lamentsbydefinitionexpressdistress,almostwithoutexceptionthey

alsocontainexpressionsoftrustorconfidenceinGod. Infact,whenreadinglamentpsalmsitisimportantto

noticethemovementofmoodthepsalmcaptures. Mostcommonlythiswillbeamovementfromlamentto

praiseandthepsalmwillcontainaturningpointwhichscholarsoftencallthesuddenchangeofmood. In

contrastwiththisnormalmovefromlamenttopraise,otherlamentscontainanalternationbetweenlament

andpraise(Psalms31,35,59,71),Psalm12movesfromlamenttopraiseandthenbacktolamentagainand,

25Osborne,1991,p.182ff.;FeeandStuart,1993,p.194ff.


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P a g e |14 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterassumingthatPsalms9and10wereoriginallyonesong(forwhichthereisstrongtextualsupport

26),thisone

psalmmovesfrompraisetolament. Uniquelyamongthelaments,Psalm88containsnomovementatallit

ispurelylamentfromstarttofinishanditdoesnotevenincludeadirectpleaforhelp. Thisrangeoftypesof

movement and no movement shows the diversity of lifes experiences and of Gods actions. Often he

delivers, resulting inpraise,butsometimesHedoesnot. There isnodishonesty in theportrayalof life in

thesepsalmsoflament. LamentsarealsofoundonDavidslipsoutsidethebookofPsalms,onceforSauland

Jonathan(2Samuel1:1727)andonceforAbner(2Samuel3:3334).

2. HymnsorpraisesongsOsbornesuggeststhatthesepsalmsarethenearesttopureworshipofanytypeofbiblicalpoetry. Theyare

not the product of sorrow or need but directly celebrate thejoy of worshiping Yahweh.27

Although his

statementhelpstodefinewhatthehymnsare,wemaytakeissuewithhisdefinitionofpureworshipwhich

doesnotappear todojustice to thebiblicalunderstanding ofworshipasembracingallof life. Nearlyall

hymnsfollowthesamestructure:

i. CallinguponYahwehii. Acalltoworshipiii. A motivation clause praising Yahweh and giving the reason for worship, often centring on Gods

attributesanddeeds

iv. AconclusionrepeatingthecalltopraiseandoftenincludingaseriesofblessingsFeeandStuartidentifythreedistincttypesofhymnsdependingontheirreasonforpraisingGod:

PraisingHimasCreator(Psalms8;19;104;148) PraisingHimasprotectorandbenefactorofIsrael(Psalms66;100;111;114;149) PraisingHimasLordofhistory(Psalms33;103;113;117;145147),sometimesgoingintogreatdetail

inrecountingIsraelsgreatsalvationevents(Psalms78;105106;135136).

Hymnsweresungduringsignificanttimesforthepeople:

Aftermilitarytriumphs(Psalm68) DuringpilgrimagestotheTemple(Psalms84;87). TheSongsofAscent(Psalms120134)areofspecialnoteinthisrespect,astheyaremarkedoutasa

distinctgroupbytheirtitle. Theascentinquestionisgenerallybelievedtobetheupwardjourneyto

thecityof Jerusalemeitherwhenpilgrimsvisited the Temple for thegreat festivalsorwhenexiles

returnedtothecityfromPersia.

Harvest celebrations and festivals three groups of psalms, known as Hallels28 are particularlynoteworthyinthisregard:

o TheEgyptianHallel(113118)developsthoughtsfromGodscompassionfortheoppressed(113)toHisredemptivepower(114)andhelpto Israel(115)to IsraelspraiseandthankstoYahweh

(116118)andwereusedduringthemajorfestivals,especiallythePassover. ThePassovermeal

waseatenbetweenPsalm114andPsalm115. ThehymnsungbyJesusandHisdisciplesprobably

camefromthesepsalms(Mark14:26).

o TheGreatHallelconsistsofPsalms120136or135136(i.e.eitherincludingtheSongsofAscentornot)andwasalsousedduringannualfestivals.

o The Final (Concluding)Hallel (Psalms 146150) formed partof dailyprayers in the synagoguesafter

the

Temple

was

destroyed

in

AD

70.

3. ThanksgivingHymnsThesearemorespecificthanhymnsastheythankGodforHisanswerstospecificprayersandoftenpledge

theirfuturefaithinandworshiptoGod. Theycanbeeither:

26ThepsalmsformonepsalmintheGreektranslationoftheOldTestamentknownastheSeptuagint,whenputtogetherthey

formanacrosticpsalmwithstanzasbeginningwithsuccessiveHebrewletters,andtheycontainrepeatedwordsandthephrase

intimesoftrouble.27

Osborne,1991,p.18328

Hallelmeanspraise,asinHallelujah


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P a g e |15 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoultera. IndividualPsalms18;30;32;34;40;66;92;103;116;118;138b. CorporatePsalms65;67;75;107;124;136

Thanksgivinghymnsgenerallyincludesixstructuralelements:

i. InvitationtogivethanksorpraisetoYahwehii. Accountoftroubleandsalvationiii. PraisesofYahweh,acknowledgingHissavingworkiv. Offertoryformulaatthepresentation ofsacrificev. Blessingsoverparticipantsintheceremonyvi. Exhortation

4. SongsofcelebrationandaffirmationSongsthatcelebrateGodscovenantrelationshipwiththekingandthenation. Thesecanbesubdividedinto

severalcategories:

a. Psalmsofcovenantrenewal(50;81)probablysungatanannualcovenantrenewalceremonyb. Davidiccovenantpsalms(89;132)celebrateGodschoiceofDavidandexpecttheMessiahc. Royal psalms psalms which centre on the king. These have messianic significance but also deep

significanceforthenationatthattime:

o Coronationpsalms (2;72;101; 110) celebrating thecoronation of a kingwith hisoathsbeforeYahwehandreceivingofthepeopleshomage

o Enthronement psalms (24; 29; 47; 93; 9599) possibly used in an annual ceremonycelebratingkingship

o Lament(89;144)o Thanksgiving forvictory(18;118)o Warpreparation(20;27)o Royalwedding(45)

d. SongsofZionpraisingGodforHisgiftofJerusalemandHisprotectionofthecity(46;48;76;87;125;otherpsalmsmaybeincludedinabroaderclassificationincluding15;24;84;122)

5. WisdomandDidacticPsalmsThesepsalmsparallelProverbsintheircelebrationofwisdomasGodsgifttoHispeopleanditsconnectionto

theinscripturatedWordandTorah(1;36;37;49;73;119;127;128;133). Theyoverlapwithpsalmsofpraise

andlament. Asinproverbs,thewayoftherighteousiscontrastedwiththewicked(1;49;73)andthefaithful

arepromisedprosperity(1;112;119;127;128).

6. ImprecatoryPsalmsThese are usually lament psalms where the writers bitterness and desire for vindication are especially

prominentcommonlyusinghyperboliclanguage(12;35;52;5759;6970;83;109;137;140). Psalm137:89

isaclassic,evenshocking,exampleoftheforcefullanguageofthesepsalms.

7. SalvationhistorypsalmsThesesongsrecountthehistoryofGodscovenantrelationshipwithIsrael(78;105;106;135;136).

8. PenitentialpsalmsIhave includedthesepsalms inaseparatecategorybecauseoftheir focusontheexpressionofrepentance

andrequestforforgiveness. ThepsalmsofpenitencearePsalms6,32,38,51,102,130and143.

