Prussia: The Rise of the German State One of the critical themes in central European

History is the Rise of the State of Prussia, and its role in the Holy Roman Empire, the rise of tension between the Habsburg possessions in Austria, and the eventual unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck.

To know Prussian growth if to understand the history of Central Europe.

The “end game is the rise of fascism in the 1920’s and the establishment of the Third Reich under Adolph Hitler.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State What do we mean when we say “Prussia”? We see the Hohenzollerns rule Brandenburg in

East Prussia, none of which were physically connected, and all of which were outside the province and authority of the Holy Roman Empire.

This is critical because it shows the independent nature of Prussia from the start.

By the late 17th century, these holdings would begin to be forged into the growing state of Prussia.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State The road to the modern state of Prussia begins

with Frederick William, (1640 – 1688) Remember that these dates contain the

settlement of Westphalia, in 1648. The Hohenzollern Family would have the largest

holdings within the Holy Roman Empire, second only to those of the Habbsburgs.

Frederick William became to be known as the Great Elector, and remember that the Holy Roman Empire was held together by a series of Electors.

What does Frederick William do, and why is this important?

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick breaks the power of the local nobility,

and organizes a bureaucracy as well as the strongest army in Central Europe.

Confronted by both Sweden and Poland for his holdings in east Prussia, (1665 – 1660) Frederick, out of necessity, collects taxes against the will of the nobility, much like Bismarck will do centuries later.

Frederick pumps this revenue into the military, and this was done with some benefit to the nobility.

In return for their cooperation, the Junker class, were able to continue to demand obedience from their serfs.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Taxes at this time would the primary burden of

the peasantry, like the rest of Europe. We do see a pattern that would eventually be

broken in Prussia, and that is the influence of the Junker class in the military, particularly in the officer corps.

Most significantly, they would all have to swear an oath to Frederick William, setting the tone of loyalty, control and obedience in this growing German state.

Frederick William is succeeded by his son, Frederick I, who is often referred to as the least Prussian of the Electors.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State A key event in his reign was that, as a result

of his cooperation with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in the war of the Spanish Succession (remember that one? Louis XIV…?), he is given the title of “King of Prussia”, in 1701.

His successor (in 1713, what a key date that is!) is Frederick William I.

Let’s review: Frederick William, (1640 – 1688) Frederick I (1688 – 1713) Frederick William I (1713 – 1740)

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick William I: Here is where we begin to

see the synthesis of the modern Prussian State

Frederick William I organizes the governmental bureaucracy along the lines of the military.

It will be this organization that will prompt wits like Voltaire to declare that Prussia was an army in search of a state.

Its military grew by almost 200% by 1740. Legal codes were separate for the military and

the civilians. It also became a class issue, with those serving

in the officer corps having high social status.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State We see the military, the Junker class, and the

Prussian government all linked together. Yet, this was not an overtly militaristic state in

the sense that the Prussians do not wage wars to expand their borders.

Similar to Bismarck after German Unification, the agenda of the Prussian State was internal cohesion and unity.

We have journeyed up to 1740, and the passage of power from Frederick William I to his son, Frederick II, who will be known as Frederick the Great. (1740 – 1786)

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick II, (Frederick the Great) was, along

with Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia were known as the “Enlightened Monarchs” of the 18th century.

What were the reforms that took place under Frederick the Great:

He was able to build on the cohesion and loyalty that had been created by his predecessors, and made Prussia into one of the most well run and productive states in Europe.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State When Frederick II inherits the throne of Prussia, at

the age of twenty-eight, he is an exceptionally cultured young man.

For four years he has been conducting a regular correspondence with Voltaire.

He is an accomplished amateur musician, performing on the flute and composing sonatas and concertos.

He is the author of political essays, including the Antimachiavell of 1740 which puts forward a blueprint for a ruler based on enlightened principles instead of the ruthless self-interest admired by Machiavelli.

1740 is a good place to stop and see the Prussian state “in action.”

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Charles VI (Holy Roman Emperor) dies

unexpectedly on 20 October 1740. Less than two months later, on December 16,

Frederick II astonishes Europe by marching a Prussian army into the rich Habsburg province of Silesia.

The king of France, Louis XV, hearing the news, describes the young Prussian as a “madman.”

The new Habsburg ruler Maria Theresa (twenty-three to Frederick's twenty-eight) is also a woman of strong resolve, but Habsburg armies prove no match for Frederick's Prussians.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick's first victory over the Austrians (at

Mollwitz in April 1741) is so convincing that it persuades the French and Bavarians to join in against Maria Theresa.

