PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF A DI-DIESEL ENGINE – A REVIEW

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International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)

Volume 6, Issue 11, Nov 2015, pp. 89-101, Article ID: IJMET_06_11_011

Available online at

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ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359

© IAEME Publication

PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS AND

THEIR INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF A DI-

DIESEL ENGINE – A REVIEW

R.V.S Madhuri

Asst. Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Dr. Lankapalli Bullaya College of Engineering for Women,

Visakhapatnam, A.P, India

P.V Rao

A/Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,

Andhra University,


K.R.M Alekhya

Asst. Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Lankapalli Bullaya College of Engineering for Women,


A. Swarna Kumari

Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUK, Kakinada, A.P, India

ABSTRACT

Straight vegetable oil (SVO) as an alternative fuel in engines is a

statement of controversy since many years as SVO has conflicting results in

emissions, performance of engines. Many factors are involved in evaluating

the emissions and performance characteristics of engines running on SVO.

This paper presents a review on studies published regarding SVO’s with a

focus on the physical and chemical properties and emission characteristics on

different types of Diesel engines. A review is made considering different types

of SVO’s such as Jatropha, Karanja, Cottonseed, Tobacco seed, Karanja,

Mahua, Rubber seed, Soap nut, Deccan hemp, Palm, Soya bean and Neem

oils.

Key words: Diesel Engine, Emissions, Properties, Performance, Straight

vegetable oil (SVO)

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari


Cite this Article: R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna

Kumarimar. Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence on Performance

and Exhaust Emissions of A Di-Diesel Engine – A Review, International

Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 6(11), 2015, pp. 89-101.

http://www.iaeme.com/currentissue.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=6&IType=11

1. INTRODUCTION

The potential benefits of SVO such as low cost, low production rates, carbon

neutrality, and low emissions than petroleum derived fuels made SVO an interesting

subject of study as fuel. There are several sources of SVO. The review focuses on

jatropha, cotton seed, tobacco seed, karanja, mahua, rubber seed, soap nut, deccan

hemp, palm, soya bean and neem oils. The plants origin, features, climatic conditions

in which they can grow, the percentage of yield of oil from seeds and the fatty

composition of oil are discussed.

1.1. Jatropha

The scientific name of jatropha plant is Jatropha curcas L. It grows as a small tree or

large herbs, up to 5–7 m tall. The plant belongs to Euphorbiaceous family. It is a

drought-resistant plant capable of surviving in abandoned and fallowed agricultural

lands. The tropical plant is able to thrive in a number of climatic zones with rainfall of

250–1200 mm. The plant is native to Mexico, Central America, Africa, India, Brazil,

Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Paraguay. It is well adapted in arid and semi-arid

conditions and has low fertility and moisture demand. It can also grow on moderately

saline, degraded and eroded soils. The ideal density of plants per hectare is 2500. It

produces seeds after 12 months and reaches its maximum productivity by 5 years and

can live 30–50 years. Jatropha Seed (shown in fig1) production ranges from 0.1 ha /1

yr to more than 8 ha/1 yr depending on the soil conditions. Depending on variety, the

seed of Jatropha contain 43–59% of oil [1].

Figure 1 Jatropha seeds

1.2. Karanja

The scientific name of karanja is Pongamia pinnata L, Pierre (karanjaorhonge).

karanja is a medium sized ever green tree belonging to the family Legumnosae and

Pappilonaceae, more specifically the Millettieae tribe, which grows in Indian

subcontinent and south-east Asia and has been successfully introduced to humid

tropical regions of the world as well as parts of Australia, New Zealand, China and

the USA. A single tree of karanja is said to yield 9–90 kg seeds, indicating a yield

potential of 900–9000 kg seed/ ha (assuming 100 trees/ ha). It is one of the few

nitrogen fixing trees that produce seeds with a significant oil content. The plant is fast

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Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence on Performance and Exhaust Emissions of A

Di-Diesel Engine – A Review


growing, drought resistant, moderately frost, hardy and highly tolerant of salinity. It

can be regenerated through direct sowing, transplanting and root or shoot cutting. Its

maturity comes after 4-7 years. The karanja seed (shown in fig 2) oil content ranges

between 30 and 40 wt% [1].

