Protagoras (ca. 490– 420 BC) father of debate

Studies of argumentation and rhetoric trace their origins to classical Greece. The immediate impetus was political. A tyrant, Thrasy’bulus of ‘Syracuse, had been overthrown. Citizens needed to know how to argue in court to recover property that had been seized by the tyrannical regime. To meet this need, itinerant teachers began to lecture in Athens and the surrounding area. They were known as Sophists. One of the earliest Sophists was Protagoras, known as the “father of debate” because he taught that there were two sides to every question.

starts with a focal point of a controversy;

Because an argumentative essay attempts to change the way people think, it must focus on a debatable topic, one about which reasonable people disagree. Factual statements—those about which people do not disagree—are therefore not suitable for argument.

An argument starts with a focal point of a controversy;

Stephen Toulmin

Stephen Edelston Toulmin (25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues.

Six parts Toulmin and the DWC model

the basic model consists of six parts in two tiers, one primary—claim, data, and warrant;

and the other secondary—qualification, reservation, and backing.

Claims

Claim: the statement of fact, definition, value, or policy that an arguer asks the audience to accept, believe, and act on. Academic articles may indeed have primary claims, but it is very likely that there are quite a few sub-claims, chained to the primary claim.

As Conflict being the soul for the drama, so is the controversy for an argument

A claim, explicit or implicit, is made on the assumption that it is controversial. The first thing to do is to identify a focal point of disagreement over some issue. A claim should be specific and contestable, and consequential like throwing a rock into a pond. We expect to see some ripples.

Therefore, a claim is a consequential statement that raises someone’s eyebrows, change people’s mind, and to change the world for the better, hopefully. You need to raise the level of your claims—like asserting something. In your essay, you need to foreground your claims in the very beginning.

The economy is entering a recession.

Example 1: The economy is entering a recession. Evidence should be specific, representative.

According to some polls, and surveys conducted by Washington Post, CNN, CNBC—implying something authoritative,

--The stock market is declining. --The unemployment rate is increasing. --The consumer confidence is dropping.

Data Data—sometimes called grounds or evidence

—are those facts that establish the validity of the claim, that on which the claim is based. What counts as a fact may differ from discipline to discipline.

Data usually answers the question “how do you know?” Like the claim, data will be explicit, though the reasons for using particular evidence may not be explicit. (Evidence should be accurate, sufficient, representative, and relevant.)

Warrants

Warrants are assumptions made on general rules, and principles.

--Warrant 1: These things are signs of an impending recession.

--Warrant 2: Overtime these things usually have preceded a recession.

Warrant is an assumption

Warrants—an authorization or license to make the inference from evidence to claim. It is a kind like assumption based on the general rules.

Warrants in academic arguments are often signaled by citations to relevant literature in a particular field.

Claim vs. Opinion

Claims Well supported with

evidence and other means;

Opinions Simply air what you

think

Claim vs. Thesis StatementThe Two Could Overlap

A claim is a debatable statement;

A thesis statement may not be that militant;

Counter-Argument

When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your reasoning. This is a good way to test your ideas when drafting, while you still have time to revise them.

Take a step back

Reservations/Rebuttals/Counter Arguments are exceptions to the rules. You need to take those things into consideration so that your arguments are more balanced and objective.

Make a Concession

Unless there are other explanations such as… --The stock market is declining probably

because stocks have been overpriced on speculations. Now the bubbles are busted.

--The unemployment rate is increasing probably because there is a seasonal change in labor market.

--The consumer confidence is down because people may have other concerns at the moment.

Allowing Counter-argumentation

Not every objection is worth entertaining, of course, and you shouldn't include one just to include one. But some imagining of other views, or of resistance to one's own, occurs in most good essays.

Two Stages Counter-argument in an essay has two stages: you turn

against your argument to challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader, or cite an actual source, who might resist your argument by pointing out

a problem with your demonstration, e.g. that a different conclusion could be drawn from the same facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain evidence is ignored or played down;

one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose;

an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.

Useful Phrases You introduce this turn against with a phrase

like One might object here that... or It might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,...or Of course,... or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so, what about...? Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible. (An obviously feeble or perfunctory counter-argument does more harm than good.)

The Turn Back

Your return to your own argument—which you announce with a but, yet, however, nevertheless or still—must likewise involve careful reasoning, not a flippant (or nervous) dismissal. In reasoning about the proposed counter-argument, you may

Rhetorical Moves refute it, showing why it is mistaken—an apparent but not

real problem; acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why

on balance it's relatively less important or less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it;

concede its force and complicate your idea accordingly—restate your thesis in a more exact, qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection, or start a new section in which you consider your topic in light of it. This will work if the counter-argument concerns only an aspect of your argument; if it undermines your whole case, you need a new thesis.

Where to Insert a Counter-Argument

Counter-argument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears

as part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing;

as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own;

Where to Insert a Counter Argument

as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue;

as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued.

Consistency in Your Argument

But watch that you don't overdo it. A turn into counter-argument here and there will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many such turns will have the reverse effect by obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you're ambivalent.

Your conclusion should not contradict your claim

Racap your claim to close your argument: based on the above, I would argue that the economy is in a very bad shape.

Ideally, you should offer some solutions in the form of a proposal,

The aim is to move people to action;

Example 2

Watch out when you argue with Jack, he’ll be a good arguer.

(Because) Jack is a philosophy major. Generally, philosophy majors are good

arguers. (warrant) Unless Jack is a failing student,

philosophy majors usually study argument and become adept through writing and thinking critically. Recap your claims: Don’t mess with Jack.

Exaggeration vs. Understatement

An exaggeration is an overstatement

Hyperbole She's dying for a

drink.

However an understatement could be stronger than an overstatement;

A Claim in an analogy

Air travel nowadays is like going through a root canal.

a similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based: the analogy between the heart and a pump.

Root canal procedure: unhealthy or injured tooth, drilling and cleaning, filing with endofile,

rubber filling and crown

A claim made in a metaphor

Handicapped by History Crippled by our History class

Attack vs. Defense (Rebuttal)Block Method or Alternating Method

1st Attack 2nd Attack 3rd Attack

1st Defense 2nd Defense 3rd Defense Make a concession Brush away the

counterargument Recap your claim

A Case Study: EvelineStart with a disagreement

Make a claim that suggests Eveline should leave her home…

Make a claim that is understated;

Make a claim that is overstated;

Make a claim that is level-headed;

Write a claim that favors Eveline should keep her promise to her dead mother

List all the Reasons Argument Analyze your list Which is stronger? Which is weaker? How are they related to

each other? Can you link them

together as if one thing leads to another?

Sequence your list: from least to most important or vice versa;

Counterargument Go through the same

sequence to weigh your options;

Which side you want to take after your careful evaluation?

Warrant

If Eveline continues to live a life like that, she would end up ask her mother who died of illness and emotional frustration.

People who live a life without love are not happy; worse yet, their spiritual and emotional wasteland will lead them to a tragic end one way or another.