A series of three victories in 1745 display his military skill to such advantage that his contemporaries accord him the title by which he is known to history, “Frederick the Great.”

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Key development in the wars the Frederick the

Great wages with the Austrians: Silesia. Its sudden seizure by Frederick the Great launched

the war in 1740. Now the international community recognizes his

sovereignty over the region, the possession of which adds about 50% to the population of Prussia.

A key moment in the growth of Prussia

The loss of Silesia naturally rankles with the empress Maria Theresa of Austria.

Much of her diplomatic policy during the early 1750s is devoted to putting together an alliance which will enable her to recover her lost territory.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State But Frederick is not the man to wait while

others plan to deprive him of what he has won. In a pre-emptive strike, on 29 August 1756, he marches with 70,000 Prussian soldiers into Saxony (lying between Prussia and Austria).

This sudden act of aggression takes the Saxons unaware, and launches the Seven Years' War.

In 1757 the Russians advance into Prussia and seem in a position to crush it.

But mysteriously the Russian general withdraws.

The Russian Czar has too much respect for Frederick the Great to attack.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State The probable reason is disagreement within the

Russian royal family. The empress, Elizabeth, hates Prussia, but her heir, Peter III, is a passionate admirer of Frederick the Great.

Elizabeth's health is frail. A Russian general who destroys Prussia at the wrong moment may blight his career.

Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) ends the conflict bet. Aust. And Prussia, with no major territorial gains.

Most significantly, Prussia is able to retain Silesia.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State This conclusion strengthens the influence of

Prussia within the German empire and reduces that of the official imperial power, Habsburg Austria.

It also leaves Poland flanked by two increasingly powerful neighbors, Prussia and Russia, who since 1762 have been in alliance.

The development does not bode well for Poland's future. Austria too attends the feast, when it begins in 1772.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State A little peek into the youth of Frederick the Great… Frederick, at the age of eighteen, lays plans - with the

help of a friend - to escape from his father for a visit to England.

The scheme is discovered and the prince is treated as a deserter. He is brought before a court martial and is then imprisoned in a fortress, where he is compelled to watch the execution of his friend.

Ironically, it seems to strengthen Frederick, and After two years he is reconciled with his father and accepts further military appointments, while still pursuing his own intellectual and artistic interests.

When he inherits the crown, in 1740, (at the age of 28), it is clear that he still retains the ideals of the 18-year-old who tried to break free ten years earlier.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia under Frederick the Great was, of

course, centered on the military, supported by the Junker nobility, spiritually lead by the Lutheran clergy, and had a bureaucracy that was staffed by an educated middle class.

He was able to instill Enlightenment thought and reform because of this cohesion; there was no fear of revolt or reprisal.

So, we see Prussian autocracy sympathetic to the Enlightenment in Prussia and French autocracy resistant to it.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick the Great begins the process of

promotion by merit in the Prussian bureaucracy, and refers to himself as the “first servant of the state” while someone like Louis XIV stated “l’etat cest moi” of, “I am the state.”

He establishes the Prussian Civil Service Commission in 1770, and oversaw the examinations and appointments of all governmental employees.

Hence, merit as opposed to birth became the qualifier for government service, which went against the tide of most of Europe at this time.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Hence, Frederick the Great was able to avoid

the conflict between the aristocracy and the monarchy that would trouble many other European states in the 18th century.

He encouraged academia, and in return was supported by the professors in Prussian Universities.

Further, within these universities, the children of privilege would study along with the middle class, seeking government jobs or positions in the protestant clergy.

This made Prussian society more cohesive.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State The real cornerstone of Frederick the Great’s

reign was his policy of religious toleration. This policy made the migration of foreign Jews

and protestant, many of whom were driven from other countries welcome in Prussia.

Administrative Reform: He sought to unify and codify the Prussian

legal code, and get rid of regional differences. Can you see how this represents, in a small

manners, the unification movement in Prussia as a whole?

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Frederick would use the power of the state to

increase economic growth as well. He imported workers from outside Prussia He supported Prussian agriculture. Land was reclaimed, farmers were trained,

and new crops were introduced. Yet, despite all of this growth, the tax burden

in Prussian still fell on the peasantry.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia and the partitioning of Poland. Frederick the Great follows suit in 1770,

sending troops to seal off the coastal region between the two main parts of his realm (Brandenburg and the kingdom of Prussia).

This valuable area, known as Polish royal Prussia, has long been part of the Polish kingdom.

Frederick claims that he is acting only in precaution against an outbreak of cattle plague. But acquiring royal Prussia would neatly unify his territory.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State The second and third partitions of Poland occur

during the reign of Frederick the Great's nephew and successor, Frederick William II.