Figure 2 Karanja seeds [2]

1.3. Neem

The Scientific name of neem tree is Azadirachtaindica and the tree belongs to the

Meliaceae family. It is a multipurpose and an ever green tree, 12–18 m tall, which can

grow in almost all kinds of soil including clay, saline, alkaline, dry, stony, shallow

soils and even on solid having high calcareous soil. It is native to India, Pakistan, Sri

Lanka, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Japan and the tropical regions of Australia. It

thrives well in arid and semi-arid climate with maximum shade temperature as high as

49 0C and the rainfall as low as 250 mm. It can be raised by directly sowing its seed or

by transplanting nursery-raised seedlings in monsoon rains. It reaches maximum productivity after 15 years and has a life span of 150–200 years. The productivity of

neem oil mainly varies from 2 to 4tha/yr and a matured neem tree produces 30–50 kg

fruit. The neem seeds (shown in fig 3) contain 20–30 wt% oil and Kernels contain 40–

50% of an acrid green to brown colored oil [1].

Figure 3 Neem seeds

1.4. Rubber

Heveabrasiliens is commonly referred to rubber tree. It belongs to the family

Euphorbiaceous. This rubber tree originates from the Amazon rain forest (Brazil).The

tree is the primary source of natural rubber and produces 99% of world’s natural



rubber. Moreover, the trees sap-like extract (known as latex) can be collected and

used in various applications. It is distributed mainly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Liberia,

India, Srilanka, Sarawak, and Thailand, growing up to 34 minimum heights, the tree

requires heavy rainfall and produces seeds weighing from 2 to 4 gm that do not

currently have any major industrial applications. On an average, a healthy tree can

give about 500 go fuse full seeds during a normal year and this works out to an

estimated availability of 150 kg of seeds per hectare. Generally 37% by weight of the

seed is shell and the rest is kernel. Rubber seed (shown in fig 4) oil is a non-edible

vegetable oil, which contain 50-60 wt% oil and kernel contain 40–50 wt% of brown

color oil [1].

Figure 4 Rubber seeds [3]

1.5. Tobacco

The scientific name of tobacco plant is Nicotianatabacum. Tobacco is a by- product

that contains significant amount of oil 35–49% by weight with an estimated annual

yield of 15,000 tons per year. It can be cultivated in more than 100 countries

worldwide such as Macedonia, Turkey, South Serbia and wide spread in North and

South America etc. The oil extracted from tobacco seed (shown in fig 5) is non-

edible with physical, chemical and thermal properties that compare favorably with

other vegetable oils and have the potentiality to be considered as a new feed stock for

biodiesel production [1].

Figure 5 Tobacco seeds

1.6. Soap Nut

The scientific name of Soap nut plant is Sapindusmukorossi and is generally found in

tropical and subtropical climate areas and various parts of the world including Asia

(the outer Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and

Kashmir), America and Europe. The plant grows very well in deep loamy soils and




leached soils. Therefore, cultivation of soap nut in such soil avoids potential soil

erosion. Soap nut seeds (shown in fig 6) contain 23% oil of which 92% is

triglycerides [1].

Figure 6 Soap nuts

1.7. Mahua

In the various Indian languages the tree is known under the names of mahua are

Mahuda, Madhuka and scientifically in some of the older books, the tree is listed

under the name of BassialatifoliaRoxb; in modern books, the name has been changed

to Madhucaindica Gmel; it belongs to Sapotaceae Family. The tree is indigenous to

Central India, Gujarat and along the Western Ghats, eastwards to Chota Nagpur. It is

very commonly planted all over peninsular India. It is a large deciduous tree reaching

20 m in height with a spreading crown. Leaves are clustered near the ends of the

branches, each 7-20 x 3-7 cm. Bio diesel from mahua seed is important because most

of the states of India are tribal where it is abundantly found. The annual production of

mahua seed (shown in fig 7) was greater than 2 mt of which mahua is nearly 181 kt.

