PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER …Thematic Paper on MDG 3 1 1. INTRODUCTION In000,89 2 1 UN member states adopted the Millennium Declaration, which distils the key goals and targets

Thematic Paper on MDG 3 PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY

AND EMPOWER WOMEN

2010

20052000

2015UN

DP/

John

Ols

son

FOREWORD

1 ThesepaperscoverMDGs1–7.TheUN’sGapTaskForceissuesreportsandassessmentsonMDG8.

IamextremelypleasedtointroducethissetofanalyticalpapersontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals1.ThepaperswereproducedbythememberagenciesoftheUNDevelopmentGroupTaskForceontheMDGs,workinginclusters.Eachpaperhadoneormoreleadagenciesandasetofmemberagenciesinsupport.TheTaskForcewasalsoabletodrawontheideas,experienceandadviceofaconsiderablerangeofotheragenciesandexperts,includingfromNon-Governmental,academicandothersectors.Apeerreviewprocesswasheldtomovetowardsthefinalversions,whichincorporateddetailedandrichdiscussionsontheideasgeneratedbythepapers.

Inthiseffort,thecentralintentionoftheTaskForcewastotrytoidentifypromisingorsuccessfulexperiencesincountryeffortstomovetowardsthevariousGoals,andtogainunderstandingofthefactorscontributingtothisprogress.Thefocusofthepapersisthereforeonthenationalandlocallevel;oncountry-led(ratherthanUN)efforts;andonarangeofimmediateandunderlyingfactorsthatappeartobeimportantoressentialinenablingprogressunderdifferingconditionsandcountrycircumstances.

Thepapersdonotpresentorrepresentformal,officialUNpolicypositions.Rather,theyreflectthecollectiveanalyticaleffortsoftheMDGTaskForce,asendorsedbytheUNDevelopmentGroup,inanefforttobringideasandsuggestions,basedoncountryandfieldexperience,totheattentionofUNMemberStatesanddevelopmentpractionerseverywhere.Wehopethat,assuch,thepapersprovideavaluablecontributiontothecontinuingdiscussionsonpolicies,programmes,advocacy,financingandotherconditionswhichareneededtoachievebroad-basedandsustainedprogresstowardsdevelopmentgoals,particularlyforthepoorestandmostvulnerablepeopleandfamilies.

AsChairoftheTaskForce,IwishtothankandacknowledgetheverymanycolleaguesintheUnitedNationsandinmanyagenciesandcapacitiesbeyond,whocontributed–withconstantenthusiasmandgreatinsight–tothedevelopmentofthesepapers.ParticularthankstomyCo-ViceChairsfromUNDPandFAO,andtoDebbieLandeyandallherteamatUNDOCOfortheirunfailingsupport.

RichardMorgan

Chair,UNDGTaskForceontheMDGsDirectorofPolicyandPractice,UNICEF

1. EXECUTIVESUMMARY..........................................................................................................1

2. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................4

3. TRENDSINACHIEVINGGENDEREQUALITYANDWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT............. 7

4. PATHWAYSTOPROGRESSONGENDEREQUALITYANDWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT:ANALYSISOFSUCCESSFULFACTORSANDMEASURES................ 10

4a.GenderParityinEducation............................................................................................10

4b.GenderParityinNon-AgriculturalEmployment.......................................................... 14

4c.GenderParityinPoliticalRepresentation....................................................................20

4d.Sexualandreproductivehealthandrights..................................................................22

5. CRITICALCROSS-CUTTINGGAPSIMPEDINGPROGRESSONGENDEREQUALITY... 26

6. RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................................................................30

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................32

ENDNOTES..................................................................................................................................38

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1ThematicPaperonMDG3

1.INTRODUCTION

In2000,189UNmemberstatesadoptedtheMillenniumDeclaration,whichdistilsthekeygoalsandtargetsagreedattheinternationalconferencesandworldsummitsduringthe1990s.DrawingontheDeclaration,theUNsystemdrewupeightMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)toprovideasetofbenchmarkstomeasureprogresstowardstheeradicationofglobalpoverty.MDG3,topromotegenderequalityandwomen’sempowerment,includesonetargetoneducationandadditionalindicatorsonwomen’semploymentandpoliticalrepresentation.

Globalagreementtoincludethisgoalwasaverypositivedevelopmentandsignalledarecognitionbymemberstatesthatgenderinequalitynotonlydecreasesthelikelihoodofachievingtheothergoals,butalsothatadvancinggenderequalityandwomen’sempowermentdependsonprogressmadeoneachoftheothergoals.

MDG3interpretsgenderequalityverynarrowly,andthereisgrowingrecognitionthatthetargetsandindicatorsthatframethegoalongenderequalityandwomen’sempowermentaretoolimited.Nevertheless,halftheMDGsnowhavetargetsdirectlyrelatedtogenderequalityandwomen’sempowerment:MDG1ondecentworkforwomen;MDGs2and3ongirls’education;andMDG5onmaternalmortalityandsexualandreproductivehealth.

AreviewofprogressrelatedtoMDG3,aswellasthetargetsrelatedtowomen’ssexualandreproductivehealth,showsthatprogresstowardsgenderequalityhasbeenunevenoverthepast10years.WithonlyfiveyearstogountilthedeadlineforreachingtheMDGs,wearenowatacriticaljuncturetoreflectonwhereandhowcountrieshavemanagedtoachieveprogress,andwhatlessonscanbedrawntoaccelerateprogressincountrieswhereithasbeentooslow.

2.PROGRESSANDGAPS

Genderparityineducation

• Indevelopingregions,asawhole,95girlswereenrolledinprimaryschoolforevery100boysin2007,comparedto91in19991.

• Significantgapsremaininsomeregions.InSouthandWestAsia,66percentofout-of-schoolchildrenaregirls2.

• Insomeregions,gapsinsecondaryeducationparityarewidening,suchasinsub-SaharanAfrica,wheretheratioofgirls’toboys’enrolmentinsecondaryeducationfellfrom82in1999to79in20073.

Women’semployment

• Globally,theshareofwomeninpaidemploymentoutsidetheagriculturalsectorhasincreasedmarginally.ButinSouthAsia,NorthAfricaandWestAsia,employmentopportunitiesremainverylow.

• Nearlytwothirdsofallemployedwomenindevelopingcountriesworkeitherascontributingfamilyworkersorasown-accountworkers,extremelyvulnerableemploymentwhichlackssecurityandbenefits.

• Genderdifferencesinlabourforceparticipationrates,unemploymentratesandgenderwagegapsareapersistentfeatureofgloballabourmarkets.

Women’srepresentationinpolitics

• Thereisaslowrateofimprovementinwomen’sshareofnationalparliamentaryseats,averaging18.6percentasofOctober2009.Thisrepresentsanincreaseofsevenpercentagepointssince1995.Inthetwodecadesbetween1975and1995,women’srepresentationrosebylessthanonepercent4.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2 UnitedNationsDevelopmentGroupUnitedNationsDevelopmentGroup

• Thepositiveresultsthatsomeoftheworld’spoorestcountries,includingRwanda,havehadinincreasingwomen’sseatsinparliamentsthroughtheuseoftemporaryspecialmeasures,suchasquotas,showthatpoliticalwillismoreimportanttomakingprogressthanlevelofresources.

• However,evenifthepresentrateofincreasecontinues,womenwillnotreachtheparityzoneforanother40years.

Sexualandreproductivehealthandrights

• Just23countriesareontracktomeetthetargettoreducematernalmortalitybythreequartersby20155.

• Itisestimatedthatoneinthreematernaldeathsrelatedtopregnancyandchildbirthcouldbeavoidedifwomenwhowantedcontraceptionhadaccesstoit6.

