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CertificateThis is to certify that the Biologyproject onHuman Evolution had been Submitted by the candidateSupreet Kumar With roll number_______ for the class

XII practical examination of the Central Board ofSecondary Education in the year 2012-13. It is furthercertified that this project is the individual work of the

Candidate.

Signature: Date:


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the staff of the Biology department forthe help And guidance provided to me in

completing the project in Biology. I also thank the

principal for permitting the use of the Resources

of the school for completing the project.Name of the Candidate: SUPREET KUMAR

Roll Number:

Date:


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ANATOMICAL CHANGES The genetic revolution

From Primates to Hominins

INDEX


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Human evolutionrefers to the evolutionary process leading up tothe appearance of modern humans

The study of human evolution involves many scientific disciplines,

includingphysicalanthropology, primatology, archaeology, linguistics, embryologyand genet

icsPrimate evolution likely began in the late Cretaceous period. According

to genetic studies, divergence of primates from other mammals

began 85 million years ago and the earliest fossils appear in

the Paleocene, around 55 million years ago.[2] The family Hominidae, or

Great Apes, diverged from the Hylobatidae family15 to 20 million years

ago, and around 14 million years ago, thePonginae, or orangutans,

diverged from the Hominidae family.

Human evolution
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocenehttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylobatidaehttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponginaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponginaehttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=14http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=15%E2%80%9320http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylobatidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocenehttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution


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1.Bipedalism

Anatomical changes


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2.Encephalization


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The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is primarily visible in the a reduction of the

male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except gibbons), but also reduced brow ridges andgeneral robustness of males. Another important physiological change related to sexuality in

humans was the evolution of hidden estrus. Humans are the only ape in which the female is

fertile year round, and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by the body (such

as genital swellingduring estrus). Nonetheless humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in

the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, males being around

25% larger than females. These changes taken together have been interpreted as a result of anincreased emphasis on pair bondingas a possible solution to the requirement for increased

parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of off spring.

3.Sexual dimorphism

Change in the canine
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_toothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_estrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_swellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_swellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_estrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_tooth


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4.


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The genetic revolution in studies of human evolution started whenVincentSarich andAllan Wilson measured the strength of immunological cross-reactions

ofblood serumalbuminbetween pairs of creatures, including humans and African apes(chimpanzees and gorillas).[28] The strength of the reaction could be expressed

numerically as an Immunological Distance, which was in turn proportional to thenumber ofamino acid differences between homologous proteins in different species. Byconstructing a calibration curve of the ID of species' pairs with known divergence timesin the fossil record, the data could be used as a molecular clockto estimate the times ofdivergence of pairs with poorer or unknown fossil records. In their seminal paper in 1967in Science, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as fourto five million years ago,[28] at a time when standard interpretations of the fossil record

gave this divergence as at least 10 to as much as 30 million years. Subsequent fossildiscoveries, notably Lucy, and reinterpretation of older fossil materials,

notably Ramapithecus, showed the younger estimates to be correct and validated thealbumin method. Application of the molecular clockprinciple revolutionized the study

ofmolecular evolution.

The Genetic revolutionHuman evolutionary genetics studies how one human genome differs from the other, the

evolutionary past that gave rise to it, and its current effects. Differences between genomes

have anthropological, medical and forensic implications and applications. Genetic data canprovide important insight into human evolution.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_serumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunological_Distance&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunological_Distance&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_serumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarich


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Evolution of the great apesEvolutionary history of theprimates can be traced back 65 million yearsThe

oldest known primate-like mammal species,the Plesiadapis, came fromNorth America, but they were widespread in Eurasia and Africa during the

tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene.

Notharctus

David Begun concluded that early primates flourished in Eurasia and that alineage leading to the African apes and humans, includingDryopithecus,migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa. The surviving

tropical population of primates, which is seen most completely in the upperEocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Faiyum depression

southwest of Cairo, gave rise to all living specieslemurs ofMadagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or "bush babies" of Africa,

and the anthropoids:platyrrhine or New World monkeys, catarrhines or OldWorld monkeys, and the great apes, including humans.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiadapishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryopithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faiyumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarrhinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarrhinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faiyumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryopithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiadapishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate


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Reconstructed tailless proconsal

The earliest known catarrhineisKamoyapithecusfrom uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in

the northern Kenya Rift Valley, dated to 24 million years ago,

helping to fill an 11-million-year gap in the fossil record.

Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old

World Monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million

years ago

are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus,Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, N

yanzapithecus,Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proconsul_skeleton_reconstitution_(University_of_Zurich).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarrhinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamoyapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley,_Kenyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(genus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangwapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendropithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limnopithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacholapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatoriushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyanzapithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyanzapithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afropithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afropithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyanzapithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyanzapithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatoriushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacholapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limnopithecus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendropithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangwapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(genus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proconsul_skeleton_reconstitution_(University_of_Zurich).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley,_Kenyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamoyapithecushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarrhini


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The stages of human evolution from 40 million years

ago to 35,000 years ago:1. Hominid ( Manlike Primates) - The development of the different species of

primates which were able to evolve in 40 million years ago. There have been various relics ofhominids which could be described as manlike primates:

a) Ramapithecus- This hominid believed to have lived 14 million years which the remainscould be found Siwalik Hills of India. The description of this hominid could stand upright and

used stones and sticks to frighten his enemies. This kind of specie was found by Mrs. Mary Leaky

at the volcanic ash of Laetolil, Tanzania, East Africa in 1975.

b) Lucy - The American archeologist, Donald C. Johanson discovered a whole skeleton ofa teenage girl at Hadar, Addis Ababa, Ethiopa .

c) Australopithecus It was believed to livein Africa about 5 million years ago. He had small brain

but could walk straight and used simple tools.

Australopithecus


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b) Lake Turkana ( 1470 Man )This specie was about 5 feet tall and walked upright . Heused more refined stone tools with a brain double size of a chimpanzees brain.This was excavated in

Lake Turkana, Kenya, East Africa by Dr. Richard Leakey ( The son of the famous Dr. and Mrs. Leakey)

in 1972 which consisted by a shattered skull and leg bones.

2. Homo Habilis ( Handy Man) - The apelike men used stone tools as weapons

and protection of their enemies.

a) ZinjanthropusThe physical description of this specie was about 4 feet and

could walked upright with small brain. He used crude stone weapons for protections

against predators. This was discovered by Dr. Louis S.B. Leakey ( Husband of Mrs.Mary Leakey) in Olduva Gorge, Tanzania,East Africa in 1999 which believed to live

about 1.75 million years ago.

Zinjanthropus


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(a) Pithecanthropus Erectus ( JavaMan)This was discovered by Eugene

Dubois at Trinil, Java, Indonesia in 1891 which

was then called the Java Man .The physicalcharacteristics of this homo erectus were :

about 5 feet tall; could walked erect; heavy andchinless jaw; hairy body of modern man.

3. Homo Erectus ( Upright Man)It was believed to be the first manlike creature

that lived about 500,000 years ago in Asia, Africa and Europe. This manlike specie could

walk straight with almost the same brain with modern man. He made refined stone tools

for hunting and weapons for the protection of the enemies.

(b) Sinanthropus Pekinensis ( Peking Man)This homo erectus specie was

discovered at Choukoutien village, Beijing, China in 1929.This was about 5 2 tall, could

walk upright, and the brain almost as large as the modern man which was believed to live

500,000 year ago.

Java man


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4. Homo Sapien ( Wise Man)It was believed that this was the direct descendant of

modern man which lived about 250,000 years ago. They had similar physical descriptions with

modern man. They originated as the primitive men whose activities were largely dependent on

hunting, fishing and agriculture. They buried their dead, used hand tools and had religion.

(a) Neanderthal ManThe Neanderthal man were

discovered in the cave of Neanderthal valley near

Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856. It was believed to

appear in the high temperate zone in Europe and Asiaabout 70,000 years ago. They had physical

characteristics as heavily built with powerful jaws,

brutish and primitively intelligent. They usually lived

in cave and dependent in hunting and fishing .They

had religious beliefs and more advanced than the

homo erectus. Neanderthal Man


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(b) Cro Magnon ManThis was more stronger homo

sapien than the neanderthal which was discovered by

French archaeologist Louis Lartet in the Cro MagnonCave at Ley Eyzies in southern France. It was believed

to live in Europe, Asia and Africa. Specifically, their

remains have been found in western Asia including Italy,

Spain, France and Russia and all areas over Africa. They

were about 5 feet and 11 inches with more developed

brain than their predecessor. As a prehistoric man, theyhad stone implements, art objects. and consistent

hunting skills.

The evolutions of the primitive men are laid in three

historic periods.

Cro magnon Man


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