PRTESOLGram Jan 2010

P R T E S O L - G R A M! MAY 2010

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PRTESOL-GRAMA publication of the Puerto Rico Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

PRTESOL announces the 37th annual convention: Powering Up for the 21st Century. This will be a unique convention with the best keynote speakers and workshops to provide teachers the best in English teaching know-how and resources. Find out more our website puertoricotesol.org.

Table of Contents TEACHING TIPS: Keeping the conversa>on on course Prof. Carmelo Abona, Editor............2

Teacher of the Year 2010 Sarah Brown Wessling.....................5

Beginnings of English in Puerto Rico Prof. Daniel Mercado.......................6

English Dungeons and Dragons : Tabletop Role Playing Games in the ESL Classroom Prof. Johansen Quijano-‐Cruz, University of Texas at Arlington.......7

Posi>on Statement on Teaching English as a Foreign or Addi>onal Language to Young Learners ........10

Vocabulary Instruc>on in ESL Teaching and LearningEvelyn Nieves – Department of EducaRon, Puerto Rico..................12

An Academic Trip to Ireland ......15

Why are second language learners failing to achieve na>ve-‐like competence?Dr. Jennifer Alicea CasRllo.............18

PRTESOL SUMMER INSTITUTE: Tapping into the Money: Propo$al Writing .............22-‐23


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! T h e s e m e s t e r i s f a s t approaching final exam anxiety, graduation j i t ters, senior prom nervousness, and college entrance excitement. Teachers are planning for the summer, and PRTESOL members are excited about this yearʼs upcoming events.! First, PRTESOL is looking forward to our Summer Institute. This will be a members-only, all-day seminar on proposal writing. If you need funding for your English research, equipment and materials procurement, or community outreach, you should attend this hands-on training. Youʼre still in time to register. See the registration form on page 23.! Second, PRTESOL is already putting finishing touches on the regional conferences. Western and Metro Chapters have held successful conferences already. Donʼt miss the remaining conferences for Southern, Eastern/Caguas, and Northern chapters.! Something new in this issue of PRTESOL-Gram is the Teaching Tips column. There lots of wonderful ideas our readers use effectively to teach key concepts, improve skills, or just to make their classes fun. I welcome your ideas for future issues. Just send your best ideas via email to [email protected]. ! Another innovation for future issues will be the Student Writers page. We want to recognize the talent of the students by publishing brief essays, poems, or stories. We would love to receive your studentʼs work for consideration. ! This issue of PRTESOL-Gram has some excellent articles on vital topics: vocabulary, a position statement from TESOL, the Teacher of the year acceptance speech. Please share the issue with your colleagues and encourage them to become members of PRTESOL and receive their own copy.

Editor’s

CornerTESOLGRAM is a periodical service to English language educators and administrators published by

Puerto Rico TESOL, P. O. Box 366828,

San Juan, PR 00936 -6828.

Newsletter Staff Editor: Carmelo Arbona Assistant Editor: Mark Wekander

Circulation: 1,000.

Copyright Notice Articles may be reproduced for classroom use. Quotations up to twenty-five (25) words are permitted if credit to the author a n d t h e T E S O L G R A M a r e included. In other situations, written permission is required.

Dr. Gladys Pérez,President

Carmelo Arbona, Editor

[email protected]

Mark [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]







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PRTESOL President’s Message


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TEACHING TIPS: Keeping the conversa>on on course

Prof. Carmelo Abona, Editor

Suppose you have your students working in small groups, learning teams, coopera;ve learning groups, or jigsaw groups. How do get them to con;nue using English while working together? A common problem in conversa;onal English courses or exercises is when students use their L1 while doing their group work. Here’s an idea I’ve used successfully.

Poker chips – I bring to the class some of those cheap plas;c poker chips you can easily get at any toy or department store. When I explain the ac;vity, I also explain that each student will receive three or four poker chips. While they work on their conversa;on or task, they must speak in English at all ;mes. If any uses Spanish, he or she loses a poker chip to the classmate. This creates a compe;;ve incen;ve for the students to make a greater effort to use the English they know and to avoid using their L1.

An English summer camp had swimming ac;vi;es, but to stay in the water, campers had to use English. If a student used his or her L1, a penalty of one minute out of the pool was given.

Students will make a focused effort to con;nue using English to avoid losing any chips.

Alterna;ves: Instead of poker chips, you can use play money, colored index cards, or you can design your own Conversa;on Currency. At one school I had some “Shakespeare dollars” printed.

Give the chips value. If a student doesn’t lose any chips, he or she gets some bonus points for the ac;vity performed.

"A PARENT'S NOTE TO A TEACHER"by Anonymous

I'm the voice of a grateful parentwhose child was in your class...

the one who needed help to find his wayYou've been a special blessingas you helped my child succeed

and I'm thankful for the part you had to playYou gave him so much more

than just the lessons in the booksyou gave him wings...so he could learn to fly

You ignited a flame within his soula passion to learn and grow...

to never give up and always be willing to tryYour encouragement inspired himand your kindness was so real

but the thing that thrills my heart the most is this...By building his self-‐confidenceyou changed his life this year

he believes in himself...and a brighter future is his!


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Teacher of the Year 2010

Sarah Brown Wessling

Sarah Brown Wessling, a high school English teacher at Johnston High School in Johnston, Iowa, accepts the 2010 Na;onal Teacher of the Year Award from President Barack Obama during a ceremony in the Rose Garden of the White House, April 29, 2010. April 29, 2010. (Official White House Photo by Pete Souza)

Earlier today, I was honored join President Obama, Secretary Duncan, and Dr. Biden in the Rose Garden of the White House to accept the NaRonal Teach of the Year award.

I couldn’t be more overwhelmed and humbled by this honor. I was joined by the most remarkable assemblages of teachers -‐ the 2010 State Teachers of the Year -‐ I have known. Each is gi_ed and passionate about the work he or she does; yet, together we are galvanized in our shared vision of what teaching and learning can be. My family, my administrators, some of my own teachers and former students, along with many representaRves from the State of Iowa were also in aaendance. In front of us all is the collecRve responsibility to create hope and opportunity for every child in this country.

I think there is a misconcepRon about this honor, that its purpose is to differenRate one teacher from another. Rather, this honor is about our similariRes, about what unites us. It’s the deliberateness I share with Daniel, the design I share with Kate, the aaenRon to students I share with Melissa, the pursuit of ideas I share with Ed – all of these teachers here and from

home. It is about the purpose I share with each educator standing here today.