• ThenumbersofwomenlivingwithHIVhaveincreasedinmanyregions:IntheCaribbean,forexample,womenaccountedfor50percentofalladultslivingwithHIV,upfrom37percentin20017.

3.WHATWORKSTOADVANCEGENDEREQUALITYANDWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENT

• Eliminatinguserfeesforprimaryeducationhascontributedsignificantlytotheimprovementofgirls’enrolment,especiallyinsub-SaharanAfrica.Stipendsforgirls,tocovertuitionandothercosts,havebeensuccessfulinincreasinggirls’attendanceatsecondaryschoolinsomecountries,includingBangladesh.

• Gendersensitiveemploymentguaranteeprogrammes,supportingwomenentrepreneursandbenchmarkingforgenderequalityintheprivatesectorareprovenapproachestoimprovingwomen’saccesstoemployment.Inaddition,measuresforsocialandlegalprotectionforvulnerablewomenworkersareessential,particularlyinthecontextoftheongoingeconomiccrisis.

• Quotasorspecialtemporarymeasuresarethemostdirectroutetoincreasingthenumberofwomeninparliaments.In2008,theaveragerepresentationofwomenwas21.9percentincountriesthatusedtemporaryspecialmeasures,comparedto15.3percentforthosethathavenot8.

• Communityhealthapproachesareproventoincreaseskilledbirthattendanceandreducematernalmortalityandincreasecontraceptiveuse,especiallyforwomenlivinginpoorandruralhouseholds,whoareoftenhardesttoreach.

• Evidencesuggeststhat,inmeetingthehealthandeducationrightsofwomenandgirls,increasingthenumbersofwomeninpublicservicedelivery,forexampleasteachersorcommunityhealthproviders,supportsprogresstowardsmeetingtheMDGs.

4.RECOMMENDATIONSFORACCELERATINGPROGRESS

Basedonanalysisofkeyinterventionsthathavemadeadifference,thereareeightkeypoliciesand/oractionsthathavepotentialtopropelprogress:

1. Removekeybarrierstogirls’education,includingbyprovidingscholarships,cashtransfersandeliminatinguserfees;trackingcompletionandattendancerates;improvingthequalityofeducation,includingtacklingviolenceagainstgirlsinschool;andscalingupinvestmentsingirls’enrolmentinsecondaryschool.

2. Makethegenerationoffullandproductiveemploymentandthecreationofdecentworkandincometheprimarygoalofmacroeconomic,socialanddevelopmentpolicies,includingbypromotingequalskillsdevelopmentandemploymentopportunities;reducingwagegapsbetweenwomenandmen;introducingsocialprotectionmeasuresandlabourlawsandpoliciesthataregender-responsive;andintroducingandenforcinglegalprotectionsforthemostvulnerablewomenworkers.

UnitedNationsDevelopmentGroup 3ThematicPaperonMDG3UnitedNationsDevelopmentGroup

3. Introducepositiveactiontoimprovethenumbersandinfluenceofwomeninallpoliticaldecision-making,includingbyinvestinginwomen’sleadershipinlocaldecision-makingstructuresandbycreatinganevenplayingfieldformenandwomenwithinpoliticalparties.

4. Investinsexualandreproductivehealth,includingcommunityhealthapproachestotacklematernalmortality,meetingunmetneedforfamilyplanningandaddressinghighadolescentfertilityrates,aswellasmeasurestoensurethatwomenlivingwithHIVhavetheirreproductivehealthneedsmetandareabletoparticipatefullyinshapingpolicytotacklethepandemic.

5. Improvenationallevelcapacitytotrackandreportonprogress,gapsandopportunitiesthroughbettergenerationanduseofsex-disaggregateddataandstatistics,includingontimeuse.

6. Reducewomen’sworkburdenthroughinvestmentsininfrastructure,laboursavingtechnologiesandgender-responsiveeconomicstimuluspackages.

7. Strengthenaccountabilityforenhancingwomen’srightsandendinggenderdiscrimination,includingthrougheliminatinginequalitiesinaccesstolandandpropertyandbyinvestinginimplementationoflaws,policiesandprogrammestopreventandaddressviolenceagainstwomen.

8. Scaleupandaccountforinvestmentsingenderequality,includingbyinstitutionalizingGenderResponsiveBudgetingtoensurethatfinancialcommitmentsarecommensuratewithpolicycommitmentstogenderequality.


2. INTRODUCTION

Far-reachingcommitmentstogenderequalityandwomen’shumanrightsareencapsulatedincoreinternationalhumanrightsinstruments,includingtheUNConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW),aswellasintheBeijingPlatformforAction(BPfA)andUNSecurityCouncilResolutions1325,1820,1888and1889.TogetherwiththecommitmentsintheMillenniumDeclarationandthe2005WorldSummit,the2008AccraAgendaforActionandDohaDeclaration,andtheILOConventionsonworkingwomen’srights,theyofferaroadmapforstrengtheningaction,investmentsandaccountabilitytoadvancegenderequalityandwomen’srightsincountriesworldwide.

In2000,189UNmemberstatesadoptedtheMillenniumDeclaration,whichdistilsthekeygoalsandtargetsagreedtoattheinternationalconferencesandworldsummitsduringthe1990s.DrawingontheDeclaration,theUNsystemdrewupasetofeightMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)toprovideasetofbenchmarkstomeasureprogresstowardstheeradicationofglobalpoverty.MDG3,topromotegenderequalityandwomen’sempowermentincludesonetargetandthreeindicators(Box1).Globalagreementonincludingthisgoalwasaverypositivedevelopmentandsignalledarecognitionbymemberstatesthatgenderinequalitynotonlydecreasesthelikelihoodofachievingtheothergoals,butalsothatadvancinggenderequalitydependsonprogressmadeoneachoftheothergoals9.

However,MDG3interpretsgenderequalityverynarrowly.Thereisasingletargetforthisgoal,linkedtoeducation,whichisjustoneimportantelementofwomen’sempowerment.OnlytwootherMDGshaveonlyonetarget:Goal2callsfortheachievementofuniversalprimaryeducationandGoal4forthereductionofchildmortality.

Asidefromeducation,theMDG3indicatorsfocusonwomen’semploymentandpoliticalrepresentation.WhilethecommitmentofMembersStatestotrackingthesetwocrucialelementsofwomen’sempowermentiswelcome,theabsenceofcorrespondingtargetsontheseissueshasmeanttheyhavereceivedlessattention,andarelesslikelytobeprioritized.

Moreover,theemploymentindicatorislimitedtowomen’sshareofwagedemploymentinthenon-agriculturalsector.Whilethisisagoodindicationofwomen’sabilitytoearnincomeoftheirown,itexcludesthevastnumberofwomenworkinginagriculture,particularlyindevelopingcountries,wherewomencomprisefrom50to80percentofthoseworkinginthissector,manyofthemasunpaidfamilyworkers.Italsofailstoaddresstheissueofinformalemployment,inwhichclosetotwo-thirdsofallemployedwomenindevelopingcountrieswork.