[1].

Figure 7 Mahua seeds



1.8. Deccan Hemp

Deccan hemp or Kenaf scientifically Hibiscuscannabinus, is a plant in

the Malvaceae family. The plant is probably native to southern Asia, though its exact

natural origin is unknown. The name also applies to the fiber obtained from this plant.

Kenaf is one of the allied fibers of jute and shows similar characteristics. Deccan

hemp seeds (shown in fig 8) oil yields 305 kg oil/ha/year. It is a tree growing to 1.5-

3.5 m tall with a woody base. The stems are 1-2 cm diameter, often but not always

branched. Kenaf has a long history of cultivation for its fiber in India, Bangladesh,

Thailand, parts of Africa, and to a small extent in southeast Europe [1].

Figure 8 Deccan hemp seeds

1.9. Palm

The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial lianas, shrubs, and trees commonly

known as palm trees. They are flowering plants most of them restricted

to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. The palm trees grow 10 to 15 m

in height. Its life time is for 20 – 25 years and palm seeds (shown in fig 9) gives an oil

yield of 3-5 tons per hectare [1]. Palm oil is different from pal kernel oil. Palm oil is

red in color where as palm kernel oil is not in red color as it is deficient of ceratone

content.

Figure 9 Palm seeds

1.10. Cotton

The scientific name of Cotton plant is Gossypium arboretum. Cotton is a member of

the malvaceae family of flowering plants that includes hibiscus, pavonia and mallow

plants. Cotton seed (shown in fig 10) yields 0.89 tons per hectare on an average. The

worlds average yield is 603 kg/ha [1].

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvaceae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperateness




Figure 10 Cotton seeds [4]

1.11. Soya Bean

The scientific name of soya bean plant is Glycine max. Soya bean is also called soja

bean or soya bean, annual legume of the Fabaceae family and its edible seed, probably

derived from a wild plant of East Asia. The origins of the soybean plant are obscure,

but many botanists believe it to have derived from Glycineussuriensis, a legume

native to central China. The soybean is an erect, branching plant ranging in height

from several centimeters to more than 2 meters (6.5 feet). Soya bean seeds (shown in

fig 11) yield 446 liters oil per ha.

Figure 11 Soya beans

2. PROPERTIES

2.1. Density

Fuel density is the density of the fuel, commonly expressed in kilograms per cubic

meter. The greater the fuel density, the greater the mass of fuel that can be stored in a

given tank and the greater the mass of fuel than can be pumped for a given fuel pump.

Fuel density generally increases with increasing molecular weight of the fuel

molecules [5]. Fuel density also generally increases with increasing molecular weight

http://www.britannica.com/science/annual

http://www.britannica.com/science/legume

http://www.britannica.com/plant/Fabaceae

http://www.britannica.com/plant/Glycine-ussuriensis

http://www.britannica.com/place/China



of the component atoms of the fuel molecules. High density of fuel leads to poor

combustion of fuel and increase in emissions such as carbon monoxide and

hydrocarbons. The density value of the oils considered varies from 870 – 960 kg/m3

as shown in the table 1.

2.2. Viscosity

Viscosity is the index of fuel resistance to flow. It is measured in centistokes.SVO

viscosity is much higher than that of diesel fuel: it increases with the carbon chain

lengths, triglyceride un saturation which induces polymerization, and when the

temperature decreases. Common SVOs have a kinematic viscosity of 30 -40 cSt at

40°C, i.e. 10-15 times higher than that of diesel. SVO high viscosity causes i) a

decrease in injection rate due to head losses in fuel injection pumps, filters and

injectors, ii) poor fuel atomization and vaporization by the injectors, which leads to

incomplete combustion inside the combustion chamber [5]. This results in lower

thermodynamic efficiency, and an increase in soot emissions and particles. The

viscosity of the oils varies from 10 – 46 cSt as shown in the table 1.