Psalmtitles

Itisdifficulttoknowwhenthetitlesthatarefoundwithmanypsalmsbecameattachedtothem,whetherbythe

originalauthororlatereditors.Thetitlesincludeseveraltypesofinformation:


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P a g e |16 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter1) Associationwithagrouporperson(103psalms)

Thesepsalmtitlesincludethenamesofindividualsorgroupsofpeople,prefacedbytheHebrewwordle. In

theNIVthisisnormallytranslatedOf,implyingauthorshipbythenamedperson(s). Thatcertainlycouldbe

onemeaning,but it isalsopossibletotranslate itfor,belongingtoorconcerning i.e.thesemaybe

psalmsdedicatedtoorwrittenabouttheperson(s)mentioned. This isgenerallymostdebatedwithpsalms

connected toDavid,SolomonandMoses,partlybecause some scholarsdeny thatpsalmscouldhavebeen

writtenandpreservedfromtheirperiodofhistoryandpartlybecausethesearethefiguresinIsraelshistory

whoareperhapsmostlikelytohavepsalmsdedicatedtothem.

a. Davidthetitlesof73psalmsrefertoDavid. Ofthese,13aredirectlyassociatedwitheventsinDavid'slife (see below). As discussed above, these73 psalmsmay bededicated toDavid, written by himor

about him. Traditionally these psalms have been accepted as compositions by David. In favour of

Davidicauthorshiparethefollowingpoints:

Davidwas avery ablepoet (2Sam23:1)andmusician (Amos6:5;cf.1Samuel 16:1523; 18:10; 2Samuel1:1727;3:3334;23:17),making itperfectlyplausiblethathewrotebothwordsandmusic

forthesepsalms.

David established the guilds of singers and musicians who would later serve in the temple (1Chronicles6:3132;15:16,27;25:131;2Chronicles29:2526;cf.Nehemiah12:4547). Itseemshighly

likelythathewouldhavewrittenpsalmsforthesegroupstoperformintheTempleworship.

New

Testament

writers

assumed

that

David

was

the

author

of

many

psalms

(cf.

Matthew

22:43

45;

Acts 2:2528;4:2526; Hebrews 4:7) andeven spoke of theBook of Psalmsas beingDavid's (Luke

20:42).

b. Asaph this man, who is linked to 12 psalms (50, 7383), was one of David's choirmasters and adescendantofGershon,sonofLevi(cf.1Chronicles6:39;15:17;2Chronicles5:12). Psalm50isseparate

fromtheotherAsaphitePsalms,possiblybecauseitsthemefitscloselywithPsalms4849.

c. The sons of Korah10psalms (42,4549,84,85,87,88) are linked to thisgroupofdescendantsofKohath,sonofLevi,whoservedinthetempleasmusicians(1Chronicles6:22).

d. Jeduthunthreepsalms(39,62,77)areconnectedwiththisLevitewhowasappointedbyDavidtobethedirectorofmusicatthetempletogetherwithHemanandAsaph(1Chronicles16:4142;25:1,6;2

Chronicles5:12).

e. Solomonislinkedtotwopsalms(72,127).f. HemantheEzrahitelinkedtoonepsalm(88),thismanmayeitherhavebeenasage(cf.1Kings4:31)or

aleadingsingerofthefamilyofKohath,sonofLevi(1Chronicles6:16,33,39,4344;15:17,19;16:4142;

25:1,46;2Chronicles5:12;35:15).

g. EthantheEzrahiteappears intheheadingofonepsalm (89). Ethan,whoservedasacounsellorofSolomon(1Kings4:31)wasadescendentofMerari,sonofLeviandissometimesidentifiedasthesame

person as Jeduthun or as a descendent of Jeduthun. One difficulty with this identification is that 1

Chronicles2:6describesEthanasbeingfromthetribeofJudah. Somescholarsexplainthisbysuggesting

thatLeviteswerebroughtintothelineageofJudah.

h. Mosesislinkedtoonepsalm(90)2) Backgroundorhistoricalinformation(14psalms)

a.

Thirteen

psalms

are

related

to

events

in

David's

life

Psalm3:"WhenhefledfromhissonAbsalom." Psalm7:"AshiggaionofDavid,whichhesangtotheLORDconcerning Cush,aBenjamite." Psalm18:"HesangtotheLORDthewordsofthissongwhentheLorddeliveredhimfromthehandof

allhisenemiesandfromthehandofSaul."

Psalm34:"WhenhepretendedtobeinsanebeforeAbimelech,whodrovehimaway,andheleft." Psalm 51: "When the prophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery with

Bathsheba."

Psalm52:"WhenDoegtheEdomitehadgonetoSaulandtoldhim:`DavidhasgonetothehouseofAhimelech.'"


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P a g e |17 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter Psalm54:"WhentheZiphiteshadgonetoSaulandsaid,`IsnotDavidhidingamongus?'" Psalm56:"WhenthePhilistineshadseizedhiminGath." Psalm57:"WhenhehadfledfromSaulintothecave." Psalm59:"WhenSaulhadsentmentowatchDavid'shouseinordertokillhim." Psalm60: "Whenhe foughtAramNaharaimandAramZobah,andwhen Joab returnedand struck

downtwelvethousandEdomitesintheValleyofSalt."

Psalm63:"WhenhewasintheDesertofJudah." Psalm142:"Whenhewasinthecave."

b. Onepsalmisassociatedwiththededicationofthetemple(eithertheTemplebuiltbySolomonortherebuiltTempleafterthereturnfromExile)

Psalm30:"Forthededicationofthetemple."3) Musicalorliturgicalinformation

a. Forthedirectorofmusic(lamenasseah)thisphraseappearsintheheadingsof55psalms(andalsoinHabakkuk3:19). Itisprobablyamusicaladdition,markingthepsalmtobepartofTempleworshiporto

berecitedbytheleaderofthechoir.ItappearsinPsalms46,89,1114,1822,31,36,3942,4447,49,

5162,6470,7577,8081,8485,88,109and13940.

b. Instrumentsseveralpsalmscarryanotationontheinstrumentstobeusedinaccompanyingthechoir. With stringed instruments (i.e. harp and lyre) seven psalms (4, 6, 54, 55, 61, 67, 76). For

backgroundsee1Chronicles23:5;25:1,3,6;Psalms33:2;43:4;71:22.

Forflutesonepsalm(5). Themeaningisuncertain.c. Tunesanumberofpsalmheadingsmayspecifytunestobeused:

TothetuneofTheDeathoftheSon"(Psalm9) TothetuneofTheDoeoftheMorning"(Psalm22) TothetuneofLilies"(Psalms45,69) TothetuneTheLiliesoftheCovenant(Psalms60,80) TothetuneofADoveonDistantOaks"(Psalm56) TothetuneofDoNotDestroy"(Psalms5759,75)

d. Selahthiswordoccurs71timesinthePsalms,particularlyinthefirstthreebooks. Itwasprobablyamusicalmarker,althoughitsexactsignificanceisunclear.

e. Othertermsseveralothertermsarefoundinpsalmheadings. Ineachcasethemeaningisuncertain: According to alamoth (Psalm 46) may signify a female choir, a band of maidens playing

tambourines(68:25),oramusicaltermforahighmusicalsetting(soprano)

Accordingtosheminith(Psalms6,12and1Chronicles15:21)maydenotethemannerofsingingormusicalaccompaniment ("octave")orpossiblyaninstrumentwitheightstrings(thewordisrelatedto

theHebrewwordforeight).