If you were to come into my classroom, the first thing you would noRce is that my desk is in the back corner, despite the building design to make it otherwise. This placement is but an outward sign of an implicit philosophy, that teaching must be learner-‐centered.

“The desk in the back of the room” displaces hierarchies, creates an environment where a teacher becomes a lead learner, and evolves into a web of interdependence where the classroom walls become boundless. When we embrace this open-‐model of learning, the consumers of our curriculum will become designers of their own learning.

It is in these moments of learning that I fondly think of my students. I am here because my students couldn’t be. When we listen to them, their message is clear: Labria would say she deserves worthy learning experiences; Robert would want to be seen as an individual, not as a number or the score on an exam; Meredith would clamor for innovaRve curriculum; Jasmina would say she deserves passionate teachers. They all would say we need 21st century teachers, not just adults teaching in the 21st century.

Our dream for our students is the same dream we have for our own children, to be recognized for their strengths, to learn from their weaknesses and to be seen as a person of infinite potenRal.

We are facing tough Rmes in educaRon when it may be difficult to find what to hold onto, but each learner is a story. I see the world in stories and I believe it is these stories that will sustain and teach us. They will challenge and someRmes confuse us. But in the same way that I believe in the transformaRve power of language to unite us, I am certain that the stories of our students will sustain us. The 2010 Teachers of the Year are here because our students couldn’t be, because their stories compel us to be here, because we couldn’t be anywhere else.


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The Beginnings of English in Puerto RicoProf. Daniel MercadoSchool of Social and Human Sciences, Universidad Del Este

How did the teaching of the English language begin in the public schools of Puerto Rico? Why and when did the teaching of the English language begin and how does it affect the teaching of English today? This issue consists of several perspecRves beginning with the historical background of English as a second language in Puerto Rico and the important events that occurred within this historical period. This arRcle begins with a problem statement, brief history of Puerto Rico following with the historical background of English in Puerto Rico, the occupaRon and beginning of English schools.

In accordance with Pousada, 1993 many people think that relaRons between the U.S. and Puerto Rico began in 1898; however, there had been a long history of cross-‐influence. The earliest contacts go back to the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries and the struggle to colonize North America, in which English-‐speaking colonists were concentrated in the northern areas, while Spanish-‐speaking colonists took over the southern lands. During the 17th century, in parRcular, North American contrabandists prowled the waters of the Caribbean and had unofficial dealings with the island of Puerto Rico. During the French RevoluRon of 1789, soon a_er the establishment of the United States as an independent naRon, the Spanish government found its AnRllean ports to be under aaack by French corsairs. In order to obtain necessary goods, it was forced to open Cuban harbors to neutral ships. Many of these were from the U.S. while Puerto Rico was not officially included in the arrangement; Spanish diplomats in the U.S. took advantage of the opening and began to grant permits to U.S. merchants to export food and ammuniRons to Puerto Rico (Santana, 1972). The iniRal contact of languages between English and Spanish in Puerto Rico serves as a moRvaRon factor to research the problem how these controversial issues affect the teaching of English at the present Rme.

In 1796, Spain was involved in a war with England, which severely interrupted trade in the Caribbean and eventually led to several aaacks on Puerto Rico in 1797. The resulRng lack of basic provisions led the Spanish crown to decree an opening of trade with neutral naRons in the AtlanRc. Of all the neutral naRons, of course, the one that was most able to take advantage of the situaRon was the United States. Consequently, acRve trading between the U.S. and Puerto Rico ensued, and from that moment on, the U.S. became an increasingly important element in the Puerto Rican economy (Pousada, 1993). These economic Res also brought cultural links. American consuls and their families could be found in every port on the island. Wealthy American merchants purchased haciendas and formed small English-‐speaking enclaves in the countryside.

Small groups of Puerto Rican agricultural workers and cigar makers emigrated to Florida and the southern states to work during this period. Presumably, all encountered English and Spanish were influenced by the language. Thus, we see that the iniRal contact between English and Spanish did not occur with the invasion of U.S. troops in 1898, but rather had its roots nearly a hundred years earlier. It appears that it is in this era when Puerto Rico starts to be influenced by the United States directly and indirectly with the language and culture. Once the U.S. took over Puerto Rico in 1898 under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, then the contact between the two languages abruptly intensified.

ReferencesPousada, A. (1993). The singularly strange story of the English language in Puerto Rico Milenio. 3, 33-‐60 University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras. Retrieved on January 17, 2007, from

hap://home.earthlink.net/~apousada/index.html.

Santana, Arturo F. (1972). Puerto Rico y los Estados Unidos en el Periodo Revolucionario de Europa y América (1789-‐1825). San Juan, PR: InsRtuto de Cultura Puertorriqueña.

http://home.earthlink.net/~apousada/index.html

http://home.earthlink.net/~apousada/index.html


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English Dungeons and Dragons : Tabletop Role Playing Games in the ESL Classroom Prof. Johansen Quijano-‐Cruz, University of Texas at Arlington

Tabletop Role Playing Games

Puerto Rican ESL and EFL students o_en find it hard to use language spontaneously. They are o_en nervous or fear ridicule from their peers. This specially happens when they are asked to express their thoughts on complex topics, like poliRcs or life. Although they are more willing to use the target language when talking of a topic that they find familiar, they sRll do so with a bit of reluctance. Because of this, teachers have to find acRviRes that make students use the language spontaneously and that are fun. Tabletop role playing games are one such acRvity.

Tabletop Role Playing Games (RPGs) are games in which a Game Master (GM) uses a Game Master’s Manual, or guidebook, to set the rules of a world in which an adventure will take place. The adventure, o_en made up by the GM, is usually set in a ficRonal world, although a real setng can be used. This adventure, however, is not only the work of the GM, but a collaboraRve narraRve between the GM and the players. As the players declare what their characters do or say the GM tells the player the outcome of their acRons, as well as urges them on the quest by using Non Playable Characters (NPCs) which give the players hints on where to go and what to do next.

Following is an example of interacRon between a player and the GM (from John H. Kim’s Homepage).

Player: I carefully walk up to the window and look inside. What do I see? GM: [checks notes] You see a dusty room with a table in the center, which has a wooden box on it. The walls are bare, but there's a door to the inside.

Player: Alright, I'm taking my knife and scratching a mark on this window, so the others can idenRfy it later.