Inanefforttoaddressthesegaps,in2005anewtargetonfullandproductiveemploymentanddecentwork–especiallyforwomenandyouth–wasadded

Box1:MILLENNIUMDEVELOPMENTGOAL3:Promotegenderequalityandempowerwomen

TARGET3A:Eliminategenderdisparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducationpreferablyby2005,andatalllevelsby2015

INDICATORS

• 3.1Ratiosofgirlstoboysinprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducation

• 3.2Shareofwomeninwageemploymentinthenon-agriculturalsector

• 3.3Proportionofseatsheldbywomeninnationalparliament


toGoal1.Anotheressentialtargetforwomen’sempowerment,accesstoreproductivehealth,wasaddedtoGoal5,therebyincorporating2ofthe7criticalprioritiesforgenderequalityidentifiedbytheMDGTaskForceonGenderEquality10.Notwithstandingthesewelcomeadditions,thereremainimportantgapsintheMDGsframeworkinrelationtogenderequalityandwomen’srights—notablytheabsenceofindicatorsonwomen’spropertyownershipandcombatingviolenceagainstwomen.

WithonlyfiveyearstogotoachievetheMDGs,thispaperdrawsattentionto:a)ThewaysinwhichcountriesareinstitutingpolicyandpracticeinnovationstowardsachievingtargetsandindicatorsrelatedtoMDG3;b)Cross-cuttinggapsintheMDGframeworkforgenderequalityandinexistingeffortstomakeprogressonagreedpriorities;andc)RecommendationsforscalinguppromisingpracticesthatcouldpropelprogresstowardsMDG3overthenext5years.

Beforeembarkingonthis,itisimportanttoacknowledgethattheenduringimpactoftheinter-linkedfood,climateandeconomic/financialcrisespervadesallconsiderationsofMDGprogress,andrecognizesthattheireffectsarelikelytoincludeareversalofgainsinreducingpovertyandhungerandeliminatinggenderinequalities.

Inthepastdecade,climatechangeandenvironmentaldegradationhaveledtoincreaseddesertification,soilcontaminationanddepletionandmorefrequentanddestructivenaturaldisasters.Asaresult,womenrequirefarmoretimetocollectwaterandfuel,particularlyinruralareas,increasingtheiralreadyonerousburdenofhouseholdprovisioning.Evidencefrompreviousnaturaldisasters,includingtheincreasingnumberthatarerelatedtoglobalwarming,suggestthatwomengenerallydieinfargreaternumbersthanmen,whilethosethatsurvivewillhaveevengreaterdifficultyprovidingcarefortheelderly,thesickandtheyoung11.

Foodinsecurityandinstabilityinfoodpricesalsoaffectswomendifferentlyfrommen.Researchsuggeststhatfemale-headedhouseholds,evenwhentheyarenotover-representedamongthepoor,aredisproportionatelyaffectedbyrisingfoodpricessincetheytendtospendagreatershareoftheirincomeonfoodthanmale-headedhouseholds12.Basedonstudiesofpreviouscrises,thereisgrowingrecognitionthatintimesofeconomiccrisisandinsecurity,levelsofviolenceagainstwomentendtoincrease13.Thisisalreadyshowingupinmediareportsindifferentcountriesaswellasinsurveysofsheltersandhotlines,primarilyintheUnitedStates14.

Theeconomicslowdownisimpactingonwomenandmenindevelopingcountriesthroughdifferenttransmissionchannels,includingdecliningdemandforexports,reducedcapitalflows,anddecliningremittances15.Theeconomiesofmanyifnotmostdevelopingcountriesareinadequatelydiversifiedanddependentononeorveryfewcommoditiesormanufactures.Forexample,85percentofCambodia’sexportsarefromthegarmentindustry,nearly80percentofZambia’sexportsarefromcopper/cobalt,andalmost80percentofBenin’sexportsarefromcotton.Thedeclineintradehasincreasedunemploymentformanypoorhouseholds,obligingthemtoadoptshort-termcopingstrategiessuchaseatinglessandforegoinghealthcare16.

Adeclineincapitalflowsindevelopingcountries,whetherintheformofbanklending,foreigndirectinvestmentorportfolioflows,isputtingmanysectors,includingthosethatemploypredominantlywomen,atriskofclosuresandbankruptcy.Astheeconomicstimuluspackageshavekickedin,theILOreviseditsestimateofthenumberofjobslostbytheendof2009duetothecrisisfromupto55millionto34million17.TheILOandothershavealsoraisedconcernsthattheimpactoftheglobalcrisiscouldthreatenrecentgainsinreducingchildlabourandincreasingthenumbersofgirlsinschool.Whenfamiliesarepusheddeeperintopovertyandmustchoosebetweensendingtheirsonsortheirdaughterstoschool,itisoftenthegirlsthatloseout.


Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgethateconomicgrowthinmanycountriesandregionsoverthepastdecadedidnotleadtofullandproductiveemploymentanddecentwork.Rather,newemploymenthasgenerallybeenpart-time,seasonal,temporaryorotherformsofinformalemployment,whichhastranslatedintoworseconditionsformanywomenworkers18.Inaddition,evenwherehighratesofgrowthledtonewemploymentopportunities,thesetendedtobenefitthosewiththeeducation,skillsandcontactstoaccessthem,exacerbatinggenderinequalitiesinallregions.Between2003and2005,forinstance,whilemen’saverageearnedincomeinIndiaincreased26percent,thefigureforwomenwasthreepercent;inPakistan,

wheremen’saverageincomeroseby17percent,women’swentupbylessthanonepercent19.Finally,remittancesdeclinedsharplyin2009,eliminatingamajorsourceofincomeforwomeninpoorhouseholdsandseverelystretchingtheircopingstrategies.

UnderstandingthesecontextualfactorsisvitaltoredoublingeffortstoachievetheMDGsandgenderequality.StrategiestopropelprogressonalloftheMDGs,includingMDG3,needtore-examinethemacroeconomicmodelsthathaveledtotheseglobalcrisesandintroducecorrectivemeasuresthatincreasesocialprotection,genderresponsiveness,andlong-termsustainability(seeBox4)20.


3. TRENDS IN ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT

AreviewofprogressrelatedtothespecifictargetandindicatorsthatcompriseMDG3revealsthatadvancestowardsgenderequalityhavebeenunevenoverthepast10years.

Despite increasing international recognition that the education of girls is one of the most powerful tools for women’s empowerment, gender discrimination continues to keep girls out of school 21.BothMDG2andMDG3includetargetsoneliminatinggenderdisparitiesinprimaryeducation,whichisanecessarypartofachievingfreeandcompulsoryprimaryeducationasenvisagedunderinternationalhumanrightslaw.ThefirsttargetforMDG3,toeliminategenderdisparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducationby2005,wasmissed.However,theprogressthathasbeenmadeatregionalandnationallevelsinincreasinggirls’primaryschoolenrolmentshowshowmuchcanbeachievedbygovernmentswillingtoinvest.Indevelopingregions,asawhole,95girlswereenrolledinprimaryschoolforevery100boysin2007,comparedto91in199922.

However,progresshasbeenmixedandsignificantdisparitiesremainbetweenandwithinregions.WhileLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanandEuropehavemadeprogress,significantgapsremaininWestAsia,SouthAsia,Oceaniaandsub-SaharanAfrica23.InSouthandWestAsia,forinstance,66percentofout-of-schoolchildrenaregirls24.Evenwithincountries,nationwideaveragescanmasksignificantdisparities:asurveyofprimaryschoolattendancein108developingcountriesshowedthatgenderparityhasbeenreachedinurbanareasandamongtherichest40percentofhouseholds,whilegirlsinpoorhouseholdsandruralareasaremorelikelytobeexcluded25.Insub-SaharanAfrica,childrenfromtherichest20percentofhouseholdshave,onaverage,morethansixtimesthechanceofreachinggradeninethanthosefromthepoorest40percentofhouseholds.Urbanchildrenarefourtimesmorelikelytobeenrolledingradeninethantheirruralcounterparts26.