Accordingtogittith(Psalms8,81,84)mayrefertoaGittitelyre,afestivalsong(associatedwiththewinepress),oramusicalterm

Accordingtomahalath(Psalm53)thewordisrelatedtotheHebrewforsickanditissuggestedthatthispsalmmayhavebeenaprayerfromasickperson

Accordingtomahalathleannoth(Psalm88)maydenotetheinstruments(possiblyflutes)oratune4) Literarycategories

a. Apsalm(mizmor)foundintheheadingsof57psalms(36,8,9,12,13,15,1924,2931,3841,4751, 6268, 73, 7577, 79, 80, 8285, 87, 88, 92, 98, 100, 101, 108110, 139141, 143). Amizmor is a

religioussongaccompaniedbymusicalinstruments.

b. Shiggaion(Psalm7)themeaningisuncertain. Itcouldbeamusicaltermoraliterarydesignation,suchasapsalmoflamentationorapsalmwithirregularliteraryfeatures.

c. Miktam (Psalms16,5660) themeaning isunknown. Manyexplanations havebeenoffered,e.g.agoldenpsalm,aprivateprayer,anepigram,anatonementpsalm,aninscription.


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P a g e |18 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterd. Maskil(Psalms32,42,44,45,5255,74,78,88,89,142)themeaningisuncertain,butpossiblysignifies

apsalmintendedtoteach.

e. Song(shir)morethan30timesinthetitleofthepsalms(Psalms18,30,45,46,48,6569,75,76,83,87,88,92,108,120134 theSongsofAscent). Someof thesehave thewordcombinedwithother

words. Asongisageneralcategoryofpoetry.

f. Psalmofpraise(tehillah)foundonlyinPsalm145,althoughthewordtehillahcameultimatelytobetheHebrewdesignationforthewholebookofPsalms(tehillim).

g. Aprayer(Psalms17,86,90,102,142)thesepsalmsarealllaments.5) Designationsofusageortypeofpsalm

a. Apetition(Psalms38,70)maybeachallengetomemorisethepsalmoracalltoGodtorememberb. Forteaching(Psalm60)ithasbeensuggestedthattherhythmofthispsalmmayhavebeenusedto

teachDavid'sfightingmenhowtomoveintimewithoneanother.

c. FortheSabbath(Psalm92)d. Forgivingthanks(Psalm100)

Structure

David

Howard

writes

that

until

recently,

The

Psalter

was

understood

to

have

been

the

hymnbook

of

Second

TempleJudaism,anditwasnotreadinthesamewayasmostothercanonicalbooks,i.e.withacoherentstructure

and message.29

Because thebookwas taken tobe little more thanacollection of psalms (akin toa modern

hymnbook)itwasassumedthattherewaslittleornostructurewithinit. Thisapproachhasagreatdealofvalidity,

and it is indeedpossibleand fruitful to readeach psalmasawholeanddiscover itsmessageandmeaning. A

carefulreadingofthebookofPsalmswill,however,revealthatthere isat leastsomestructureto it. Tobegin

with,thebookisactuallycomposedoffivebooksofpsalms:

BookIPsalms141 BookIIPsalms4272 BookIIIPsalms7389 BookIVPsalms90106 BookVPsalms107150

Howardcontinuestosaythat:30

Today,however,ashifthastakenplace,andtheprevailing interest inPsalmsstudieshastodowithquestions

aboutthecomposition,editorialunityandoverallmessageofthePsalterasabook,aliteraryandcanonicalentity

thatcohereswithrespecttoitsstructureandmessage.

At the outset of this study of Psalms we mentioned the two predominant theological themes that unite the

messageofthisbook:GodssovereigntyandfaithfulnesstoHiscovenantandtheethicaldutyofHispeople. There

are,ofcourse,otherthemesthatcanbetracedthroughthebookandthatareequallypartofitsmessage,ifnotso

centraltoit. IntheremainderofthissectionwewillconsidersomeaspectsofthestructureofPsalms.

DavidHowardhelpfullydistinguishesbetweentwolevelsatwhichthebooksstructurecanbestudied:31

a) Microstructurallookingforconnectionsamongsmallergroupingsofpsalms,especially adjacentonesorthoseconnectedwiththesameindividualorgroupofpeople. Smallercollectionsofpsalmswithinthebook

include:

1. ThefirstDavidicCollection(Psalms341)2. TheFirstKorahiteCollection(Psalms4249)3. TheSecondDavidicCollection(Psalms5170)4. TheAsaphiteCollection(Psalms7383)5. TheSecondKorahiteCollection(Psalms8488)

29Howard,2005,p.24

30Howard,2005,p.24

31Howard,2005,p.24


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P a g e |19 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter6. TheThirdDavidicCollection(Psalms10811)7. TheEgyptianHallel(Psalms113118)8. TheSongsofAscents(Psalms120134)9. TheFourthDavidicCollection(Psalms138145)10. TheFinalHallel(Psalms146150)

Eachofthesecollectionscanbestudiedasaliteraryunitwithanaimtodiscoveringtheirunifyingthemesand

message. Inaddition itwould be possible to consider collections ofpsalms with similar themes (e.g. the

SongsofZionortheWisdomPsalms).

b) Macrostructural this approach looks for overarchingpatterns and themes throughout the book as awhole. Usingthisapproach,forexample,itisnotedthatthereisagreaterconcentration ofDavidicpsalmsin

the earlier sections of the book and that the first half of the book contains a predominance of laments,

especially individual laments, compared to a greater frequency of praise in the second half, especially

corporatehymns. Twofindingsofmacrostructural studiesofPsalmsareparticularlyworthyofnote:

WisdomandRoyalCovenantalFramesGeraldWilsonidentifiestwomajorframesinPsalms:a. ARoyalCovenantalFramehenotesthatPsalms2,72,89and144areallroyalpsalmsandthatthey

occupy positionsatthebeginningofBookIandtheendofBooksII,IIIandV(assumingthattheFinal

HallelissomewhatseparatefromtherestofBookV).

b. AfinalWisdomFramehenotesthatPsalms1,73,90,107and145,thatisthefirstPsalmsofBooksI,III,IVandVplusthefinalpsalmofBookVproper,areallwisdompsalms.

WilsonclaimsthattheWisdomframetakesprecedenceovertheRoyalCovenantalframeandthattrust

in the power of human kings and kingship is ultimately given up, and hope rests on Yhwh, who rules

forever,andwhoalone isabletosave.32

Inotherwords,heclaimsthatPsalms isultimatelyawisdom

book containing Yahwehs instruction and emphasising His enduring kingship as contrasted with the

failingDavidickingship. AccordingtothistheoryBooks IIIIfocusontheapparentfailureoftheDavidic

covenantandBookIV(90106)isanewbeginningwithafocusonYahwehskingship.