GM: OK -‐ done. [scribbles this on his notes]

Players also have to keep track of their inventory, what they have done in their adventures, where they have gone, who they have talked to, and most importantly, what the next step is. This is done by means of wriRng the informaRon on a player’s sheet, which also contains the informaRon and scores of the character.

Because of the way they are composed, tabletop RPGs force the player, or student, to communicate (speak and listen), write, and read. The integraRon of these four language skills into a single acRvity makes it an ideal tool for second language instrucRon.

This game also allows for task-‐based learning and teamwork. The students are learning the language by pracRcing it in a game that forces them to use it. Teamwork comes from the different characters and their various abiliRes. A ‘fighter’ character, for example, can have a high strength score and a low wisdom score, while a ‘wizard’ character should have higher intelligence and wisdom scores than most of the other character types. Where some characters fall short, other characters shine. This forces the students (players) to work together and help each other, allowing for teamwork within the game.

My first Dungeon

I started playing Tabletop RPGs when I was 16. A friend invited me to a session of Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), saying that I would love the game and that it would be fun. My idea of D&D before I played it consisted of a bunch of boring people sitng around a table telling boring stories and throwing dice. My idea of the game was somewhat accurate; however, the game was anything but boring.

The GM was a naRve English speaker, and the players, although from different ethniciRes, were bilingual of varying degrees; therefore, the language used for the storytelling in the game was English. Before I began to play I had to make a character by rolling dice and adding points to aaributes such as strength and wisdom. A_er choosing a race and a class (knight, wizard, paladin, etc) for my character, I was off on an adventure of epic proporRons. By the end of my first session, my friends and I had saved a village, slain a giant wolf, and met the Nynaeve, Queen of the Fey, who sent us on a quest to retrieve her Mirror of Time from the evil necromancer Galam. Our adventures lasted for only a month, as the GM had to


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move to a different city, but these adventures were an incredible learning experience, an experience that I would later pass on to my ESL students.

The ESL Classroom as a Dungeon

In September 6th, 2005, I began working as an ESL teacher in a small local post-‐secondary insRtuRon. I was faced with two main problems: (1) lack of good ESL textbooks and (2) students who did not know how to communicate in English. Some students had never even heard the language. I began making lessons and materials for basic ESL lessons, focusing on the communicaRve aspects of language (speaking and listening) but also integraRng basic reading and wriRng. A_er the students felt confident using the language I suggested that we play a game to see how well they could communicate without using prescribed conversaRons. The game was D&D.

There are a lot of versions of D&D. I chose the one I was the most familiar with, the first ediRon, based on the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia (1991). I began the first session by introducing the students to what tabletop RPGs are, and explaining how the game is played. A_er giving the students an overview of the races, character classes, the fantasy world in which the story was going to take place, and the mechanics of the game. I gave each of the students photocopies of the races and character classes available to choose from, and gave them as a homework assignment the task of choosing a race and class for the character they would be making on the next class. During the second class, I guided the students through a character-‐making tutorial. I brought my dice to the classroom and handed them out to the students. I would tell them how to make the rolls for their Hit Points (HP), Magic Points (MP), and aaributes (Strength, Intelligence, Wisdom, Dexterity, Charisma, and Agility) and they would make the rolls and jot down the resulRng scores on their character sheets.

Although D&D is tradiRonally played in small groups (no more than 10 players and a GM) the plotlines and rules can be modified to have large groups and mass-‐combat. This is what I was forced to do, as some of my groups were made up of 25 students. The students (players) started out as soldiers in Gullstaff’s army. They were preparing for the coming invasion from Titania’s realm. During this preparaRon period the students had a chance to interact orally with each other, trading items, and making strategies. When the conversaRon would die down, I would introduce NPCs to moRvate the students to talk. A_er five minutes, the students decided that they had prepared a strategy. Some of them felt encouraged when I introduced a commanding character and he took in their advice. During the baale the students put into pracRce the lessons I had given them regarding game mechanics, which include using the text, or photocopies, for reference on rules and pracRcing basic math when using the dice. A_er the baale, through the use of the GM’s authority over the narraRve, I made the group split up into five smaller groups. I told them that a_er the skirmish, small groups found themselves lost and scaaered around the landscape, and wanted to return home. I assigned which groups students would belong to, taking care to separate the most fluent students and the least fluent students into different groups. I would follow the adventures of each group, dedicaRng 5 to 10 minutes to one group, then switching to the others. This allowed the students who were parRcipaRng to interact with each other and those who were not to listen to the other teams’ adventures to know what was waiRng for them. The 5 to 10 minute turns for each group ensured that each group would parRcipate at least three Rmes per class. The game concluded when, a_er three sessions, all of the groups returned triumphantly to Gullstaff’s castle and were awarded several medals.

Evalua>ng Student Performance in the Campaign

I considered many factors when evaluaRng the students during this acRvity. First, I took into consideraRon their oral competence. 50% of the grade depended on how o_en, how well, and how willingly the student would interact with other students. Students that would quickly suggest courses of acRon or lead the group got higher scores than students who would sit back and speak only when forced to. 15% of the grade was based on the students’ character sheets. If they took proper inventory of their belongings, had well-‐wriaen descripRons of the adventure, and kept track of who they met and what they did, they got a full score. Missing elements would lead to a lower score. The final 35% of the grade consisted of a


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post-‐acRvity wriRng exercise in which the students had to write what their characters did during the game, and their thoughts on the acRvity. The majority of the students enjoyed the acRvity.

Possible Concerns

Some teachers may be hesitant to use tabletop RPGs like D&D in their classroom because of several misconcepRons and mistaken generalizaRons. Some might be quick to label D&D as an evil game because it teaches children about ‘the occult’. However, tabletop RPGs are games based on imaginaRon and rules, not on ‘the occult’. Although I used D&D (a tabletop RPG which has wizards and druids as characters) in my classroom, there are plenty of tabletop RPGs that do not involve any supernatural elements. In Modern D20, for example, the setng is the early 21st century, and the players choose a human who has developed certain characterisRcs (strength, intelligence, agility, etc) to a higher extent than other humans. In this game, the players o_en have to stop a rich maniac from developing a super weapon and sowing anarchy around the world.

Another common misconcepRon is that all tabletop RPG players are anR-‐social people who keep to themselves, read a lot, and have a big imaginaRon. This misconcepRon is popular mostly due to the short film Fear of Girls (2005) wriaen by Ryan Wood, which shows two D&D players who are anR-‐social and introverted, and because of The Dead Ale Wives’ comedy rouRne making fun of a group of D&D players. However, all of the tabletop RPG players I have met are average, sociable people with big imaginaRons.