Post-primaryeducationiscriticalforwomen’sempowerment.AnActionAidstudyfoundthatgirlswhohadcompletedsecondaryschoolhadlowerrisksofHIVinfectionandpracticedsafersexthanthosewhohadcompletedprimaryschoolonly27.Inthiscontext,slowornon-existentprogressonincreasinggirls’enrolmentinsecondaryschoolsisofseriousconcern.Insomeregions,gapsarewidening,suchasinsub-SaharanAfricawheretheratioofgirls’toboys’enrolmentinsecondaryeducationfellfrom82in1999to79in2007,inOceaniawhereitfellfrom89to87,andinCISwhereitfellfrom101to98inthesameperiod28.

Women’s share of waged non-agricultural employment has increased in the last decade, but only slightly.Globally,womenaccountforalmost40percentofthetotalemploymentinthissector.ButinSouthAsia,NorthAfricaandWestAsia,employmentopportunitiesforwomenremainextremelylimited.Andwhilemorewomenhavesecuredpaidjobsoutsideofagriculture,theyhavegenerallyfailedtoaccessdecentwork.Closetotwo-thirdsofallemployedwomenindevelopingcountries,andoverfiftypercentgloballyareworkinginvulnerablejobs,eitherascontributingfamilyworkersorasown-accountworkers29.InMarch2009,theILOestimatedthatbetween10millionand22millionmorewomenwouldbecomeunemployedin2009andwomenwouldbepushedintoinsecurejobsatafasterratethanmenasaresultoftheglobaleconomicandfinancialcrises;thisfigureisnowestimatedtohavebeen18.7million30.

There is a slow rate of improvement in women’s share of national parliamentary seats, averaging 18 per cent as of January 2009.Worldwide,approximatelyoneoutofeveryfiveparliamentariansisawoman.Whilethepercentageisfarfromthe30percenttargetenvisionedintheBeijingPlatformforAction,itrepresentsarisefrom11.6percentin1995,whichisasignificantlygreaterincreasethantheonepercentincreaseregisteredbetween1975and1995.However,atthecurrentrateofprogress,


itwilltakedevelopedcountriesatleast20yearsandallothercountriescloserto40yearstoreachtheparityzonebetween40and60percent31.

Progress on women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights has been far too slow. TheMDGs,CairoConsensusfromtheInternationalConferenceonPopulationandDevelopment(ICPD)andtheBeijingPlatformforActionallhighlightthecrucialrolethatsexualandreproductivehealthissuesplayintheabilityofwomenandgirlstoclaim,realizeandenjoytheirhumanrights.However,MDG5onmaternalmortalityisoneofthemostoff-trackofallthegoalsandcontinuestotakeanunacceptabletollonwomen’slives.Anestimated500,000maternaldeathsoccureachyear,85percentoftheminsub-SaharanAfricaandSouthernAsia32.HIVinfectionratesamongwomen,particularlyyoungwomen,continuetogrow.Inthiscontext,theinclusionofthetargetofuniversalaccesstoreproductivehealthwithinMDG5isawelcomerecognitionoftheessentialrolethatreproductivehealthplaysasafoundationforwomen’srights.

Articulating and supporting the gender equality elements of all other MDGs will accelerate progress in achieving MDG 3. Improvingwomen’saccesstodecentwork,asenvisagedinthenewindictorofMDG1,providesopportunitiesforwomentoaccessnon-agriculturalwageemployment,asanimportantbasisofeconomicempowerment.Addressingandarticulatingwomen’ssexualandreproductivehealthandreproductiverightsprovidesclearbenefitsintermsofgirls’education,women’sinvolvementinpaidemployment,theircontrolofeconomicresources,anddecision-makingatalllevels.Sinceitiswomenwhousuallybeartheburdenofcollectingwater,progressonMDG7isvitaltoenablewomenandgirlstoattendschool,accesspaidemployment,participateintheircommunitiesandsoon.

Ontheotherhand,failuretomaketheselinkscanimpedeprogressonMDG3.Forinstance,thegrowingratesofHIVinfectionareanimpedimenttogirls’ability

tocompleteprimaryandsecondaryschool.WhenaparentfallsillwithanAIDS-relatedillness,itisdaughterswhoarestatisticallymorelikelytobecalledupontodropoutofschooltoshouldertheburdenofcareandrunthehousehold33.

There is growing recognition that the targets and indicators that frame the goal on gender equality and women’s empowerment are too limited.Asnoted,additionalindicatorsinMDGs1and5onwomen’semploymentandreproductivehealtharewelcome.However,beyondthis,an“MDG3plus”34perspective,whichtakesintoaccountothercriticalformsofdiscriminationandfactorsthatperpetuategenderinequality,suchasviolenceagainstwomen,unequalaccesstohousing,inheritance,landandpropertyrights,women’sunequalshareofunpaidcareworkandinfrastructureburdens,isincreasinglybeingputforwardbybilateralandmultilateralorganizations,aswellasbeingreflectedinnationalMDGreports35.

Progress on all the MDGs is dependent on progress on gender equality and women’s rights. ItisevidentthatcontinuingdiscriminationagainstgirlsandwomenwillmakeitdifficulttofullyachieveanyoftheMDGs.Womenandgirlsaccountforroughlyhalfoftheworld’spopulation,but,accordingtoinformalestimates,comprisethemajorityofthepoorandexcluded.Evidencesuggeststhat,asidefrombeinghighlyinequitable,women’slackofaccesstoland,aswellasagriculturalinputsandcredit,isimpedingprogressontacklinghungerandtheachievementofMDG136.By2005,girlsalreadyaccountedfor57percentoftheworld’sout-of-schoolpopulation,apercentagelikelytoincreaseashouseholdscopewithfallingincome37.Whilewomenremaintheprimarycaregiversforchildren,thecausesofchildmortalitywillremainintimatelylinkedwiththerightsofwomen.Globally,fourmillionbabiesdieeachyearinthefirstfourweeksoflife,butthree-quartersofthesedeathscouldbepreventedifwomenwereadequatelynourishedandreceivedappropriatecareduringpregnancy,childbirthandthepostnatalperiod38.


Maternalmortalitydecreasedbylessthantwopercentperyearbetween1990and2005,wellunderthe5.5percentannualimprovementneededtoreachthetargetforMDG539.Meanwhile,aUNsurveyin177countriesshowsthatwomencollectingwaterspendanestimated40billionhourscollectingwatereachyear–equivalenttoayear’slabourfortheentirework-forceinFrance40.

AsnotedbytheSecretary-Generalinthe2005reportIn Larger Freedom: Toward Security Development and Human Rights for All:

In order to reduce poverty and promote global prosperity for all, I urge Heads of State and Government to: … (j) Reaffirm gender equality and the need to overcome pervasive gender

bias by increasing primary school completion and secondary school access for girls, ensuring secure tenure of property to women, ensuring access to reproductive health services, promoting equal access to labour markets, providing opportunity for greater representation in government decision-making bodies, and supporting direct interventions to protect women from violence41.

Atthesametime,thereisgrowingknowledgeaboutthepoliciesandinnovationsthatpropelprogresstowardsMDG3.Securingagreaterproportionofdomesticandexternalresources,includingdevelopmentassistancetoreplicateandscale-upsuccessfulstrategiesiscriticaltoensuringthattheirbenefitsaccruetomanymorewomenandmen.