Messianicthemesthekingship isanimportantthemeinPsalms,asevidencedbythenumberofroyalandenthronementpsalms. Anumberofroyalpsalms,however,havetraditionallybeenunderstoodby

Christians,andindeedquotedintheNewTestament,ashavingamessianicsignificancethatistopoint

to a greater fulfillment in Christ (these psalms are listed below in the section on Interpreting the

Psalms).DavidCMitchellarguesthatwhenthebookisreadasawholethemessianicthemeiscentral

tothepurposeofthecollection.33

Hearguesthatthekeytounderstanding thebookofPsalms isnot

foundinreading itwithinthehistoricperiodinwhichitthepsalmswerewritten,butinlookingbeyond

historicalperiodstoeschatological (endtimes)hope.

WilsonssuggestionoftwopredominantframeswithinPsalms ishelpfulandhelpsusto identifythe fact

thattherearethesetwomajorthemes,whichtie intothetwotheologicalemphasesidentifiedabove:the

royalcovenantal frame relates to the themeofGodssovereigntyand thewisdom frame to the themeof

mankindsethicalresponsibility. ItalsohelpsustorecognisethatPsalms1and2sittogetheratthebeginning

ofthebookasakindof introductionto it,encompassingbothofthegreatframesandtheologicalthemes

(thisisfurtherconfirmedbyarealisationthatbeatitudes,orpromisesofblessing,framethesetwopsalms;

see 1:1 and 2:12) and that the FinalHallel (Psalms 146150) sits separately at the end of the book as a

conclusion. WhereWilsonstheoryfallsdown,however, is inmissingthepointmadebyMitchell,thatthe

messianic theme and eschatological hope are highly significant in the book as a whole. We can modify

Wilsons theorybyaccepting that thebook showsadecline inconfidence in theDavidicdynasty,which is

inevitablegiventhefactsofhistoryastheDavidickingsgrewmoreimmoralandlesspowerfulandtheirreign

finallyendedwiththeExile,butthatthisisoffsetbynotonlyconfidenceinGodskingshipbutastronghope

for a future Davidic king who would restore his dynasty in keeping with Gods covenant with David.

MessianicpsalmsarefoundinallfiveofthebooksandthishopecontinuesevenintoPsalm132,oneofthe

twoDavidiccovenantpsalms(togetherwithPsalm89),whichspeaksconfidentlyaboutahorn(meaninga

strongking)thatGodwillmaketogrowforDavid(Psalm132:17).

32GeraldHWilsonquotedinHoward,2005,p.25

33DavidCMitchellquotedinHoward,2005,p.25


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P a g e |20 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterGiventheabove,andrecognisingthattherearemanymicrostructuralelementswithinthebook,wecanpropose

thefollowingbroadstructureforthebookofPsalms:

Psalms12 IntroductionandkeytointerpretationGodsblessingthroughWisdomandKingship

Psalms341 BookIproper

Psalms4272 BookII

Psalms7389 BookIII

Psalms90106 BookIV

Psalms107145 BookVproper

Psalms146150 Conclusion(theFinalHallel)PraisetheLORD

Interpretationandapplication

ThePsalmsarebelovedbyChristians,buttheycanbedifficulttointerpret. GrantOsbornewritesthat:34

It has rightly beenpointed out that noportion of Scripture ismorewidely read than thepsalms. Inpocket

versionsoftheNewTestamentthepsalmsareoftenappended,andinmostworshipservicestheyarestillsungor

chantedregularly. Theextenttowhichthepsalterisquoted intheNewTestamentshowsitsimportance inthe

lifeoftheearlychurch. Yetthepsalmsarenoteasilyunderstood. Theparallelismandmetricalpatternsareoften

difficulttounlock,andtheunwaryreadercanreadfarmoreintotheparallelstatementsthanthecontextactually

warrants. Moreover,many (like lament or imprecatorypsalms) seem to be inapplicable atfirst glance. In

addition,scholarsandpastorsoftenoverexegete the imageryormetaphors inHebrewpoetryandgive itmore

theologicalweightthantheyshould.

SomePsalmsareimmediatelyaccessibletotheChristian(e.g.Psalm23),andsotendtoberead,preachedupon

andquotedmostfrequently,butothersarelessso. Thepsalmscanbechallengingbecause:

Someappeartobeentirelymiserableornegativecanthesepsalmsbeused inchurchservicesorjust inpersonalprayer?

SomepsalmsmajoronthehistoryofIsraelandGodsblessingstothemhowisthisrelevantforChristians? Manypsalmspraisetheearthlykingthismadesenseinatheocraticmonarchy,buthowdoesitrelateto

peoplelivinginamodernseculardemocracy?

Some statements in the psalms are distasteful or offensive the imprecatory psalms, with their call forvengeance,canbe toughgoing forChristianswhoarecommitted to loving theirenemies. Perhapsmost

notoriousandoffensiveofall isthedesire forBabylonian infantstobedashedagainstrocksexpressed in

Psalm137:89).

Thefollowingguidelinesareintendedtohelpthereadertounderstandthepsalmsmorefully:

1. Rememberthatthepsalmsarethewordsofpeople,notofGodPleasedonotmisunderstand meonthispoint. Imaintainfirmlythatthepsalms,aswithallofScripture,are

Godswordandareauthoritative andbeneficialforus(see2Timothy3:1617). Itisimportant,however,to

distinguishbetweenthosepartsofScripturewhereGodswordstohumanbeingsarerecorded(e.g.directlyin

theLawandProphetsandwheretheGospelsrecordChristswordsandindirectlyintheEpistles),thoseparts

whereanaccountofGodsactions inhistoryarerecorded (i.e.narrativebooks)andthepsalms,wherethe

wordsofGodspeopletoandaboutHimarerecorded. FeeandStuartwarnthat:35

Theproblemwith interpretingthePsalmsarisesprimarilyfromtheirnaturewhattheyare. Becausethe

BibleisGodsWord,mostChristiansautomaticallyassumethatallitcontainsarewordsfromGodtopeople.

ThusmanyfailtorecognizethattheBiblealsocontainswordsspokentoGodoraboutGod,andthatthese

words,too,areGodsWord.

ThePsalms,therefore,arenotintendedprimarilytoteachdoctrineormorality(asstatements,commandsor

narrativesmay),buttoexpressourselvestoGodandtoconsiderHisways. Themostappropriateusageof

34Osborne,1991,p.1745

35FeeandStuart,1993,p.187


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P a g e |21 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterpsalmswillbeforustoreflectonGodand lifeandto learnmoreeffectivelyhowtoprayandsingpraiseto

Him. FeeandStuartlistthreebasicusesofthepsalms:36

i. AguidetoworshiphelpingustoexpressourselvestoGodii. AguidetohonestrelationshipwithGodinstructionthroughexampleratherthanpropositioniii. AreminderoftheimportanceofreflectionandmeditationuponGodsactionsandourexperiences

2. RememberthatthepsalmsarepoetryBecausethepsalmsarepoetryitisimportanttorememberthenatureofHebrewpoetryandtoconsiderwhat

bearingthishasonhowthepsalmistobeunderstood. Consider,forexample:

Notethepatternsofstanzasinthepsalmthismaybe indicatedbythoughtdevelopment(e.g.Psalm31),stylisticchanges(e.g.Psalm30),chiasm,alliteration,acrostics(e.g.Psalm119).