In the end, being exposed to a tabletop RPG is not going to make anyone ‘burn in hell’, as Wood’s film mockingly suggests, or make anyone less sociable. Tabletop RPGs are a means of entertainment. If ESL teachers can find a way to incorporate these games, and others, into their curriculum, then the ESL classroom will become a place where learning is fun, instead of the dungeon that some students think the tradiRonal classroom is.

References

Kim, J.H. (2007, 04). The Encyclopedia of Tabletop Role Playing Games. Retrieved July

8, 2007, from John H. Kim’s Homepage: hap://www.darkshire.net/jhkim/rpg/encyclopedia/

Kim, J.H. (2007, 04). What is a Role Playing Game. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from John

H. Kim’s Homepage: hap://www.darkshire.net/jhkim/rpg/whaRs/

The D20 System. (2007). Retrieved July 11, 2007, from The Wizards of the Coast

Official Web Site: hap://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=d20/welcome

Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language teaching and learning. New York, N.Y.:

Longman.

Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles. New York, N.Y.: Longman.

TSR. (1991). Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia. Lake Geneva, W.I.: TSR.

Author’s Bio:

Johansen Quijano-‐Cruz, a proud member of PRTESOL since 2005, holds graduate degrees in TESOL and English Literature from the University of Puerto Rico. He has published various papers on classroom methodology, digital literacies, and Victorian poetry. He is currently teaching first year English in the University of Texas at Arlington, where he is working on topics ranging from an analysis of William Blake and other RomanRc poets to the social implicaRons of digitally simulated narraRves on society.


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1925 Ballenger Ave., Suite 550, Alexandria, Virginia 22314 USATel +1-‐703-‐836-‐0774 ● 888-‐547-‐3369 USA ● Fax +1-‐703-‐836-‐7864 ● E-‐mail [email protected] ● Web hap://www.tesol.org

Posi=on Statement on Teaching English as a Foreignor Addi=onal Language to Young Learners

Policy changes manda;ng the earlier introduc;on of English in foreign language secngs are increasingly being implemented worldwide. Although research has suggested that age may have an effect as to the way a language is learned, age alone does not determine success in learning a foreign language. As various sociocultural contexts, government policies, and historical language prac;ces will all impact the success or failure of a language instruc;onal program, there is no single best way to implement an English as a foreign or addi;onal language (EFL/EAL) program for young learners. Rather, effec;ve EFL/EAL teaching for young learners starts with a clear understanding of the following factors and how they relate to one another.

Program planning, content, and learner goals: Those involved in teaching EFL/EAL to young learners should have a clear understanding of the program’s objec?ves and goals, as well as the extent and structure of the program. What students should know and be able to do should be clearly outlined and established along with how that is to be measured. Where academic-‐level proficiency is desired, there should be long-‐term strategies for con?nued support and ar?cula?on between educa?onal levels. The program should have a learner-‐centered approach, and materials should be selected in accordance with the age of the children, the length of the program, its objec?ves, and the learning environment. Teachers, trainers, and teacher associa?ons should all be partners in program development, and planners should be flexible in regards to methodology.

Effec?ve teachers: As stated in TESOL’s Posi?on Statement on Teacher Quality in the Field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (June 2003), na;ve speaker proficiency in the target language alone is not a sufficient qualifica?on for such teaching posi?ons; the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) is a professional discipline that requires specialized training. Therefore, qualified ESL and EFL educators not only should demonstrate wriVen and oral proficiency in the English language (regardless of na?ve language), but also should demonstrate teaching competency. Teachers should have training in teaching EFL/EAL, as well as in the ways young students learn. Effec?ve EFL/EAL teachers should themselves be successful and experienced language learners. Just as important are teachers’ personal aZtudes toward con?nued educa?on and learning and their willingness to model language learning for the students with whom they work. Where applicable, EFL/EAL educators should receive the necessary degree, licensing, valida?on, or cer?fica?on as determined by their ins?tu?on, country, or region from qualified EFL/EAL teacher educators.



http://www.tesol.org

http://www.tesol.org


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Programma?c and ins?tu?onal support: Depending upon the program model and methodology employed, ins;tu;ons need to be able to provide the type and level of resources necessary to support the program. Support materials should be designed for both teachers and students with the appropriate cultural context of the country in mind. The culture of the EFL/EAL young learner should be regarded as a valued and respected resource that informs decisions regarding approaches, techniques, ac;vi;es, learning styles, curriculum design, and materials whether the young learner is in his/her na;ve cultural secng or in a mixed-‐culture secng in a classroom in a country where English is spoken as a na;ve language. Ins;tu;ons should provide resources for young learners to be able to portray their cultural values within English-‐speaking contexts, whenever possible, with the sole purpose of strengthening their own cultural iden;ty at the same ;me as they are exposed to EFL/EAL learning experiences. Addi;onally, resource materials should be provided in sufficient quan;;es so that teachers can do their work well and produc;vely. Community and home support for the program should be encouraged, as well as con;nued professional development for teachers, as it is an essen;al part of effec;ve teaching. What is most important to understand about these factors is that they need to be defined for and understood within the local educa;onal and cultural context. In addi;on, while the three factors are related, there is not necessarily a direct correla;on among them. Just as there is no one way to teach a language, there is no one program or model for all educa;onal contexts. Finding the right balance among these three factors is a key part of delivering an effec;ve program.

ResourcesBlock, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). Globaliza?on and language teaching. London: Routledge.Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R., & Kubanek, A. (2006). The main pedagogical principles underlying the teaching of language to very young learners. European Commission.

Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Holliday, A. (2005). Oxford applied linguis?cs: The struggle to teach English as an interna?onal language.

McCloskey, M. L., Orr, J., & Dolitsky, M. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching English as a foreign language in primary school. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.

Approved by the Board of Directors October 2003Revised October 2009


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Vocabulary Instruction in ESL Teaching and Learning

Evelyn Nieves – Department of Education, Puerto Rico [email protected]

AbstractThe following article talks about the importance of learning new vocabulary for the language acquisition process. It talks about the various methods available for use when engaging students in vocabulary instruction, as well as the different types of vocabulary. The article then proceeds to talk about different activities teachers could use to teach vocabulary. Finally, the article presents the most common findings in vocabulary instruction research, and presents the implications of these findings for language teachers.