FIGURE:BASELINES,TARGETS,ANDPERFORMANCE

FIGURE1.GENDEREQUITYINDEXBYREGION,SHOWINGPROGRESSBETWEEN2004AND2007

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

GEI

Middle East& North Africa

India 40 South Asia(excluding India)

Central Asia

53

48 49

63 64

75East Asia & Pacific(excluding China)

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Latin America & Caribbean

Europe

NorthAmerica

17 12

Region GEI 2008500,000,000 people

Significantprogress

Slightprogress

Slightregression

Significantregression

Region withno data tocalculateevolution

China 69

50

Source:Adaptedfromhttp://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesyRetrocesos/IEG_2008/inicio_accesos.htm


4. PATHWAYS TO PROGRESS ON GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT: ANALYSIS OF SUCCESSFUL FACTORS AND MEASURES

4A.GENDERPARITYINEDUCATION

Althoughtheinitial2005dateforeliminatinggenderdisparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducationwasmissed,theachievementofgenderparityineducationisanareainwhichtheMDGshavehadconsiderablesuccess,particularlyattheprimarylevel.In2000,Secretary-GeneralKofiAnnanlaunchedtheUnitedNationsGirls’EducationInitiative(UNGEI)astheprincipalmechanismandplatformforaddressinggenderandgirls’education.Todate,UNGEIpartnershipsareformallyrecognizedinaquarterofcountriesaroundtheworld.

UNGEIoperatesatglobal,regionalandcountrylevels.Atthegloballevel,ithassuccessfullyadvocatedforthebroaderinclusionofgender,HIVandAIDS,childhooddisabilityandchildlaborissuesintheappraisalprocessfortheEducationforAllFastTrackInitiative(EFA-FTI)funding.Atthecountrylevel,ithassupportedcountriesinundertakinggenderauditsoftheeducationsector42.

TheLatinAmericaandCaribbeanregioniswellontracktoachievethetarget,with25of27countriesforwhichdataexisthavingachievedparityinbothprimaryandsecondaryeducation.Eighteenof21countriesinEuropeandCentralAsiaand15of17countriesinEastAsiaandthePacificwithavailabledataareontrackorhaveachievedthistarget.Insub-SaharanAfrica,20of37countriesforwhichdataexistarenotontrack,andanother10countrieslackdata.SouthAsiaandsub-SaharanAfricalagbehindatalllevelsforthistarget,particularlyatthetertiarylevel.Tenofthe

22fragilestates(forwhichdataexist)areseriouslyofftrack,andonly6haveachievedthetarget43.Worldwide,53ofthe171countrieswithavailabledatahaveachievedgenderparityinbothprimaryandsecondaryeducation,14morecountriesthanin1999.Thatover100countrieshaveyettoreachthetargetisasourceofconcern44.

Worldwide,therearemorewomenthanmenenrolledintertiaryeducation.Indevelopedregionsthereisnowareversegendergap:129femalesto100males.Indevelopingregionsthegapisnarrowing:96femalesto100males.GirlsaremuchmorelikelytoproceedtotertiaryeducationinCIScountries,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,andSouth-EastAsia.Fewerhaveadvancedtotertiaryeducationinsub-SaharanAfrica,SouthAsiaandOceania45.

Whathashelpedtomakeadifference?Elimination of user fees.Eliminatinguserfeesforprimaryeducationhascontributedsignificantlytotheimprovementoffemaleenrolmentinanumberofcountries,includinginsub-SaharanLeastDevelopedCountries46.Userfeesareaparticularbarriertoschoolattendanceforchildrenfrompoorand/orruralhouseholds,girls,orphans,andchildrenwithdisabilities.Theabolitionoffeesfunctionsmosteffectivelywhenpartofabroadgovernmentcommitmenttoachievingfreeuniversalprimaryeducation.

Eliminationofschoolfeesdoesnotnecessarilyremoveallcostsforparents.Insomecases,feesforbooksoruniformsandtransportcostsmaybe

TARGET3A: Eliminategenderdisparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducationpreferablyby2005,andatalllevelsby2015

Indicator:3.1Ratiosofgirlstoboysinprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducation


prohibitiveforfamiliesthatwanttosendchildrentoschool.TheSchoolFeeAbolitionInitiative(SFAI),ledbyUNICEFinpartnershipwiththeWorldBank,UNESCO,AssociationfortheDevelopmentofEducationinAfrica(ADEA)andotherscontinuestosupportcountries’effortstoestablishandintegratepoliciesandstrategiesthataddresscostbarrierstoeducationwithinnationalplanningprocesses,specificallythroughtheEducationforAllFastTrackInitiative(EFA-FTI)partnership47.

InMalawi,thepolicyoffreeprimaryschoolingwasadvocatedintheearly1990sonthegroundsofequity.Thecountrypartiallyabolishedfeesintheearly1990sandin1994thenewgovernmentannouncedfullabolitionofallprimaryschoolfeeseffectivefornewstudents.Thisledtoasurgeinenrolmentfrom1.9millionstudentsin1993-1994to2.9millionstudentsin1999-2000.Girls’netenrolmentratewentfrom47percentin1991to97percentin1999,whereithassincestabilized.Asaconsequenceoftheabolitionofprimaryschoolfees,secondarygrossenrolmentratesincreasedfrom8percentin1991to28percentin2005.Importantly,enrolmentratesamongpoorergroupsinMalawiincreasedtoagreaterextentthanrichergroups;however,thereremainsawidedisparityingirls’secondaryenrolmentratesbetweenrichandpoorhouseholds48.

SierraLeone,emergingfromaprolongedconflict,increasedtheratioofgirlstoboysattheprimaryschoollevelfrom0.71in2000-2005to0.9in2006-2007.Importantly,earlyinthedecade,SierraLeoneadoptedaNationalMillenniumGoalcommittingtoprovidinggirlswiththesameeducationopportunitiesasboys.Thiswasfollowedin2004byaneducationactthatmadesixyearsofprimaryeducationandthreeyearsofsecondaryeducationcompulsoryforallchildren.Primaryeducationfeeswereabolishedin2001andin2003,fullsupportwasprovidedtoallgirlswhoenterJuniorSecondarySchoolsintheEasternandNorthernRegions49.

Demand-side financing mechanisms.TheWorldBankhasintroducedstipends,targetedvouchers,bursariesandotherdemand-sidefinancingmechanismsin30countriestoencouragetheenrolmentofpoorchildrenandgirlsatalllevelsofeducationinanefforttooffsettheindirectopportunitycosts.ProgrammessuchasGuatemala’sEduque a la Nina,Brazil’sBolsa Familia,andMexico’sOportunidadesessentiallyinvolvepaymentstofamiliestoenroltheirchildren,withnotablesuccessinincreasingenrolmentsamongpoorfamilies50.Criticalin-depthstudiesassessingthelong-termeffectivenessoftheseprogrammesarestillpending,butinitialresearchsuggeststhatmanyofthebenefitsaretheresultofwomen’scapacitytotreatserviceprovisionasacommercialtransactioninwhichtheychoosebetweenprivateproviders51.

InBangladesh,theFemaleSecondarySchoolStipendprogrammehasprovidedmoneydirectlytogirlsandtheirfamiliestocovertuitionandothercosts,ontheconditionthattheyenrolinsecondaryschoolandremainunmarrieduntiltheageof18.By2005,girlsaccountedfor56percentofsecondaryschoolenrolmentintheareascoveredbytheprogramme,comparedwith33percentin199152.InGhana,theLivelihoodEmpowermentAgainstPoverty(LEAP)programmeisbeingdevelopedasanationalsocialprotectionstrategythatprovidesdirectcashtransferstosupportthepoorestandmostvulnerablesegmentsofthepopulation.Participatinghouseholdsarerequiredtoenrolandkeepallschool-agechildreninpublicschools53.