Group parallel lines together and consider both parts they convey one truth (e.g. dont try todistinguishinPsalm19:1betweenwhattheheavensandtheskiesdo).

Study the figurative language and dont read it literally metaphorical language mustbe read for itsintent(e.g.doesPsalm23meanweshouldactlikesheeporthatweshouldnotliveincities?) Because

somuchofthelanguageisfigurative,Wordstudiesarenotasdeterminative inthePsalmsastheyarein

theNewTestamentEpistles,andmeaningisderivedmorebythewholethanbytheparts.37

3. ConsiderthetypeofpsalmAnunderstanding ofwhichtypeofpsalmthisiswillhelpyoutowardsinterpretingit,especiallyconsideringthestructuralelementswithinthepsalm. Itwillalsobeveryhelpfulinconsideringhowthispsalmcouldbeused

inyourpersonaldevotionsor thepublicworshipofyourchurchor fellowship. Laments, forexample,can

provideencouragementandpatternsforprayerforthebelieverwhethertheyare:

Ill(Psalms6;13;31;3839;88;102) Besetbyenemies(Psalms3;910;13;35;5257;62;69;86;109;120;139) Awareofsin(Psalms25;3839;41;51).

Thelamentscanremindusof:

a. Theneedforbalanceinprayereventhoughtheyarewrittenfromapositionofdistress,theyincludepraiseofGodandexpressionsoftrustaswellasrequests

b. Theimportanceofhonestyinprayerthelamentstellitlikeitis. TheyareawonderfulreminderthatwecanbeabsolutelyhonestbeforeGodinfactwemustbe. Dishonestprayerisnottrueprayerat

all. ThePsalmsremindusthatGodisableandwillingtolistentothefullrangeofouremotions.

Perhaps the most difficult psalms for the Christian to relate toare the ImprecatoryPsalms,whichexpress

angertowardsenemies,buteventhesepsalmscontainvaluable lessons fortheChristian. They forceusto

realise that it is better to express anger to God than to harbour it in our hearts, allowing it to turn to

bitterness. Havingsaidthis,thesepsalmsarestill likelytocausedifficultiesforus. Threeobservationsmay

helpustounderstandthemintheircontext:

HatredinHebrewcanbetorejectorrefusetotolerateitdoesnotalwaysmeantodespise. Thepsalmistisalwaysexpressingtrueemotions,butthesearenotalwaysnecessarilywhatGodwould

wantthemtofeeltheyarethewordsofpeopletoGodnotadviceabouthowweshouldfeel.

Psalm137:89mthemostnotoriousofallimprecatorypsalms,callsforGodtojudgeaccordingtoHiscovenantcurses(Deuteronomy28:5357;32:25speakofthetotalannihilationoftheenemiesofGods

peopleincludingtheirfamilies). Mostimportantly,thisprayerrecogniseswhatwetoomustrecognise,

thatvengeanceisGods(seeDeuteronomy32:35). Ratherthantakingthisactionhimselfthepsalmist

isreferringthecaseandhisfeelingsaboutittoGod,theultimatejudge.




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P a g e |22 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter4. Considerthehistoricalbackgroundofthepsalm

Wherethepsalmstitlegivesanindicationofitshistoricalsetting(i.e.generallywithinDavidslife)itwilloften

behighlyfruitfultolookattherelevantpassagesinthenarrativebooks. Readingthepsalmandthenarrative

accounttogetherwillenrichbothandgiveyouawonderful insight into theemotionsand faithofDavidat

thesepointsinhislife.

5. ConsiderboththeindividualandcorporatesignificanceofthepsalmAlmostallpsalmshavebothanindividualsignificance(theyareproductsoftheexperienceandperspectiveof

anindividualauthorinaparticularsituation)andacorporatesignificance(theirplaceinthelifeandworshipof

Israelasanation). Bothbelongtogether,andaconsiderationofbothwillleadustoagreaterappreciationof

themessageofthepsalm. Weshouldthenconsiderhowthispsalmappliesbothtomeasanindividualandto

mychurchorfellowshipasagroupofGodspeople,remembering,ofcourse,thatitmayapplydifferentlyto

theChurchthantoIsrael.

6. ConsiderhowthepersonandworkofChristmodifiesthetheologyofthePsalmThispointisapplicabletoanyreadingoftheOldTestament,butinlightoftheapparentgreateraccessibility

andapplicabilityofPsalmstotheChristianitisparticularlyimportanttoemphasiseithere. AlthoughGodand

Hischaracterareunchanging,andsowecandirectlyapplywhatwelearnaboutHimfrompsalms,Hiswayof

relationshiptoChristiansisnotidenticaltoHisrelationshipwithIsrael. BothbeforeandafterChristthebasis

ofrelationship withGodhasalwaysbeenfaith,buttheknowledgewehaveaboutGodandthemeansthrough

whichourfaithisexpressedaredifferent. Whenthepsalms,forexample,speakaboutsacrificeweneedto

rememberthatChristfulfilledtheOldTestamentsystemofsacrificeandthatisdeathwastheonesacrificefor

oursins. Likewise,althoughthepsalmscelebratetheearthlycityofJerusalem,ourhopeisintheunshakeable

city of God, the Heavenly Jerusalem (Hebrew 12:2224), the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21), which is the

Church. GraemeGoldsworthyemphasisestheneedtoreadthepsalmsthroughthelensofChrist:38

IftheyspeaktousofGod,theymustspeaktousoftheGodwhohasfinallyrevealedhimselfinJesusChrist.

If they speak tousof sinners, they speak tousof thosewhoareoutsideofChrist. If they speakof the

judgmentofGod,theyspeaktousofthecurseofthelawthatChristsufferedforhispeopleonthecross. If

theyspeaktousofthefaithful,thegodly,ortherighteous,theyspeaktousfirstofChrist,andonlythenof

thosewhoareredeemedinChrist.

Onespecificexampleisworthyofnoteatthispoint. InPsalm51:11DavidpraysthatGodwillnotremoveHis

HolySpiritfromhim. ThisisnotanappropriateprayerfortheChristian. TheOldTestamentfunctionofthe

Spiritwastoanointpeople forspecialservice forGod,mostespeciallyprophets,priestsandkings. Davids

prayerthattheSpiritwillnotberemovedfromhimisapleathathewillbeallowedtocontinueasking. Inthe

NewTestament,afterPentecost,theSpiritmakesHishomeinthelivesofbelievers. Hetakesuppermanent

residencewithinus,leadingusandempoweringustoliveforGod. GodwillnotremoveHimfromus.

7. ConsiderwhetherthispsalmhasamessianicsignificanceBetweenthree(Psalms2,72and110)and13psalms(addingPsalms8,16,22,40,45,69,89,102,109and

132)havetraditionallybeenunderstoodasmessianic(inpartorthewhole)and it is importanttorecognise

this. InconsideringhowthesepsalmsrefertoandwerefulfilledbyChrist it isalsoimportanttoremember

thattheyalsohadsignificanceinthelifeoftheauthoratthetimeofwritingandinthenationallifeofIsrael. It

is a wise principle to study the historical meaning of the psalm before considering its prophetic meaning.