Introduction – The Importance of Vocabulary InstructionThe importance of vocabulary in reading achievement has been recognized for more than half a century. In 1925, the National Society for Studies in Education (NSSE) Yearbook (Whipple, 1925) noted that “growth in reading power means, therefore, continuous enriching and enlarging of the reading vocabulary and increasing clarity of discrimination in appreciation of word values.” (Davis, 1942, p. 76) Since then, vocabulary instruction has remained an extremely important part of reading instruction.

It is believed that as a learner begins to read, reading vocabulary encountered in texts is ‘mapped’ onto the oral vocabulary the learner brings to the task. The reader learns to translate the (relatively) unfamiliar words in print into speech, with the expectation that the speech forms will be easier to comprehend. This is, in essence, a process of decoding text into speech and comprehending the spoken word. The wider

a student’s vocabulaty, the easier this process will be.

Benefits in understanding text by applying letter-sound correspondences to printed material come about only if the target word is in the learner’s oral vocabulary. When the word is not in the learner’s oral vocabulary, it will not be understood when it occurs in print. This means that students should first contextualize new words in meaningful situations and understand them from an oral perspective before attempting to learn the written word. Vocabulary occupies an important middle ground in learning to read. Oral vocabulary is a key to learning to make the transition from oral to written forms.

Methods for Vocabulary InstructionThere are five main methods of teaching vocabulary:

1. Explicit Instruction – When using this method, students are given definitions or other attributes of words to be learned.

2. Implicit Instruction – When engaged with this method, students are exposed to words or given opportunities to do a great deal of reading in order to be able to acquire meaning on their own.

3. Multimedia Methods – When using this method, vocabulary is taught by going beyond text to include forms of media other than the text, such as graphic representations, hypertext, video games, movies, or American Sign Language.

4. Capacity Methods – In this method practice is emphasized to increase reading capacity and vocabulary size through making reading automatic.

5. Association Methods – When using this method learners are encouraged to draw connections between what they know and words they encounter that they do not know. Here, words are not given as




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decontextualized individual entities, but as a part of a meaningful text.

The Four Types of VocabularyAlthough people often speak of vocabulary as if it were a single thing, it is not. Human beings acquire four types of vocabulary.

• Listening Vocabulary (the largest) is made up of the words an individual can hear and understand. All other types of vocabulary are subsets of the listening vocabulary.

• Speaking Vocabulary is comprised of words individuals can use speaking.

• Reading Vocabulary includes the words that individuals can identify and understand when reading.

• Writing Vocabulary (the smallest) includes words individuals use in writing.

Furthermore, vocabulary is composed of different types of words.

• Sight words are words that induce the immediate recognition of a word.

• Key vocabulary includes words that have meaning that come from the students’ own experiences.

• Discovery words are known as a result of studies in a certain content area.

Teaching VocabularyAccording to Smith (1987), most children acquire a vocabulary of over 10,000 words during the first five years. Furthermore, most children will learn between 2,000 and 3,600 words per year; however, through vocabulary instruction, teachers can help increase these numbers. Children who are exposed to advanced vocabulary through conversations or class learn words needed later on to help decode, recognize, and comprehend a number of readings they will

be engaged with during their lives. For these reasons, it is important to teach vocabulary.

Realistically, ESL teachers will probably be able to teach thoroughly only a few new words (15 to 20) per week, so they need to choose the words carefully. Teachers should focus their energies on high utility words and words that are important to the meaning of the selections that will be discussed in class. It is important that teachers select words to emphasize that you consider important to comprehending each assigned passage. Furthermore, teachers should create several sentences loaded with context using these target words. Also, teachers should discuss the new words using excerpts from the text they will be assigned in which the target words appear.

In order to offer effective vocabulary instruction, teachers could use one of several strategies. Below are some of the more efficient vocabulary instruction strategies.

Word BankThe word bank consists of a small box kept in the classroom. Every time students discover a new word, they write the word on one side of a card and the definition on the other. This activity is used to help students collect and review sight words or personal dictionaries.

Specific Word InstructionSpecific Word Instruction consists of showing the students the new word, the definition, and the practical uses of the word. Practical uses of the word include showing pictures of the word (in case of it being a noun) an action (in case of a verb) or the word within the context of a sentence. This strategy can deepen students’ knowledge of words meaning and in turn, help them understand what they are hearing or reading.


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Making WordsMaking words is an excellent word learning strategy that helps children improve their phonetic understanding of words through words invented or “temporary spellings” while also increasing their repertoire of vocabulary words they can recognize in print.(Reutzel & Cooter, 2003)

Vocabulary ClusterWhen using this strategy teachers help students to read a passage, gather context clues, and then predict the meaning of a new word.

Semantic MapsStudents engaged with this activity sketch out or map what is stored in their brain about a topic. This strategy is similar to brainstorming. Students will gather clues about the meaning of the word from the ideas derived on their map.

Results of Vocabulary Instruction ResearchAccording to research, there are age and ability effects learning gains that occur from vocabulary instruction. These findings point to the importance of selecting age and ability appropriate methods.

1. Computer vocabulary instruction shows positive learning gains over traditional methods.

2. Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in comprehension.

3. Vocabulary can be learned incidentally in the context of storybook reading or from listening to the reading of others.

4. Repeated exposure to vocabulary items is important for learning gains. The best gains were made in instruction that extended beyond single class periods and involved multiple exposures in authentic contexts beyond the classroom.

5. Pre-instruction of vocabulary words prior to reading can facilitate both: vocabulary acquisition and comprehension.

6. The restructuring of the text materials or procedures facilitates vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, for example, substituting easy for hard words.

The findings above, besides giving teachers information on how to adapt their vocabulary lessons based on research, have several implications for vocabulary instruction at a practical level. These implications are:

1. There is a need for direct instruction of vocabulary items required for a specific text.

2. Repetition and multiple exposure to vocabulary items are important. Students should be given items that will be likely to appear in many contexts.

3. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learning. Vocabulary words should be those that the learner will find useful in many contexts. When vocabulary items are derived from content learning materials, the learner will be better equipped to deal with specific reading matter in content areas.

4. Vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. It is important to be certain that students fully understand what is asked of them in the context of reading, rather than focusing only on the words to be learned. Restructuring seems to be most effective for low-achieving or at-risk students.

5. Vocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement in learning tasks.

6. Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary.


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7. Vocabulary can also be acquired through incidentallearning. Much of a student’s vocabulary will have to be learned in the course of doing things other than explicit vocabulary learning. Repetition, richness of context, and motivation may also add to the efficacy of incidental learning of vocabulary.