2.3. Molecular weight

Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a molecule. It is calculated as the

sum of the mass of each constituent atom multiplied by the number of atoms of that

element in the molecular formula. It is measured in kg/k mole. The higher the

molecular weight of the fuel, higher the rate of emissions.[5]

2.4. Cetane number

The cetane number of the fuel, specified by ASTM D-613, is a measure of its ignition

delay with higher cetane numbers indicating shorter time between the initiation of fuel

injection and ignition, a desirable property in diesel engine fuel [6]. The cetane

number is relatively constant within a kind of vegetable oil and even between

different kinds of oils. Therefore, measurement of the cetane number to ensure good

quality SVO in stationary engines is pointless. The cetane number of the oils ranges

from 37 to 48 as shown in the table 1.

2.5. Lower Calorific value

Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel

when the fuel is burned completely. Other terms used for the calorific value are

heating value and heat of combustion. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the

fuel such as kJ/kg [6]. The efficiency of the engine is proportional to the calorific

value of the fuel. The lower calorific value of the vegetable oils considered ranges

from 31 – 44 MJ/kg as shown in the table 1.

2.6. Iodine value

Iodine number (DIN 53241/IP 84/81) is a measure of the degree of un saturation of

the fuel. Unsaturation can lead to deposit formation and storage stability problems

with fuels. It is measured as gm/100 gm of Iodine [6]. Iodine value has opposite result

of cetane number in engine performance and emissions. The values of Iodine of the

vegetable oils considered ranges from 76 – 147 g/100g of Iodine as shown in the table

1.




2.7. Flash point

Flash point (ASTM D-93) is a measure of the temperature to which a fuel must be

heated such that the mixture of vapor and air above the fuel can be ignited. It is

measured in degree centigrade. All No 2 diesel fuels have relatively low flash points

[6].The flash point of a fuel is important safety storage and handling parameter and

does not influence the performance of the engine. The flash point of vegetable oils is

sufficiently high to ensure good handling safety. The flash point of the considered

vegetable oils ranges from 175 – 267 0C as shown in the table 1.

2.8. Saponication value

The saponification number measures the bonded and unbonded acids present in an oil

or fat. It defines the exact amount of potassium hydrate in mg necessary to emulsify

1g of fat or oil. The smaller the molar mass of the fat, the higher the saponification

value. The saponication value of the considered vegetable oils ranges from 189- 216

as shown in the table 1.

2.9. Acid Value

Acid value is the measure of milligram of potassium hydroxide present in 1 gm of

fuel. Acidity in vegetable oils can vary from 0.01% to 10% wt (which corresponds to

0.02 to 20 mg KOH/g oil). Free fatty acids have smaller molecular weights than the

triglycerides they are derived from, which makes acidic vegetable oils more easily

flammable. The free fatty acids of SVO are not a problem for use in diesel engines up

to 10% wt. When acidity increases from 0.01% to 1% wt, and to 10% wt, the "flash

point" is reduced by 20°C and 85 °C respectively. However, free fatty acids cause

corrosion and deposits in the engine. In fact, free fatty acids are markers of vegetable

oil quality, as they are generated during the process as well as during ageing. The acid

value of the considered vegetable oils ranges from 0.2 – 3.76 mg KOH/g as shown in

the table 1.

