Prosocial Behavior What is Prosocial Behavior? Why do We Help? When do We Help? Who is Most Likely to Help? Whom do We Help?

Why Do We Help? Evolutionary Perspectives

Kinship selection Preferential helping of genetic relatives, so that

genes held in common will survive. Reciprocal altruism

Helping someone else can increase likelihood of survival because it increases the likelihood that this other person will help you when you need it.

Cooperative group Cooperation among members of a social group

could be innate (especially when the group faces an external threat)

Why Do We Help? Are humans ever truly altruistic –

motivated solely by the desire to increase another’s welfare?

Or are we helpful only for egoistic reasons – motivated by the desire to increase our own welfare?

Why Do We Help?Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Prosocial behavior is motivated solely for the purpose of increasing the welfare of the recipient.

Why Do We Help?Negative State Relief Hypothesis

Individuals experiencing negative emotions are motivated to help in order to achieve relief from such emotions.

Why Do We Help?

Perceive otherneeds help

Personaldistress

EgoisticReduction ofown distress

Empathicconcern

AltruisticReduction of

other’s distress

Adopt other’sperspective

yes

no

Emotionalresponse

Type ofMotive

Satisfactionof motive

Based on Bateson, 1991

Why Do We Help?Empathic-Joy Hypothesis

Helping in response to empathy is motivated neither by a selfless concern for the welfare of others, nor by the reduction of personal distress, but rather by the joy one experiences when observing that another person’s needs have been met.

Percentage of participants who helped as a function of empathy and escape conditions (based on Batson et al., 1981)

0102030405060708090

100

High empathy Low empathy

Difficult escapeEasy escape

Results of Batson et al’s (1983) study comparing distressed feelings and ease of victim’s escape on the probability of giving help

When Do We Help? Situational Influences

Bystander Effect The presence of others can reduce the

likelihood that any one individual will offer help.

The greater the number of witnesses, the less likely it is that help will be given.

Five Steps to Helping In An Emergency (Latane & Darley (1970)

Notice thatsomething

is happening

Interpret event As an emergency

Take responsibilityFor providing help

Know how to help

Be able toimplement decision

Provide no helpno

no

no

no no

yes

yes

yes

yes

When Do We Help? (cont.) Pluralistic ignorance

The state in which people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even though everyone’s behaviour is the same. (Interpretation)

When Do We Help? (cont.) Diffusion of Responsibility

The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need. (Taking Responsibility).

When Do We Help? (cont.) Audience inhibition

Reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers.

Percentage of participants offering help as a function of perceived time pressure

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Perceived Time Pressure

Ahead of ScheduleOn ScheduleBehind Schedule

LOW HIGH

Costs for Direct Help

Costs forno helpto victim

HIGH

LOW

Direct HelpIndirect help or excuses to enableescaping situation

Variable: Depends on(a) personality and(b) perceived norms

Leaving the scene,ignoring, denial

Who is Most Likely to Help?

Altruistic Personality Empathy and Moral Reasoning Moods and Doing Good Gender and Good Deeds

Amount of helping as a function of moral reasoning and empathy levels (Miller et al., 1996)

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Low empathy High empathy

Low other-orientedreasoningHigh other-orientedreasoning

Whom do We Help?

Physical Attractiveness Attribution of Responsibility Similarity and Closeness to Person

in Need