8. Dependence on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal learning. A variety of methods were used effectively with emphasis on multimedia aspects of learning, richness of context in which words are to be learned, and the number of exposures to words that learners receive.

ConclusionTo conclude, vocabulary development is a process that goes on throughout life and can be enhanced in the classroom through enticing learning experiences. Furthermore, vocabulary is one of the most important areas within comprehension and should not be neglected. Also, vocabulary helps people engage with texts of all kinds, not only in the classroom, but in everyday life as well. There are a variety of methods by which readers acquire vocabulary through explicit instruction and improve their comprehension of what they read. As teachers, we should be aware of the importance of vocabulary and of the many methods available for the teaching of vocabulary. That way, we will motivate students and strive for linguistic excellence in our students.

ReferencesReutzel, D.R. and Cooter, R.B. (2004). Teaching Children to Read. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River; New Jersey. Pages 121-152National Reading Panel. Retrieve on November 15, 2007 from, http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/upload/report_pdf.pdf

An Academic Trip to Ireland

As part of the requirements of the graduate course INGL 6447: Studies in Drama given at the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras, students traveled to Ireland under the guidance of professors Chris Olsen and Reinhard Sander during the month of October 2009. A total of ten graduate and undergraduate students enjoyed visiting several major cities, among which were Dublin, Galway, Limerick and Athlone.

Upon their arrival in the country, the group was assigned an Irish guide who led them on an interesting sightseeing promenade in Dublin, the capital city. His friendly and outgoing personality delighted everyone. He had a knack for entertaining his audience aboard the coach with hilarious Irish jokes and popular songs like “Molly Malone.”


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Its lyrics tell the legend of a loose girl who sold more than ‘cockles and mussels.’ A statue of Molly selling her goods in a cart, also known as “The Tart with the Cart,” was erected on College Street in Dublin. The class was in stitches throughout the entire first day’s excursion, singing and humming the catchy tune. On a more serious note, a stroll down the walkway of the Custom House Quay led to the historical monuments commemorating the Great Potato Famine of 1845-52 that provoked a massive emigration of Irish men, women, and children in desperate attempts to escape starvation. More than a million died, and many more fled Dublin and headed to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, or other countries.

Statue of the starving Dublinersduring the potato famine (1845-52)

Photo taken by Ilsa López-Vallés

After a well-deserved break, the group visited the Jameson distillery in the capital to taste the famous Jameson revitalizing whiskey. During the evenings, while cruising around the illuminated city, fully clad in winter clothes, the Caribbean students were mesmerized and dazzled by the wintry season as they filled their lungs with icy cold, gratifying air. Subsequent to the stay in the capital, the class was taken to Blarney Castle near Cork. One of its attractions included the kissing of Blarney Stone, a two-hundred year-old legend that claims that those who kiss it will be granted the gift of eloquence. Several brave students and professors climbed up the tower to smooch the stone. On the way to the town of Limerick, the driver’s witty tales and accounts of unusual traditions amused the tourists. The group learned they had barely missed the Match-making Festival of Lisdoonvarna held during the month

of September, in which hundreds of single people converge in hopes of meeting a prospective spouse. Following visits to historical sites, museums, cathedrals, and shopping malls in Galway and Athlone, students were ready to return to the capital. A call to duty led them to the multi-floor library of Trinity College to conduct research for their final twenty-page essay. The budding scholars were impressed with the well-organized archives and found numerous literary treasures with which to pursue their topics. When lunch and dinner bells tolled, students craved Irish cuisine favorites such as scrumptious shepherd’s pie, well-seasoned tender lamb stew, crispy fish–n–chips and pint-size glasses of refreshing beer at a nearby pub. The group had been forewarned about currency differences and the devaluation of US dollars vis á vis the Euro, so they were thrifty with their expenditures. Since the focus of the course was drama, the group attended live stage performances. The stimulating and challenging plays included Michael West’s Freefall, Gina Moxley’s The Crumb Trail, Pat McCabe’s The Dead School, and Daphne du Maurier’s The Birds, which was also made into a motion picture bearing the same title by Alfred Hitchcock. All plays dealt with dysfunctional familial relationships and the erosion of Irish values. More than a dozen Irish plays had been assigned and discussed in class prior to visiting the country. These included works by playwrights J. M. Synge, Samuel Beckett, George Bernard Shaw, W. B. Yeats, Martin McDonagh, Anne Devlin, Brendan Behan and Sean O’Casey. Notably, despite the cultural differences, Puerto Rican students could identify with the community of Irish Catholic followers. Some


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even attended Mass on Sunday. The travelers felt at home in Ireland. Some professed their wish to relocate and adopt Ireland as their home. Others expressed their desire to study at Trinity College. Most agreed that a return to Ireland lay ahead for them. The group received a hospitable and cordial welcome to the Anglophone country by the affable Irish people who were eager to socialize with the tourists. Those students who got lost in the city could easily ask any passerby for directions, and they would be directed safely to the hotel. Most importantly, the camaraderie that developed within the group created a friendly and peaceful atmosphere. Despite the age differences of the travelers, their daily interaction was respectful and harmonious. Meetings at the lobby to discuss each other’s experiences, midnight chats, the exchange of photos, and group shopping at O’Connell Street, were some of the activities shared on leisure days. Thanks to the well-organized itinerary and supervision of Professors Olsen and Sander, the group was able to develop strong bonds and have continued to keep in contact through the group’s Facebook page, where most of the snapshots have been posted. Traveling to Ireland was a unique, culturally-enriching and bracing experience.

By Ilsa López-Vallés UPR-Rio Piedras Student P.h.D. Candidate

Statue of Molly Malone College Street Photo taken by Ilsa López

Lyrics of “Molly Malone”written by James Yorkston

In Dublin's Fair City

Where the girls are so prettyI first set my eyes on sweet Molly Malone

As she wheel'd her wheel barrowThrough streets broad and narrow

Crying cockles and mussels alive, alive o!

ChorusAlive, alive o!, alive, alive o!


She was a fishmongerBut sure 'twas no wonder

For so were her father and mother beforeAnd they each wheel'd their barrowThrough streets broad and narrow


Chorus

She died of a feverAnd no one could save her

And that was the end of sweet Molly MaloneBut her ghost wheels her barrow

Through streets broad and narrow


Author’s Bio: Ilsa López is a professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Carolina Campus. She has published SL and short story texts, and holds a Master’s Degree in 19th century literature. She is currently working on a Ph.D. in English at the University of Puerto Rico.