JamieGrantarguesthatinadditiontothepropheciesofthemessianicpsalms,theroyalpsalmsspeakofChrist

in a more subtle way, by painting a picture of a king who is tangibly human yet an example of faithful

obedience(sinceroyalpsalmsaresetalongsidewisdompsalms,e.g.Psalms1and2)andwhointercedeson

behalfofGodspeople.39

Christ,thesinlessmanwhointercedesforus,istheultimatefulfillmentofthisideal.


39Grant,2005,p.117


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P a g e |23 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter8. ConsiderwhetherandhowthepsalmisquotedintheNewTestament

It isalwaysworthwhileconsultingacommentaryorconductingasearchtoseeifthepsalmisquoted inthe

NewTestament. Sometimesthesequotationswillgiveyounewinsightsintothemeaningofthepsalm. Itis,

however, important to ask whether the quotation is meant to indicate the psalm was pointing to a New

Testamentreality(asisthecasewithtruemessianicpsalms),whethertheNewtestamentwriterisdrawingon

atheologicaltruthtaughtbythepsalmorwhetherthepsalmslanguageissimplybeingborrowedaspartof

anargumentthatisnotdirectlyrelatedtothepsalmsmeaning.

9. StudythepsalmasawholebeforedrawingconclusionsThought flow is critical to the meaning of a psalm and it is often dangerous to take individual verses or

statements out of context as universal principles. An approach to the psalm as a whole is particularly

importantgiventhefrequentuseoffigurativeandhyperboliclanguageandthefactthatthepsalmsaresongs.

They are musical poems intended to appeal to the mind through the emotions. They dont convey

propositionaltruthbuttheyshouldmoveus. Itisdangeroustoestablishdoctrinepurelyonastatementina

Psalm. Forexample,whatdoesPsalm51:5teachaboutthenatureoforiginalsin? Inrealitythepsalmistis

simplytryingtoemphasisehisownsinfulnessandwecannotnecessarilyimplyfromthisversethatconception

issinfulorthatsinispresentfromconception.

10.ConsiderthepsalminthecontextofthewholebookAswithWisdomliterature,individualstatementsmustbereadinthecontextofthePsalmsasawhole. Some

psalmsdepict thepositivesideofthe lifeof faith (e.g.Psalm1),whileothersdepictthenegativeside (e.g.

Psalm39). RidderbosandCraigiewarnthatThePsalmsasawholereflecta fullyroundedwisdomonthe

natureofhumanlifeinrelationtoGod,whereastheindividualPsalmsmaycontainonlyapartofthe larger

picture.40

A theology of the Psalms can only be established by considering the book as a whole. It is

particularlyhelpfultorealisethatthefirsttwopsalmsserveasanintroduction,establishing thatblessingisto

befoundinfaithfulobediencetoGodsinstruction(Psalm1)andinacertainhopeinHimandHismessianic

kingeven inthemidstofaworldofconfusion(Psalm2). Likewise,theconclusionofthebook(Psalms146

150)telluswhereanyjourneythroughthebookshouldleadusto:aplaceofunbridledpraiseofGod. Bearing

thesebeginningandendpointsinmindwecanlookforotherelementswithinthebooksstructureaswell.

Instudyingapsalminthecontextofthewholebooktherearetwoapproachesthatmaybehelpful:41

a) Thematiccomparison identifythemainthemes inthepsalmandthencomparewithotherpsalmsthatcontain the same theme. Thisallowsamorecompletepictureof themessageof thebookof

Psalms on this theme. Examples may be a comparison of the psalms that praise God as Creator

(Psalms8,19,104,148)orthepenitentialpsalms(Psalms6,32,38,51,102,130and143).

b) Contrast of voices itmaybe instructive in studyingan individualpsalm toconsiderhow itsvoiceconflictswithothervoicesfromthepsalms. Adialogueordebatebetweenthedifferentpsalmscanbe

imagined. This approach will be highly relevant where the emphases of different psalms seem to

conflictwithoneanother.

40RidderbosandCraigiequotedinOsborne,1991,p.187).

41IamindebtedtoDavidFirthhere(2005,p.171ff.;2010,p.94ff.),althoughIavoidhistechnicalnamesfortheapproaches,

whicharethematicmodellingandintratextualdialogue.


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PROVERBS

Datingandauthorship

Inthepastargumentsweremadeforadateinthe3rd

CenturyBConthebasisof:assumedGreekinfluenceinthe

personification of Wisdom (chapters19),a theory that instruction passages had evolvedover time from pithy

sayingsviatwolinedsayings,andaclaimthatthiskindofliteraturebecamepopularonlyaftertheprophetshad

stoppedspeaking. Morerecentscholarship, however,hasnotedthebooks linkstothewisdomofsurrounding

nationsofEgyptandPhoenicia. Itisnowgenerallyacceptedthatthewholebookispreexilicinitsstructurethat

isitwascompiledsometimebeforetheExileofJudahtoBabylonin586BC.

Asweshallsee,thebookofproverbscontainssectionsattributedtodifferentauthors. Thelargestportionsare

attributed to Solomon,and there is no reason to doubt theaccuracy of this claim. According to 1Kings 4:32

Solomoncompiled3000proverbs,anditseemslikelythatthecollectionsinthisbookbearinghisnamearepartof

thiscollectedwisdom. Solomon livedand reigned inthe10th

CenturyBC. Twootherportionsof thebookare

attributed tonamedauthors:chapter30 toAgurandchapter31 toLemuel. Somecommentsaremadeabout

these men in the sections below commenting on these chapters. It is not possible to date either of these

individualswithanycertainty.

Structure

Thebasicstructureofthisbookisclearfromthetextitself. InthefollowingoutlineIhavedescribedthedifferent

sectionsthatcomprisethebookasseparatebooks.

Prologue(1:17) ThePurposeofProverbs

Book1(1:89:18) InstructionsofParents

Book2(10:122:16) SolomonsProverbs,part1

Book3(22:17 24:22) SayingsoftheWise

Book4(24:2334) MoreSayingsoftheWise

Book5(Ch2529) SolomonsProverbs,part2

Book6(Ch30) SayingsofAgur

Book7(Ch31) SayingsofLemuel

Prologue(1:17)ThePurposeofProverbs

ThisbriefprologuetothebookopenswithareferencetoSolomon(1:1). Itisclearfromreadingthebookthatonly

some of the proverbs are attributed to Solomon, but his mention here may indicate that this prologue was

originallypartofashorterbookcontainingonlySolomonsproverbsormaybeintendedasatributetoSolomonas

thefatherofwisdomliterature. CertainlySolomonsproverbsconstituteamajorpartofthebook.

TheremainderoftheprologueexplainsthepurposeofProverbs(1:26),whichistohelppeopletoattainwisdom

anddisciplineandanunderstandingof insightfulwords. It isworthnoting thatwisdom isnot found in simply

knowingthesesayingsbut isaskillthat isdevelopedthroughreflectionuponthem,whichentailsdisciplineand

insight. Thecall is for the readerto listenandobtainguidanceas tohow tounderstand fourkindsofwisdom

sayings:proverbs,parables,sayingsandriddles(v6). Mostessentiallyofall,theprologuestatesclearlyatthevery

outsetofthebookthatwisdomrestsonthefoundationofthefearoftheLord(1:7).