Far less decisive than his uncle, he plays a relatively feeble role in the first response of Europe's crowned heads to the republican threat from France.

He is persuaded to join Austria in the invasion of France in 1792, but energetic French retaliation (combined with his greater interest in winning a good share of Poland) prompts him to sign a separate treaty with France in Basel in 1795 - beginning ten years in which Prussia stands on the sideline of Europe's great conflict.

The same policy is followed by his son, Frederick William III, who succeeds him in 1797.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Until 1806 Prussia maintains a nervous neutrality during the

warfare between its powerful neighbors. But the Confederation of the Rhine, organized by Napoleon in July of this year, seems to threaten Prussian interests.

In September Frederick William III joins Russia against Napoleon. The result is rapid disaster. Once again Napoleon moves quickly

enough to destroy one of his opponents before the other can arrive in support.

Two Prussian armies are engaged on the same day, 14 October 1806, at Jena and Auerstadt - about thirteen miles apart.

At both sites the French are victorious. Within six weeks, before Russian assistance arrives, Napoleon overruns the whole of Prussia.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia's share of Poland is now taken to

provide the grand duchy of Warsaw, to be ruled by the king of Saxony (a newly acquired ally of Napoleon).

And Prussian territory is severely shaved in the west to make room for a kingdom of Westphalia.

French troops will remain in Prussia until an indemnity of 120 million francs has been paid.

And Prussia is to close her ports to Britain as part of Napoleon's new Continental System

Prussia: The Rise of the German State After an otherwise dismal war, the events of

these last two years confirm Prussia's status as one of the four great powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain) who have together toppled Napoleon.

This gives the kingdom a proper status in the Congress of Vienna, where the king is represented by his chancellor, prince von Hardenberg.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Hardenberg's hardline stance in the diplomatic

struggle for Polish and Saxon territory pushes the negotiations to the brink of war, but in the end a compromise is reached.

It brings Prussia new land in the west, up to and beyond the Rhine, and firmly re-establishes the kingdom as the greatest power of northern Germany - ready now to contest with Austria the leadership of all the German states.

It will be this contention that will lead us to the key issue of this century, which will be the unification of the German state under the leadership of Prussia and guided by Bismarck.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State German Confederation: 1815 – 1834 They are organized from 1815 into a

Deutscher Bund or German Confederation. It is a body with no legislative powers, being

merely a diplomatic assembly of rulers or their representatives.

Some of the members have only a subsidiary interest in Germany.

The British king has a place, as king of Hanover. So does his Danish counterpart, as duke of Holstein. (remember Schleswig-Holstein issue during Bismarck’s consolidation of the German States)

Prussia: The Rise of the German State By its nature the Confederation can achieve little

in the way of change, since it has no authority over individual members except in foreign policy.

But it has, as Metternich would wish, a calming effect - or a stultifying one, depending on the point of view.

The congress of Vienna has given Prussia extensive new lands around the Rhine and the Moselle (partly to protect the new kingdom of the Netherlands from French aggression), but these regions are isolated from the rest of Prussia, being separated by Hanover and other smaller states.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State In an effort to bind together his extended

kingdom, Frederick William in 1818 turns all his territories into a single customs-free zone.

The benefit to trade encourages neighbouring regions to join this Zollverein (customs union), until by 1834 it covers almost the whole of Germany.

Austria, with economic links far beyond the German area, is deliberately excluded.

So Prussia, as if by the back door, acquires a role of German leadership.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Revolutions and the Frankfurt assembly: AD

1848 The immediate effect of the revolutions which sweep

through Europe in 1848 is concession on the part of terrified rulers.

Riots in Munich cause the king of Bavaria, Louis I, to abdicate in favour of his son.

Unrest in Vienna is rapidly followed by the resignation of the veteran chancellor Metternich.

Two days of street fighting in Berlin prompt the king of Prussia, now Frederick William IV, to propose a national assembly which will consider a German constitution.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State As a result of this promise, elections are

rapidly held in the various German states (in many of them by universal male suffrage). On 18 May 1848 some 600 delegates gather in Frankfurt.

Each delegate hopes to find a way of achieving a united and constitutional Germany. But there are strongly differing views as to how this might be realized.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Protestants supporting Prussia argue for a kleindeutsch

('small German') solution which excludes Austria. Catholics prefer the grossdeutsch way, to include at

least the German-speaking parts of the Austrian empire. We still see the impact of the Reformation and the

settlement of Westphalia impacting the German states. The grossdeutsch cause is severely damaged early in

March 1849 when Austria introduces a new constitution treating her entire empire (including Hungary and north Italy) as a single unitary state.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Clearly this is incompatible with a united

Germany. On March 28 the delegates at Frankfurt take the kleindeutsch route; they elect the Prussian king, Frederick William IV, as emperor of the Germans.