Table 1 Properties of straight vegetable oils

Name

C14:0

Myristic

acid

C16:0

Palmitic

acid

C16:1

Palmitoleic

acid

C18

Stearic

acid

C18:1

Oleic

acid

C18:2

Linoleic

acid

C18:3

Alpha

,gama

linoleic

Acid

C20:0

Archidic

acid

Others

Jatropha - 12.7 0.7 5.5 39.1 41.6 0.2 0.2 -

Cotton

seed oil 0.4 20 2 35 42

Tobacco

seed oil 0.09 10.96 0.2 3.34 14.54 69.49 0.69 0.25

, C12 -

<0.01,C20:1-0.13,

C 22 – 0.12,

C22:1<0.01

Karanja - 3.7-7.9 2.4-8.9 44.5-

71.3 10.8-18.3 4.1

C 20:1 – 2.4, C22

– 5.3

Mahua 1 17.8 - 14 46.3 17.9 - 3 -

Rubber

seed oil 2.2 10.2 - 8.7 24.6 39.6 16.3 - -

Deccan

Hemp Oil - 5.2 2.4 13.1 57.1 20.0 0.7 -

C 20:2 -0.5, C22:1

– 0.3

Neem 0.2-0.26 14.9 0.1 20.6 43.9 17.9 0.4 1.6 C 22 – 0.3, C 24 –

0.2

Palm

kernel oil

14.02-

18.0 17.02-9.0 1.02-3.0 11-19 0.5-2

C8 – 3.02-5.0, C10

– 3.02-7.0, C12 –

40-52

Palm oil 0.5 43.4 0.1 4.6 41.9 8.6 0.3 0.3 C12:0 – 0.2,

C 22:0 - 0.1

Soya bean

oil Tr 0.5 7.0-11.0 2.0-6.0 22-34 43-56 5.0-11.0 - - -



Table 2 Fatty acid composition of vegetable oils [5][12]

3. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION

Most vegetable oils are triglycerides. Most vegetable oils are triglycerides chemically;

triglycerides are the triacylglyceryl esters of various fatty acids with glycerol. One

hundred grams of fat or oil will yield approximately 95 grams of fatty acids. Both

physical and chemical characteristics of fats are influenced greatly by the kinds and

proportions of the component fatty acids and the way in which these are positioned on

the glycerol molecule. The predominant fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated

carbon chains with an even number of carbon atoms and a single carboxyl group.

Table II lists the fatty acid composition of some vegetable oils.

4. EMISSIONS FROM SVO OPERATED ENGINES

4.1. Brake Thermal Efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel

energy. The brake thermal efficiency of CI engine running on Straight vegetable oils

is lower than that of the corresponding diesel fuel at all the engine speed. The possible

reason may be higher fuel viscosity. Higher fuel viscosity results in poor atomization

and larger fuel droplets followed by inadequate mixing of vegetable oil droplets and

heated air [13]. Among Jatropha and karanja, Jatropha seemed to be most promising

[14]. Among Soya bean, palm oils Soya bean oil exhibited a better performance [15].

4.2. Brake Specific Energy Consumption

It is an indication for efficiency of fuel energy obtained from the fuel. It is a product

of brake specific fuel consumption and calorific value of the fuel [13]. BSFC

exhibited by the Straight vegetable oils are nearly same and also higher than that of

the Diesel [16]. The reason for this is due to the higher densities of SVO.