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Why are second language learners failing to achieve na>ve-‐like competence?

Dr. Jennifer Alicea Cas;lloUniversity of Puerto Rico

Ponce Campus

Many English teachers are always asking themselves and talking to each other about the problem that their students have to learn the language correctly. In many conferences, symposia, and workshops, this is the main topic. Researchers are constantly looking for an explana;on to the following ques;on: why are second language learners failing to achieve na;ve-‐like competence. In this paper some of those possible reasons will be discuss.

Acquisi>on vs. LearningThere are different explana;ons for the

failure of English as Foreign Language students to achieve na;ve-‐like competence in a second language. One of the main reasons is the difference between the concepts acquisi;on and learning. According to Krashen (1985) there is a big discrepancy between the two. When a person a c qu i r e s a l a n gu a ge , h e / s h e d o e s i t subconsciously. This is the result of par;cipa;ng in natural communica;on. But when there is language learning, the process is conscious. This is storage, just as it happens with acquisi;on, in the ler hemisphere of the brain but not necessarily in the language areas.

Fossiliza>onAnother possible cause for the failure of

EFL students to reach na;ve-‐like competence in L2 is what Selinker (1972) iden;fied as fossiliza;on. Everybody, unless they have a brain damage, is capable of learning a first language. The situa;on is different in the case of learning a second or foreign language. According to Clahsen, Meisel, and Pienenmann (1983), the creators of the Mul;dimensional Model and Processing Opera;ons, learners go through a lot of stages in their learning a second language. When the L2 learner accomplishes certain amount of stages or

reaches a certain level of competency, he/she stays there without showing any more progress. In other words, language fossilizes arer a period of ;me.

Cogni>ve and Affec>ve FactorsThere is also the idea of mo;va;on been

one of the most important factors related to the learning of a second language. A person learning his/her na;ve language does not need mo;va;on to learn it because it occurs naturally. Just as stated by Chomsky (1959), children are born with specific knowledge of the nature of the language. A child does not need mo;va;on to speak his/her na;ve tongue. Nevertheless, this does not occur when a person tries to learn a second language. Different researchers had proven that actudes and mo;va;on are extremely important in learning a second language but irrelevant in learning a first. Some of these authors are Giles and Byrne (1982) and Gardner and Lambert (1972). They stated that mo;va;on is the primary determinant of L2 proficiency.

Skehan (1989) acknowledged a set of variables with influence language learning. The author divided the factors in three independent variables: teaching, learner, and context. The factors related to the learner can be cogni;ve and affec;ve. Affec;ve factors include their actudes and the mo;va;on towards learning. If the L2 learner is highly mo;vated, learning will occur without a lot of complica;ons. Krashen (1985) promoted the importance of mo;va;on in his Affec;ve Filter Hypothesis. He explained that learners with high mo;va;on and self-‐confidence have high filters and as a result received litle input. Ajay (2009) explains that many na;ves have an innate and unexplained fear of the English language, which makes them shy of handling the language. Karra (2007) agrees with this idea. She said that encouragement is a necessary factor so that an adult can prac;ce producing different sounds exactly like a child does, without fear that he could make a mistake. This same situa;on occurs in many Puerto Rican classrooms of ESL.


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People are afraid of speaking the language. This fear does not let them acquire na;ve-‐like competence.

InputInput is another concept highly related

with a possible explana;on for L2 students not to be able to speak with na;ve-‐like competence. Ellis (1985) describes input as the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a na;ve speaker or by another L2 learner. In other words input is the language to which the learner is exposed to and has access to. When learning a first language, the learner receives input from everybody at all ;mes. On the contrary, when studying a second or foreign language, input is received through different manners. These channels are for example: books, radio, TV, internet, and formal instruc;on. In other words, the nature of input is going to vary according to the way of exposure and the medium u;lized for its transmission.

Time allo[edAlso, it is important to men;on that the

;me alloted to learn an L2 can be an important key in achieving or not na;ve-‐like competence. The ;me used to learn the L2 will vary according to the situa;on of each learner, the amount of class hours (50 minutes daily, 60 minutes daily, or the whole school-‐day if the student is par;cipa;ng in an immersion program), and of course, the opportuni;es to prac;ce. Behaviorists emphasized this idea by sta;ng that the whole process of second language learner could be easily controlled by presen;ng the L2 in the right doses to the learner. On the contrary, a person is learning his/her mother tongue from the moment he/she is born (some say a human being starts learning the L1 even before he/she is born). This L1 learner is exposed to language every second of the day. Usually by the age of six or seven the basic skills are already mastered. That is a lot of ;me compared to the minutes an L2 learner might have in the formal instruc;on. According to Shoebotom (2007) on the

Frankfurt Interna;onal School’s website “everyone learns their first language because they have the best teachers and the best circumstances, the most ;me and the least pressure and the greatest mo;va;on. Learners of a second language have certain cogni;ve advantages but none of the others, so it is not surprising how few go on to be as proficient in their second language as in their first.”

Age and the Cri>cal PeriodHere the factor of age is also important

when trying to know why people learning a second language can not be na;ve-‐like competent. Giterman (1999) concluded that there is certainly a cri;cal period for phonological ski l ls in second language acquisi;on. So if the L2 student has already certain age, he/she will not be na;ve-‐like. Munro, et al. (1996) also support the no;on that there is a cri;cal period for accent in second language acquisi;on. Long (1990) who studied the dependence of second language learning on age of acquisi;on, star;ng arer age six appears to make it impossible for many learners to achieve na;ve-‐like competence in phonology. This researcher atributes this lack of capacity to achieve na;ve-‐like competence in phonology to the loss of brain plas;city which happens with matura;on.

Other expert that emphasizes on the important of the cri;cal period to achieve na;ve-‐like competence is Hagège (1996). This French linguist sustains that the cri;cal age is eleven years. According to Hagège, up to that age the child can receive foreign sounds and the mouth can ar;culate them by imita;on. At the age of 11 foreign sounds start being filtered. As he explained the child is no longer sensi;ve to sounds that do not exist in his na;ve language. Harley (1995) suggested that the cri;cal period ends at puberty.