A deputation sets off to Berlin to offer him the crown, but on April 3 he turns it down.

The official reason is that only his fellow princes can do him this honour.

The harsher truth is that he no longer needs to ally himself with these elected liberals.

The tide of reaction has already turned.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State But the underlying contest between Prussia

and Austria for leadership of the German states remains the most important issue confronting the region.

It will eventually be resolved as the result of a crisis which also flares up for the first time in the late 1840s - the question of Schleswig-Holstein.

What is the question?

Prussia: The Rise of the German State In the excitement of 1848 a revolutionary

group seizes Kiel, declares the independence of the two duchies from Denmark and appeals to the German Confederation for help.

The result is an invasion of Schleswig-Holstein, and then of Denmark itself, by a Prussian army on behalf of the Confederation.

These are restored to Denmark, but the precedent, as it were, has been set.

1863 – death of the Danish King leaves this area open, and the rise of Bismarck provides the opening for a re-invasion of this area.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Otto von Bismarck, appointed by William I in

1862 is determined that Prussia shall replace Austria as leader of the German states, and he sees his chance in Schleswig-Holstein.

It is agreed in 1865 that Prussia will administer Schleswig while Austria will be responsible for Holstein.

In June 1866 Bismarck contrives to find fault with Austria's part of the bargain.

Prussian troops march from Schleswig into Holstein.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Austria, presiding over the German

Confederation (a role acquired half a century earlier at the congress of Vienna), proposes that the Confederation as a whole should restrain its belligerent member.

Prussia, certain to be outvoted on the issue, responds on 14 June 1866 by declaring the Confederation defunct.

This leads to the Seven Weeks war with Austria, and the conclusion of this will entail two critical events:

The formation of the Northern German Confederation, and Austria having to concede and form the Dual Monarchy with Hungary.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Franco Prussian War: 1870 – 1871 This is the final nail in the coffin of the Habsburg

Empire, and the conclusion of the unification of Germany under the leadership of Bismarck.

France is obviously alarmed at the growth of Prussia, and the possibility of continue aggression at their expense.

It is dramatically increased in 1870 when news leaks on July 3 that a prince of the Prussian Hohenzollern family has been offered, and has accepted, the vacant throne of Spain.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Certainly the possibility off a Hohenzollern

Monarch surrounding France from the south, and their growth in the east, was a concern of the French.

The French ambassador, in an audience with William I at Ems on July 13, demands an assurance (amounting to a slur on the king's good faith) that the candidacy will never be renewed.

William refuses to give this assurance. He then sends a telegram to Bismarck describing,

in neutral terms, the audience and its outcome. The telegram did not in any way reflect William’s

desire for aggression, but Bismarck see an opening, truncates the telegram, and makes it seem as William was planning aggression.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State The events at Sedan (the key battle in the

Franco Prussian War) bring to an end one empire, in France, and hasten the creation of another, in Germany. But they do not immediately end the war.

Early in 1871, on January 23, delegates from Paris pass through the German lines to Versailles to agree an armistice.

They find the Prussians in an excited mood. Just five days previously, in Louis XIV's famous hall of mirrors in the palace of Versailles, the Prussian king has been proclaimed emperor of a united Germany.

Prussia: The Rise of the German State William I is extremely reluctant to accept the title

of emperor, but Bismarck contrives to persuade him.

His proclamation in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (the symbol of French power and triumphalism) is sweet revenge for the humiliation of Prussia at Napoleon's hands in the early years of the century.

In the treaty of Frankfurt France cedes Alsace and most of Lorraine to the new Germany, pays a massive indemnity of 5000 million francs and suffers German occupation in part of France until the money is delivered (a precise echo of France's terms in 1807).

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Now more firmly than ever, the executive is

Bismarck himself - the first imperial chancellor.

His German empire, like its medieval prototype, consists of clearly separate constituent states (4 kingdoms, 5 grand duchies, 13 duchies and principalities, and the free cities of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen).

But it is at last a nation, federal in kind but with strong central control. The story of Prussia becomes that of Germany.  

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia: 1618 - 1740

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia: 1740 - 1786

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia: 1772 - 1795

Prussia: The Rise of the German State Prussia: 1815 - 1860

Prussia: the Rise of the German State Prussia: 1860 - 1867

Prussia: The Unification of Germany Prussia: 1870 - 1914