Community and NGO managed schools.CommunityschoolsareplayinganimportantroleinsomeWestAfricancountriessuchasChadandMali,aswellasinpartsofAsia.Communityschoolsarefinancedbyparentsincontextswherethestateisunabletoprovidepubliceducation.Theymayalsoreceivesomeassistancefromthepublicsector,suchastheprovisionofmaterialsorteachers.Communityschoolswereoftenconsideredillegalinthepast,thoughtheyarenowgenerallyrecognized,withnamessuchasécoles clandestines.Theschoolschargefees,often


accordingtofamilyincome.Paymentofthesefeescanplayanimportantroleinbuildinglocalownershipofschool-relatedactivities.Morethan35percentofprimaryschoolchildreninTogoattendcommunityschools,withevenhigherproportionsinChad,wherelocalcommunitieshaveplayedasignificantroleinfinancingandoperatingschools54.InBangladesh,thepolicyoffreeeducationforgirlsuptogradeeightandthespacecreatedforNGO-runnon-formalschoolslargelyexplainsthecountry’ssuccessinachievinggenderparity.Non-formalschoolsrunbyNGOSaccountfor8.5percentofprimaryschoolenrolmentandhavegrownfour-foldinatenyearperiod.Non-formalprogrammeshavebeenparticularlybeneficialforgirlsastheyofferflexibility55.

More female teachers.Nepalhasmadesteadyprogressinreducingthegenderdisparityinprimaryeducation.In2000theratioofgirlstoboysattheprimaryschoollevelwas0.79.By2005itwas0.86andby2007itwas0.99.Inadditiontoraisingpublicawarenessontheimportanceofeducatinggirls,theNepalesegovernmenttookanumberofaffirmativeactionmeasures.Itmadeaprovisionthatatleastonefemaleteacherberecruitedforeveryprimaryschoolandstipulatedthatatleastonewomanhadtobeamemberofthemanagementcommitteesofinstitutionalandcommunityschools,villagemanagementcommitteesanddistricteducationcommittees.Institutionalschoolswereaskedtoensurethatatleast5percentoftheirscholarshipswenttogirlsandotherdisadvantagedstudents,whilecommunityschoolswereaskedtowaiveallfeesforpoorgirls56.

InthepastoralGoaregionofnorth-eastMali,communitiesmovefrequentlyandenrolmentofgirlsinschoolsisstillverylow.Oxfamhasworkedwithanimatrices–femalecommunityworkers–topromotegenderawarenessandqualityeducationthroughaflexibleapproachthataimstoincreasethenumberofgirlswhogotoandstayinschool.Effortsaremadetoensurethattheyacquirerelevantandlong-termbasicskillsinmathematics,literacy,healthandnutrition.Animatricesarelocalwomen,whomostlyhavecompletedsixyearsofprimaryeducation.Theyworkwithparents,tellingthemabouttheimportanceandvalueofschoolingforbothgirlsandboys.Theymonitorgirls’attendanceandworkwithteacherstoensureasafeandfriendlyschoolenvironment.Whengirlsdropoutofschool,theanimatricestalkwithfamiliestofindoutthereasonswhyandtoencouragethegirlstoreturn.Theprogrammehasusedarights-basedapproachwhichhasbeguntotransformbeliefsaboutschoolingforgirls57.

BOX2:CONDITIONALCASHTRANSFERPROGRAMS

InMexico,Oportunidades,formerlyknownasProgresa,isaconditionalcashtransferprogramaimedatdevelopingthehumancapitalofpoorhouseholds.Theprogramprovidesmonetarytransferstofamiliescontingentuponchildren’sregularschoolattendance.Thetransfersareprovidedtofamiliesandthebenefitlevelsareintendedtooffsettheopportunitycostsofsendingchildrentoschool.Transfersincreasewiththegradelevelinschool—recognizingthattheopportunitycostofchildren’stimeincreasesastheygrowolder.Furthermore,todiscouragegirlsfromabandoningschool,Oportunidadesoffershighermonetaryscholarshipstogirlsversusboysfromthefirstyearofsecondaryschool.Impactevaluationsoftheprogramindicatethatithassignificantlyincreasedtheenrolmentofchildren,particularlygirlsandespeciallyatthesecondaryschoollevel.Theresultsindicatethatthechildrenwillhaveanaverageof0.7yearsofextraschoolingbecauseofOportunidades(WorldBank,2004).


What continues to impede progress?Povertyremainsakeyimpedimenttoachievinggenderparityinprimaryandsecondaryeducation.Povertyincreaseschildlaborforbothgirlsandboys,interferingwiththeireducation.TheILOestimatesthatsome100milliongirlsareinvolvedinchildlabouraroundtheworld58.Manyhavelittleornoaccesstoeducationandworkinsituationsthatplacetheirhealthandsafetyinseriousdanger.

Therearetwoimportantactionsthatcountriescantaketoimprovetherelevanceandimpactofactiononthistarget.Thefirstistotrackattendanceandcompletionofschool,inadditiontoenrolment.Girlsoftendropoutorfailtoattendforreasonssuchasdistancefromhome,lackoforpoorsanitaryfacilities,classsize,orpoorschoolsecurity.Oldergirlsmaybeneededforhouseholdorfarmlabour,ormaydropoutduetoearlymarriageorhighpovertylevels.

BerhaneHewanisaUNFPA-supportedprogrammeinEthiopiathattargetsgirlsatriskofchildmarriage,focusedontheAmharaProvince,wherechildmarriageratesareamongthehighestintheworld.Theprogrammepromotesfunctionalliteracy,lifeskills,reproductivehealtheducationandopportunitiesforsavingmoneyforbothmarriedgirlsandgirlsatriskofchildmarriage.Indevelopingtheproject,localMinistryofYouthandSportsstafffeltstronglythattheprogrammeneededtoaddresstheeconomicmotivesforthepracticeofchildmarriage.Accordingly,economicincentiveswereaddedtoencouragefamiliestoallowtheirdaughterstoparticipateingirls’groupsthatmeetfivedaysperweek,andtoremaininschool.Animpactevaluationundertakentwoyearsaftertheprogrammestartedfoundsignificantlyfewergirlsintheexperimentalareahadbeenmarriedduringearlyadolescence(ages10–14)comparedtogirlsofsimilarageinacontrolsite.Marriedgirlslivingintheprojectsitewerenearlythreetimesmorelikelytousefamilyplanningmethods59.

Thesecondactionistoincreaseattentiontothequalityofeducation,whichisnotmeasuredbytheMDGs.Programmestoincreasethenumbersofwomenteachersandtoimproveschoolsecurity,infrastructureandtransportcontributedtoincreasesinthenumbersofgirlsattendingschoolinNepalandBangladesh.Increasedenrolmentcanputstrainsonthequalityofeducation,asdemonstratedinKenyawheretheadoptionofuniversalprimaryeducationgenerated1.3millionnewstudents,placingteachingstaffandexistinginfrastructureundertremendousstrain.Holisticandcomprehensiveapproachestoqualityeducationcanmitigatetheseeffects.Duringthelasttenyears,theChildFriendlySchoolsapproachhasdevelopedasamodelofintegratedqualityeducation60.Holisticapproacheshaveafar-reachingimpactonsocieties,transformingnotonlythelivesofgirlsandboys,butalsothecommunitieswheretheschoolsarelocated.Thesemodelsstrengthengirls’educationandpromotegenderequalitythroughteachereducation,creatingflexiblelearningenvironmentsthatrespondtothecontextandneedsofthelearners.Further,planningandprogrammingofqualityeducationallowsasystem-widefocusongender-basedviolence,provisionoflifeskillseducation,improvingsafetyandsecurity,andpreventionandprotectionincontextsofHIVandAIDSandconflict.