Individual Objec>ves and Learning Environment Another important element to consider

when discussing the possible reason for a L2


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learner to struggle with competence in the foreign language is the objec;ves this learner may have. When learning the L1, the person learns it because he/she needs the language to sa;sfy his/her needs. An example of this is when the baby learns how to say dad, mom, milk, or water. On the other hand, the objec;ves for learning a second language vary from person to person. When you ask in Puerto Rico, for example, why are you studying English? You will find various reasons that can go from “because it is a very important language” to “because it is a requisite to graduate from school”. The need to communicate is of great importance for language acquisi;on; it is a big incen;ve to the learner (Karra, 2007). If the learner feels that there is no need to a second language, it will be very difficult for this person to be trained in it.

Ellis (1985) also described what an op;mal learning environment should be like. These are some of the characteris;cs: high quan;ty of input directed to the learner, learner perceives the need to communicate in the L2, and the opportuni;es to prac;ce (listening and oral prac;ce). If these characteris;cs are not present in the L2 classroom, learners are going to be far away from achieving a na;ve-‐like competence. If the second language learners are in a classroom in which the L2 teacher explains everything in their L1 or translates everything in order for them to understand, students are not going to be na;ve-‐like competent. In the same line of thought Marcote and Morere (1990) showed that environmental depriva;on leads to atypical brain organiza;on as regards language func;ons.

In this same line of thought Skehan (1989) appears again. This author puts the teacher as one of the main influences on language learning. The way the teacher teaches a second language can make the difference between success fu l L2 s tudent s and unsuccessful L2 students. The methodology, the strategies, the resources, and even the teacher’s competence in the L2 will affect posi;vely or nega;vely in what students may or nor achieve.

Students generally imitate the L2 teacher in pronuncia;on and oral produc;on. If the L2 teacher makes a lot of mistakes (this is not accent related) pronouncing or when wri;ng, students will repeat the same mistakes and will take for granted that “the teacher knows what he/she is saying or wri;ng” simply because he/she is the teacher.

In terms of the role of formal instruc;on in the learning of a second language is important to point out that some authors say that it helps to achieve success. Other authors express that this success is not a primary result of formal instruc;on alone but of the combina;on of other factors such as mo;va;on, intelligence, age, and learning styles. Karra (2007) argues that achieving na;ve-‐like competence differs among individuals because of the loss of neuroplas;city, as one of many factors. Karra (2007) also men;oned other important factors when learning an L2. These are mo;va;on/need for communica;on, repe;;on, encouragement, and rela;on between the na;ve and the second language (shared features).

Sociolinguis>cs ModelsOne of the Sociolinguis;c Models of

Second Language Learning is the Na;visa;on Model. With this model Andersen (1979) explains two important concepts: na;visa;on and dena;visa;on. The first consists of assimila;on. Here the learner makes input conform to his/her own view of what the L2 s y s t em i s . T h e l at e r i s r e l a t e d t o accommoda;on. This is when the learner modifies his/her internal structure to match input by using different inference strategies. This model states clearly that learners do not reach na;ve-‐like competence in the same way as a first-‐language learner because of social and psychological distances.

Schumann (1978) is another that author that presents a possible explana;on of why second language learners may not achieve


! PAGE 21

na;ve-‐like competence. This is explained t h rough t he A c cu l t u ra;on Mode l ( a Sociolinguis;c Model of Second Language Learning). Accultura;on is the process of adap;ng to a new culture. There is a variety of psychological factors that are related to accultura;on and that are affec;ve in nature. These are language shock, culture shock, mo;va;on, and ego boundaries. L1 speakers do not have to deal with all of these psychological elements.

ConclusionIn conclusion, there are many possible

reasons to explain why English as Second Language Learners might not achieve na;ve-‐like competence. It is up to each teacher to examine his/her ESL students and their own possible reasons for failing. Definitely, more research needs to be done to reach a final answer for this crucial ques;on.

References

Ajay, J. (2009) .Difficul;es and challenges in teaching English as the second language. Retrieve on May 3rd, 2010 from: htp://englishspeakingclub.org/?tag=fear-‐and-‐respect. Andersen, R. (1979): "Expanding Schumann's Pidginisa;on Hypothesis". Language Learning, 29,105-‐19.Chomsky, N. (1959): "Review of Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner". Language, 35, 26-‐58.Clahsen, H., Meisel, J. and Pienemann, M. (1983): "The Acquisi?on of German Word-‐ Order: A Test Case for Cogni?ve Approaches to L2 Development" In R. Andersen (ed.) Second Languages: A cross-‐linguis;c perspec;ve. Mass.: Newbury House.

Ellis, R. (1985): Understanding Second Language Acquisi?on. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gardner, R. and Lambert, W. (1972): AZtudes and Mo?va?on in Second Language Learning. Mass.: Newbury House.

Giles, H. & J. Byrne. (1982): "An Intergroup Approach to Second Language Acquisi;on". Journal of Mul?cultural and Mul?lingual Development, 3, 17-‐40.Giterman, M. R. (1999). The cri;cal period: some thoughts on Grimshaw et al. (1998). Brain and Language, 66, 377-‐381.Hagège, C. (1996). L’enfant aux deux langues. (English version). Paris, France: Edi;ons Odile Jacob.Harley, T. (1995). The Psychology of Language: From data to theory. Coventry, UK: Psychology Press.Karra, M. (2007). Is there a 'cri;cal age' for language acquisi;on? Retrieved on May 3rd , 2010 from: htp://www.proz.com/transla;on-‐ar;cles/ar;cles/1260/1/Is-‐there-‐a-‐'cri;cal-‐age'-‐for-‐language-‐acquisi;on%3F-‐

Long, M. (1990). Matura;onal Constraints on Language Development. Studies in second language acquisi?on, 12, 251-‐285.Marcote, A. and Morere, D. (1990). Speech Lateraliza;on in Deaf Popula;ons: Evidence for a developmental cri;cal period. Brain and Language, 39, 134-‐152. Munro, M., Flege, J., and Mackay, I. (1996). The Effects of Age of Second Language Learning on the Produc;on of English Vowels. Applied Psycholinguis?cs, 17, 313-‐334.Krashen, S. (1985): The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implica?ons. London: Longman.Schumann, J. (1978): "The Accultura;on Model for Second Language Acquisi;on" in Gingras (ed.) 1978.Selinker, L. (1972): "Interlanguage". Interna?onal Review of Applied Linguis?cs, 10, 209-‐231.Shoebotom,P. (2007). Frequently asked ques;ons about language learning. Retrieved on May, 2010 from: htp://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/faq2.htmSkehan, P. (1989): Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London: Arnold.

http://englishspeakingclub.org/?tag=fear-and-respect




http://www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/1260/1/Is-there-a-'critical-age'-for-language-acquisition%3F-






http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/faq2.htm





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