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P a g e |25 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterTremperLongmannotesthefactthattheprologueisaddressedgenerallytoallwhoseekwisdomandinstruction.

Thisishelpfulinviewofthefactthattherestofthebook(explicitlyinchapters19andimplicitlyinthecollections

ofproverbsthatfollow)isaddressedmorespecificallytoyoungmen. Theprologue,inLongmansview,broadens

theaudiencetoincludetheentirecovenantcommunity.42

Book1(1:89:18)InstructionsofParents

ThissectionofProverbsisacollectionofupto17separatediscoursesonwisdomwhich,typicallyhaveacallto

listen before presenting advice and encouraging obedience by the description of benefits as well as negative

consequencesforneglectingtheadvice.43

Thesediscoursesaregenerallytheinstructionsofparentstoayoung

man. It isworth noticing that the firstplace for learningwisdom is in thehome (1:8;4:3;6:20) and that this

involvesbothparents. ThiswastrueinIsraelanditoughttobetrueforChristians. Thosewhoareparentswould

dowelltorecognisethisresponsibilityandnotabdicate ittosomeoneelsewhethertheschool,themedia,or

evenchildrensandyouthministriesinthechurch! DerekKidnerwritesthat,truthistobelearntfirstathome,

instilledtherewithfirmnessandaffectionaslessonsforthemindandtrainingforthecharacter.44

Withinthissectionthepredominantmetaphorisoftwopathsonwhichwemaywalk:thepathoffollyleadingto

deathandthepathofwisdomleadingtolife. Twomajorthreatstotheintegrityoftheyoungmanareidentified:

a) Negativepeerpressureonyouth(1:1019)b) Sexualtemptation(2:17;5:123; 6:2329;7:127)WearecalledtolivealifeoffaithfuldependenceuponGodwithareadinesstowalkinthestraightpathsHewill

prepare(3:56). Godisthegiverofwisdom(2:6),andHiswisdomwasfoundational tocreation(3:1920;8:2231)

hencetheworldworks inkeepingwithGodswisdom. Wisdom is,therefore,greatlytobeprized(chapter4).

Theultimategoalisthatwisdommightbeinternalised(2:10),sothatweabletorecognisetherightpath(2:9)and

willbeprotectedandguarded,rescuedfromthewaysofwickedmen(2:1112).

Wisdomispersonifiedasawomanwhocriesouttobeheard(1:2033;8:121)andwhohasbuiltafirmhouseinto

which she invitesus tocome (9:16). She iscontrastedwiththewomanFolly (9:13),a temptresswho leads

peopletodestruction(9:1318). ThevividdescriptionofthepersonificationofWisdomhasledtospeculationthat

anangelicbeing isbeingdescribedoreven that this isadescriptionofChrist. These interpretations,however,

dependontooliteralareadingofthisfigurativelanguage,anditappearsthatwhatisintendedissimplyapoetic

descriptionofoneattributeofGodscharacter. Wemay,however,acceptwithDerekKidner45

thatthelanguage

usedmayserveapurposewiththebenefitofaviewfromtheNewTestamentinpreparingourexpectationsfor

theultimateincarnational personificationofGodswisdominthepersonofChrist.

Books2(10:122:16)and5(Ch2529)SolomonsProverbs

These two collections of Solomons proverbs contain 375 sayings. These are usually short and pithy one line

sayings containing six or seven Hebrew words (usually three strong beats answered by another three46

).

Exceptionscoverseveral lines (e.g.25:20;25:2122;26:1819;26:2425;27:10;27:1516)orawholeparagraph

(27:2327). Theorderisapparentlyrandom47

exceptforafewcollectionsonsimilarthemes(e.g.10:1821onthe

useofwords;16:1215and25:27onkings;26:1316onthesluggard;26:2028onmischiefmaking).

42Longman,2010,p.104

43Longman,2010,p.103

44Kidner,1985,p.20

45Kidner,1985,p.23

46Kidner,1985,p.25

47Somescholarsdisputethisandclaimthatunitscanbeidentifiedonthebasisofrepetitionsofthemes,wordsorsounds,but

thelackofconsensusevenamongthosescholarswhobelieveinthislevelofstructuresuggestseitherthatitdoesnotgenuinely

exist,orwilleludethemodernreader.


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P a g e |26 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterIthasbeensuggestedthattheoriginalwisesayingsconsistedofjustthreewords(forexample,seeDavidswords

toSaulin1Samuel24:23),butthattheproverbsofSolomonaddasecondlinetoamplifythemeaningofthefirst

(e.g. 21:10) or to sharpen it by contrast (e.g. 12:6). In other words, these proverbs are parallel statements

containing either synthetic or antithetical parallelism. The proverbs generally see merit rewarded and lapses

penalised(e.g.13:25),apparentlyinthislife,withsomeexceptionslike13:23. Theyarewritteninpoeticlanguage

and include some beautiful and powerful similes (e.g. 11:22; 25:13; 26:22; 25:15). In general the proverbs

challengethereadertocomparethenowwiththeconsequence(23:2935;13:11;5:4;19:20). Theyprovokean

attitudeofthoughtfulreflection.

Chapters 2529 are separate from the longer collection of Solomons proverbs in 10:122:16. This shorter

collectionwaseditedbyHezekiahsmenandhassomedistinctivefeatures:

Thereisagreatertendencyinforgroupingsofproverbsonsimilartheme(e.g.kingsin26:27;foolsin26:112;sluggardsin26:1316;mischiefmakersin26:1728).

Moreoftheproverbsruntoanextralineorasecondorthirdverse(e.g.25:13,20;25:810,2122;26:2426)andoneshortpoem(27:2327).

There isamarkedemphasis(especially inchapters2829)onrulersandpeoplewith influenceinasociety(e.g.25:26;28:2;29:8,18).

Books3and4(22:1724:34)SayingsoftheWise

These collections have a different tone from Solomons proverbs. They are more personal, directive and

impassioned,withDosand (moreoften)Dontsasopposed tothe impassionatestatementsofprinciples in

Solomonsproverbs. Manyofthesamethemesarefoundhereas inotherpartsofthebook(e.g.mercytothe

poor, wise friendships, financial prudence, firmness with children, hard work, sexual purity) but there are also

somespecialemphases,notably:

Quiettrustinsteadoffretfulness(23:1718;24:19ff.)thisissimilartoPsalm37. Generouscompassionextendingeventostrangersandenemies(24:1112,17,29).

ItisworthnotingthatthissectionofProverbsbearsasimilaritytoanEgyptiandocumentcalledtheInstructionof

Amenemope,datedsometomeintheperiod15801100BC. Thatdocumentcontainsinstructionstoasonabout

proper conduct and is arranged into 30 sections. Allen Ross writes about the relationship between the two

documents:48

Although the two collections are not identical, they are similar enough to attest direct influence. General

knowledgeofwisdomsayingsacross theancientNearEastaswellasspecific interchangebetweenEgyptand

Solomon'scourtmakea literaryconnection likely.Becauseofthedates involved, it isunlikelythatAmenemope

borrowedfrom Solomon. Similar teachings in the Pentateuchmight suggest a greater antiquityfor biblical

wisdomsayings,butthere is insufficientmaterialtodrawafirmconclusion.Manyancientlaws,sayings,songs,

poeticcouplets,andproverbsfoundtheirwayintoinspiredScripture.Inspirationdoesnotexcludethedivineuse

ofexistingmaterial;butinScriptureittakesonanewforce,ahighermeaning,andbecomesauthoritative.