Qualitativeindicatorsarealsoneededtomonitorthecurriculumandteachers’attitudestoensurethatgirls’andboys’capabilitiesareequallysupportedandthatgenderstereotypesarenotreinforcedthroughtheschoolsystem61.

Finally,whileliteracyisaccountedforinMDG2,adultilliteracycontinuestobeheavilyskewedtowardswomen.Althoughgloballiteracyisrising,womenstillmakeuptwo-thirdsoftheworld’silliteratepeople62.Thisisexacerbatedbythestrongfocusinmanycountriesonprimaryeducationwhichcanexcludeilliterateyouth,nolongereligibleforprimaryschool.


4B.GENDERPARITYINNON-AGRICULTURALEMPLOYMENT

ThesecondindicatorofMDG3istheshareofwomeninwageemploymentinthenon-agriculturalsector.Thefocusonthenon-agriculturalsectorreflectsthebenefitsofwomen’sintegrationintothemonetaryeconomy,intermsofgreaterautonomy,controloverhouseholddecision-makingandpersonaldevelopment.

Globally,theshareofwomeninpaidemploymentoutsidetheagriculturalsectorhasincreasedmarginally.ButinSouthAsia,NorthAfricaandWestAsia,employmentopportunitiesremainverylow.Insub-SaharanAfrica,64percentofwomen’semploymentisinagriculture.InNorthAfricaandWestAsia,only23percentand21percentofworking-agewomen,respectively,areemployed63.LatinAmericahasshownsomepositivetrends.DatafromtheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)showthatbetween1990and2005women’economicparticipationpracticallydoubledinabsolutenumbersfortheregionasawholeandthatitwillincreasefurtherbyupto70percentbetween2005and203064.

EMPLOYEESINNON-AGRICULTURALWAGEEMPLOYMENTWHOAREWOMEN,1990AND2007,ANDPROJECTIONSTO2015(PERCENTAGE)65

Sub-Saharan AfricaNorthern AfricaWestern AsiaSouthern Asia

CISEastern AsiaLatin America & the CaribbeanSouth-Eastern AsiaOceania

329

3

20 21

19

21

37 37

41

44

2124

43

45

3637

5152

0

10

20

30

40

50

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2007 2015

Indicator:3.2Shareofwomeninwageemploymentinthenon-agriculturalsector


Womensuffermultipledisadvantagesinaccesstolabourmarketsandoftendonothavethesamefreedomtochoosetoworkasmen.Genderdifferencesinlabourforceparticipationrates,unemploymentratesandgenderwagegapsareapersistentfeatureofgloballabourmarkets.

Closetotwo-thirdsofallemployedwomenindevelopingcountriesworkeitherascontributingfamilyworkersorasown-accountworkers,extremelyvulnerableemploymentwhichlacksecurityandbenefits.ThisisespeciallytrueinOceaniaandSouthAsia,wherethelargestshareofwomen’semploymentisascontributingfamilyworkers:64percentand46percent,respectively67.Thelargeshareofunpaidjobsaddstothealreadyheavyburdenofunpaidworkcarriedoutbywomeninhouseholdsinallregions,whichisnotreflectedinofficiallabourforcestatistics68.

Atlessthan30percent,thelabourforceparticipationofwomeninWestAsiaandNorthAfricaisthelowestintheworld69.Manyfemaleworkersareconcentratedinservicesectorsandtendtobethefirsttolosetheirjobsinthetimeofeconomicregressionandthelasttoobtainemploymentinthetimeofrecovery70.Formanyprivatesectoremployers,women’sdoubleburdenofearningalivingandcaringfortheirfamiliesisviewedasanimpedimenttotheirproductivity,despitesignificantincreasesinthelevelsofwomen’seducationinrecentyears.

Intermsofhavingaccesstodecentandproductiveemploymentopportunitiesacrosstheworld,youthhavebeenparticularlyhardhit.Globally,thefemaleshareofinactiveyouthwas56.5percentin2007.Women’syouthunemploymentwasbetween1.8to4.6timeshigherthanfemaleadultunemploymentratesacrossregionsin2007,showingasimilarpatternasformale

WOMENINTHELABOURFORCE:LABOURFORCEPARTICIPATIONRATEBYREGION,1990AND200866

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

1990

2008

CIS

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Easte

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Latin

Ame

rica a

nd th

e Car

ibbea

n

North

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frica

Ocea

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South

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South

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Sub-

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Wes

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youth.However,femaleyouthunemploymentwasmuchhigherthanthecorrespondingmaleratesinLatinAmericaandCaribbean,NorthAfrica,andtheMiddleEastin200771.

Whathashelpedtomakeadifference?Agrowingbodyofevidencesuggeststhateconomicgrowthandpovertyreductionisspurredbyimprovementstowomen’saccesstoeducation,healthcare,jobsandcredit,andeffortstonarrowthegendergapineconomicopportunities72.Whenwomencanfinddecentjobsandacquireassets,theyearnincomesandaccumulatesavingstohelpthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Lessisknownaboutwhichinterventionsaremosteffectiveinsustainableprogresstowardswomen’seconomicsecurityandrights.CountryexperiencesinAsiashowthathigher

educationforyoungwomendoesnotnecessarilyleadtobetteremploymentoutcomesasgenderbarriersinlabourmarketspersist73.Aclearunderstandingofwhatworksbestiscriticalformobilizingpoliticalandfinancialsupportforwomen’seconomicempowerment.

Positive action in employment programmes.In2005,theIndianGovernmentpassedtheNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct(NREGA),whichresultedinthecreationoftheworld’slargestsocialsafetynetprogrammebasedontherighttowork.Thelawguarantees100daysofemploymentonruralpublicworksprojectstoamemberofeveryruralhousehold,andone-thirdoftheworkersareintendedtobewomen.Theprogrammeallowsamultiplenumberofeligiblememberstoregisterononejob

BOX3:GENDEREQUALITYATTHEHEARTOFDECENTWORK

ILOpromotesgenderequalityattheheartofitsDecentWorkagenda,whichiscapturedinfourstrategicobjectives:fundamentalprinciplesandrightsatworkandinternationallabourstandards;employmentandincomeopportunitiesforwomenandmen;socialprotectionandsocialsecurityforall;andsocialdialogueandtripartism.Theseobjectivesholdforallworkers,womenandmen,inbothformalandinformaleconomies;inwageemploymentorworkingontheirownaccount;inthefields,factoriesandoffices;intheirhomeorinthecommunity.

TheresolutiononGenderEqualityattheHeartofDecentWorkadoptedbytheInternationalLabourConferencein2009furtherguideseffortstowardsalabourmarketinwhichallwomenandmencanparticipatefreelyandactively.Itcalls,forexample,formeasurestofacilitatewomen’seconomicempowermentthroughentrepreneurshipdevelopment,toaddressunequalremunerationbetweenwomenandmen,toenhancesocialprotectionforall,tostrengthenwomen’sparticipationinsocialdialogueonanequalfootingwithmen,andtopreventandeliminateviolenceagainstwomenatwork.

Insomeregions,cooperativesandenterpriseclustersarepowerfulvehiclesofsocialinclusionandsocialandeconomicempowermentforwomen.Womenarebecomingbetterorganizedinsectorswheretheyhavetraditionallybeendiscriminatedagainstandgainingbetteraccesstofinanceandbusinessservicescateringtotheirspecificneeds.