Name

C14:0

Myristic

acid

C16:0

Palmitic

acid

C16:1

Palmitoleic

acid

C18

Stearic

acid

C18:1

Oleic

acid

C18:2

Linoleic

acid

C18:3

Alpha

,gama

linoleic

Acid

C20:0

Archidic

acid

Others

Jatropha - 12.7 0.7 5.5 39.1 41.6 0.2 0.2 -

Cotton

seed oil 0.4 20 2 35 42

Tobacco

seed oil 0.09 10.96 0.2 3.34 14.54 69.49 0.69 0.25

, C12 -

<0.01,C20:1-

0.13, C 22 –

0.12,

C22:1<0.01

Karanja - 3.7-7.9 2.4-8.9 44.5-

71.3 10.8-18.3 4.1

C 20:1 – 2.4,

C22 – 5.3

Mahua 1 17.8 - 14 46.3 17.9 - 3 -

Rubber

seed oil 2.2 10.2 - 8.7 24.6 39.6 16.3 - -

Deccan

Hemp Oil - 5.2 2.4 13.1 57.1 20.0 0.7 -

C 20:2 -0.5,

C22:1 – 0.3

Neem 0.2-0.26 14.9 0.1 20.6 43.9 17.9 0.4 1.6 C 22 – 0.3, C

24 – 0.2

Palm

kernel oil 14.02-18.0 17.02-9.0 1.02-3.0 11-19 0.5-2

C8 – 3.02-5.0,

C10 – 3.02-7.0,

C12 – 40-52

Palm oil 0.5 43.4 0.1 4.6 41.9 8.6 0.3 0.3 C12:0 – 0.2,

C 22:0 - 0.1

Soya bean

oil Tr 0.5 7.0-11.0 2.0-6.0 22-34 43-56 5.0-11.0 - - -




4.3. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of

specific fuel consumption in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is an important

parameter that reflects how good the engine performance is. It is inversely

proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine [13]. Among Soya bean, Palm

and Diesel the soya bean oil exhibited greater BSFC than the remaining [15] and also

Deccan Hemp oil and Karanja oil has greater BSFC than Diesel at full loads[10,17].

4.4. Exhaust Gas Temperature

The exhaust gas temperatures are dependent on the duration of combustion [13].

Deccan Hemp, neem oil and Jatropha oil exhibited higher EGT than Diesel [10, 16,

18]. The reason for this may be long duration of combustion due to their high

viscosities.

4.5. Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen which also occur only in the engine exhaust are a combination of

nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high

temperatures. To reduce NOx emissions the temperature of the cylinder should be

reduced. Therefore high temperature and availability of oxygen are the two main

reasons for the formation of NOx [13]. Depending upon the fatty acid composition

the quantity of NOx produced by palm oil, soya bean oil, soap nut and karanja oil are

less [9, 15, 17].

4.6. CO/CO2 Emissions

CO /CO2 is a product of incomplete combustion due to insufficient amount of air in

the air fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for completion of combustion

[13]. The oils such as deccan Hemp, rape seed oil, jatropha exhibited higher CO/CO2

emissions compared to diesel due to their high viscosity which leads to improper

combustion [10, 16].

4.7. HC Emissions

Unburnt HC emissions are direct result of incomplete combustion. SVO due to their

higher viscosities undergo incomplete combustion and therefore has Higher HC

emissions [13]. The statement is strengthened by the works performed on karanja,

jatropha, soap nut, deccan hemp and neem oils [10, 16, 17, 18].

4.8. Smoke Opacity

The smoke of the engine exhaust is a visible indicator of the combustion process in

the engine. Smoke is due to incomplete combustion [15]. Some SVO’s like karanja,

soya bean and palm oil exhibited lower smoke where as soap nut, deccan hemp and

neem has lower smoke opacity when compared to diesel [9,10,15,17,18].

5. CONCLUSIONS

Depending on the review made on the physical, chemical and fatty acid compositions

of vegetable oils the following conclusions are drawn

Vegetable oils are the fuels which have close characteristics like diesel and therefore

they can used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines



Non edible oils should be preferred over edible oils as non edible are cheaper than

edible oils and also usage of non edible oils does not disturb the food cycle of human

beings.

SVO’s are highly viscous when compared to diesel. So they can be adopted by

implementing preheating technique or with some engine modifications.

SVO’s can also be utilised in a beneficial way by blending with diesel up to certain

percentage.

The flash point of SVO’s is higher than diesel so that they are safer to use compared

to diesel.

The Brake thermal efficiencies of SVO are low when compared to diesel due to their

high viscosity but are having high Brake specific fuel consumption due to their high

densities.

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Documents

PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF A DI-DIESEL ENGINE – A REVIEW