TheconnectionwithEgyptianwisdomisperhapsnotunexpectedgiventhefactthat1Kings4:30likensSolomons

wisdomtothewisdomofthepeopleoftheeastandEgypt. Despitetherelationshipbetweenthesetwowisdom

documents, it isworthrealisingthattheconnection is loose,basedontheuseof30sectionsandsomeshared

interests,butthatthissectionofProverbsusesownitsorderandhasalargelydifferentemphasis.49

Book6(Ch30)SayingsofAgur

Itseems likelythatAgurwasanIshmaelitemanfromMassa(this isthenameofatribeof Ishmaelaccordingto

Genesis 25:14, and became the name of a region in northern Arabia this identification of Agur depends on

48AllenRoss,2001

49SeeKidner,1985,p.44


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P a g e |27 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterreading30:1assonofJakehofMassaratherthansonofJakehanoracle,assuggestedintheNIVfootnotes).

IthasbeensuggestedthathewaspossiblyaconverttothereligionofIsrael,butitisalsopossiblethatthisisan

exampleoftheborrowingofwisdomfromamanwhodidnotworshipYahwehintherecognitionthatalltruthis

Godstruth(inthesamewaythatPaulcouldquotepaganphilosophers whentheirwordsweretrueandsupported

his argument). Some critical scholars argue that Agurs words stop at verse 4, that he was an unbeliever or

agnosticandthattherestofthechapterisaresponsetohim,butthisseemstohavelittlebasisinthetext(thereis

nodivisionatv4,anditseemsthatv23areironic).

ThischapterbearssomesimilaritiestoJob:verse4echoessaysJob38:18,sayingTellmeifyouknow!andthe

wordEloah isused forGod inverse5(it isused41times in Jobandalso intheArabic language). Adistinctive

featureofAgurssayingsishisgroupsoffourthings(v15,18,21,24,29;alsoinv1114thereisalistoffourthings

withouttheusualintroduction). Mostofthesehaveacrescendointroduction(threethingsfour,v15,18,21,

29). ThispatternisfamiliarelsewhereinScripture:Job5:19;Proverbs6:1619;Amos12. Someofthesesayings

haveamoralandothersapparentlydonot.

Book7(Ch31)SayingsofLemuel

Ifthesuggestedreadingof30:1asareferencetoMassainArabiaiscorrect,thenLemuelwasalsofromMassain

facthewasitsking. Itisdebatablewhetherallofchapter31representsthewordsofLemuel,taughttohimbyhis

mother, or whether his contribution ends at verse 9 and verses 10 to 31 are from a different pen. The

interpretation of the chapter does not depend on the authorship. The chapter as a whole exemplifies the

combination of instruction (v19; compared with chapters 19 and 22:1724:34) and observation (v1031;

compared with Solomons proverbs) that characterises the whole book. The first section (v19) comprises

instructions on how to be a good king which may still prove useful for politicians today with some cultural

translation.

Verses1031areanalphabeticacrosticpoemabouttheidealwife. AcrosticsalsofoundinPsalms(fourinthefirst

bookand four inthe fifthbook,mostnotablyPsalm119)and four inLamentations14. Thispoemmayseem

dauntinggiventhehighstandarditsets,butitspictureisbeautifulandiscertainlyanidealforanywifetoaspire

andagoodguideforamanseekingaspouse. Itisworthnotinghowpowerful,influentialandproductivethiswife

is. Sheisnopowerlessandservilesubordinate, butadynamicandresourcefulpartner. Sheishighlyinvolvedin

themanagingoftheaffairsofthehomeandthe instructionofthechildren (v2628),andthe reputationofher

husbanddependsatleastinpartuponherroleashiswife(v23). Thepoem,andthereforethebook,climaxeswith

areferencetothefearoftheLord(v30),makinganeatparalleltothestatementatthebeginningofthebookthat

thefearoftheLORDisthebeginningofwisdom(1:7).

TheMessageofProverbs

Proverbsisperhapsthemostreadilyaccessibleofthewisdombooks. Itishighlypracticalanditsrelevancetolife

todayisoftenclear. FeeandStuartwriteaboutthecontentandpurposeofthebook:50

Asageneralization, itisusefultonotethatProverbsteacheswhatmightbecalledoldfashionedbasicvalues.

Noparentwantshisorherchildtogrowupunhappy,disappointed, lonely,sociallyrejected,introublewiththe

law,immoral,inept,orbroke. Itisneitherselfishnorunrealisticforaparenttowishachildareasonablelevelof

success in life includingsocialacceptance,freedomfromwant,andmoraluprightness. Proverbsprovidesa

collectionofpithy,advisorystatementsdesignedtodojustthat. Thereisnoguarantee,ofcourse,thatalifewill

always gowellfor a youngperson. Whatproverbs does say is that, all things being equal, there are basic

attitudesandpatternsofbehaviorthatwillhelpapersongrowintoresponsibleadulthood.



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P a g e |28 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterThe concerns of this book for right behaviourare highly relevant tomodern society, and wediscover that the

resultsoffollyarejustasgreataproblemformodernfamiliesandcommunitiesastheywerewhenthebookwas

written. AccordingtoProverbs,follyincludes:

Violentcrime(1:1019;4:1419) Carelesspromisingorpledging(6:15) Laziness(6:711) Maliciousdishonesty(6:1215) Sexualimpurity(2:1619;5:320;6:2335;7:427;9:1318;23:2628)

Inresponse,weareurgedtothesameactionsthatwillbuildstrongfamiliesandcommunitiestoday:

Careforthepoor(2:22,27) Respectgovernment(23:13;24:2122) Disciplinechildren(23:1314) Bemoderateinconsumptionofalcohol(23:1921,2935) Takecareofourparents(23:2225)

SpecificallyreligiouslanguageisrareinProverbs(althoughsee1:7;3:512;15:3,89,11;16:19;22:9,23;24:18,21

etc.)but,aswehavealreadysaid inthe introductiontowisdom literature,thisdoesnot implythatthewisdom

beingpresentedisgodless. Infact,itteachesusthat:51

Noteverythinginlifehastobestrictlyreligioustobegodly. Indeed,Proverbscanhelpserveasacorrectivetotheextremisttendencytospiritualizeeverything,asifthereweresomethingwrongwiththebasic,material,physical

world.

Interpretationandapplication

DespitetheaccessibilityofProverbs,thereareanumberofpotentialdifficultieswithinterpretingandapplyingthis

book:

Thepresenceofconflictingproverbs(evenadjacenttooneanother,asin26:45)Asdiscussedintheearlierintroductiontowisdomliterature,thissimplyhighlightsthefactthatproverbsare

notgeneralisedstatementsofhowtoactineverysituation,butguidelinestoconsideringpossiblecoursesof

actionandtheirlikelyconsequences. Discernmentandjudgementisneededtoknowhowtoapplytheirtruth

intospecificsituations

Documents

Psalms and Wisdom Literature