Gender Equality at the Heart of Decent Work:http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/publication/wcms_093653.pdf


card,whichisgiventoahousehold.NREGAreflectstheGovernment’scommitmenttosupportingwomen’semployment,includingthroughtheprovisionoflocalprojectsandchildcarefacilities.Women’sshareofemploymentintheschemehasbeenover40percent,risingto82percentinTamilNadu.NREGAischangingthegenderedlandscapeofruralwork.InDungarpur,Rajasthan,forexample,morethantwo-thirdsoftheworkonNREGAprojects–digging,breaking,liftinganddepositingstones–isdonebywomen,whoclaimtheirworkandtheirwageswithpride74.AnILOreportrecommendedamendmentstotheprogrammebecauseitcurrentlyoverlooksunmarriedorwidowedwomenwholivewiththeirfamiliesanddonotqualifyasaseparatehousehold75.

Supporting women’s entrepreneurship growth. Self-employmentisanotherstrategyfortheeconomicempowermentofwomenandtheirfamiliesasitprovidesanimportantoptionformanyenteringworkforthefirsttimeindevelopingcountries.Sincewomenfacebarriersinaccesstocredit,trainingandtechnology

inmanycountriesagenderfocuscanhelptodevelopwomen’sentrepreneurship76.AnILO/USDOLsupportedprojectinBangladesh,whichassistedover4,000womenmicro-entrepreneurs,hasshownsubstantialimprovementofwomen’sincomelevels,householdlandownership,healthstatusandworkingconditions.

TheUgandaWomenEntrepreneursAssociation(UWEAL)providesanothergoodexample.UWEAL,withmembershipofmorethan1,000womenandprogrammesinsevendistrictsofUganda,offersawiderangeofservicestofemaleentrepreneurs.UWEAL,onbehalfofitsmembers,alsoactivelyengagesinpolicydialogueandparticipatesindebatesonlegislation,particularlyrelatingtopropertyrights.UWEALhaslobbiedtheAfricanDevelopmentBanktoofferguaranteeloanstowomen.UWEALcurrentlyalsoservesasthecentrefortheInternationalTradeCentre-SupportedAccessProgramme.ThislinksUWEAL’sprogrammeswithotherinitiativesandtrainingsonexportmarkets77.

Positiveactionhasproveneffectiveinaddressingtheinadequateparticipationofwomeninseniormanagementandcorporateboards.TheWorldBank’senterprisesurveysindicatethatabouthalfofthefirmsinEastAsiaandthePacifichavefemaleparticipationinownership,comparedwithonly13percentinSouthAsiaand18percentintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica.Thepercentageofwomeninseniorpositionsisfarsmaller,rangingfromtwopercentinSouthAsiato13percentinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean78.Globally,thereisonewomanforeveryninemeninseniormanagementinfirms79.In2008,NorwaymadeitcompulsoryforNorwegiancompaniestohaveatleast40percentfemalemembershipontheirmanagementboards,ameasurethataffected487publiccompanies.Today,40.1percentofboardmembersinpubliclimitedcompaniesarewomen80.

Benchmarking standards for gender equality in the private sector.Womeninthelabourmarketinmiddleincomecountriesareoftenrelegatedtodead-endjobswithpoorsalariesandworking

BOX4:THEGLOBALJOBSPACT

TheGlobalJobsPactwasadoptedbytheInternationalLabourConferenceinJune2009tohelpmitigatethesocialimpactofthefinancialandeconomiccrises.Recognizingthatthecrisespresentanopportunitytoreshapepolicyresponses,thePactcallsforrecoverypackagesthatfullyintegrategenderequalityconcernsandinvolvewomenindecision-makinganddesign.Indoingso,itisimportanttorecognizethelabourmarketdisadvantagesthatwomenmayface.Womencarrytheheaviestburdenwhenitcomestounpaidcarework.Asthecrisesdeepen,ifpoliciesforsharingcareresponsibilitiesarenotdeveloped,thisislikelytofurtherlimitwomen’saccesstolabourmarkets.


conditions.Agrowingnumberofinitiativesarecreatingamoreconduciveenvironmentforwomenworkersintheprivatesectorbyintroducinggenderequality‘seals’oraccreditationprocesses.

InEgypt,theGenderEquityModelEgypt(GEME)isajointpilotproject,replicatedfromexperiencesinMexicoandBrazil,betweentheGovernment,theWorldBankandUNIFEM81.GEMEhassetupavoluntarycertificationschemewithminimumstandardsforhiring,trainingandpromotingwomeninprivatesectorfirms.Companiesthatmeetthesestandardsearnagenderequityseal,whichservesaspublicrecognitionoftheireffortstoembracecorporatesocialresponsibilitynormsforwomenandpromoteaconduciveandproductiveworkingenvironmentformenandwomen.GEMEhasbeenpilotedin10Egyptiancompanies,withanumberoffirmsnowinvestingtheirownresourcesinongoingtrainingprogrammesongenderequalityfortheiremployees.

InCentralAmerica,theEqualitySealisavoluntarycertificationprocessthatverifiesthatthecompanyismeetingstandardsthatpromoteworkplaceequalitybetweenmenandwomen.Forexample,Fresquita VegetalesisacertifiedprivatesectorenterpriseinCostaRicathatpromotesgenderequalityinrecruitment,remuneration,trainingopportunitiesandlabourrights.Ithaspoliciesagainstsexualharassmentandforwork/familybalance,suchasmaternityleaveandflexibleschedulesforpregnantandbreastfeedingworkers82.

Advocacy for gender–responsive labour and employment laws and policies.Women’snetworksandprofessionalassociationsareimportantasadvocatesforgender-responsivelabourlegislationandpolicies,toenablewomentoaccesstraining,andtofosterinformationsharing.Developingcountriesshouldbesupportedtoprovidesocialprotection,withtheaimofestablishinguniversalaccesstosocialsecurity,aswellastohealthandeducation.Effortsto

expandcost-sharematernityprotection(bothincomecompensationandmedicalsubsidiesformaternity)andaffordable,goodqualitychildcare,includingcommunity-basedfacilitiesareimportant.Theynotonlyenablewomentoparticipateinemploymentoutsidetheirhomes,buttheyalsocreateemploymentopportunitiesinthemselves.Inaddition,emphasizingmen’sparentalrolesandresponsibilitiesforunpaidworkshouldbeencouraged.

Gender–responsive service delivery.EssentialfortheachievementoftheMDGsindevelopingcountriesistheexpansionandeffectivedeliveryofbasicpublicservices.Thisposesamajorchallengeforlocalgovernmentsinparticular,astheytendtolacktheresourcesandcapacityneededtoensurethatallcitizensreceivebasicnecessities.Manycountries,particularlyinAfrica,arecurrentlyimplementingdecentralizationreformswhichaddtothischallenge.Asmoreresponsibilityisplacedonlocalgovernments,theyarehavingdifficultymeetingthegrowingdemandaloneandareturningtootheractors,includingtheprivatesector,resultinginagrowingnumberofpublic-privatepartnerships(PPPs).

Servicedeliverygapsarealsobeingfilledbycivilsocietyorganizations,includingwomen’sgroups.Grassrootswomen’sorganizationsandentrepreneurialgroupshavebeeninvolvedintransport,energy,andfoodsupplyservices.Therehasbeenagrowthofsavingsandcreditcooperativesformedbypoorwomentosupportmicro-enterprises.Apartfromprovidingthenecessaryservicedeliveryatlocallevels,thesepartnershipshaveprovidedwomenwithasourceofincome,whichhasprovenparticularlyeffectivesincewomenaremorelikelytospendresourcesonhouseholdexpenditures,healthcare,andeducation83.

Whatcontinuestoimpedeprogress?Wage gaps.Paydifferentialsremainoneofthemostpersistentformsofgenderinequality.Theyvary


betweenandwithincountries,aswellasacrosssectors.Throughoutmostregionsandmanyoccupations,womenarepaidlessmoneythanmenforthesamejob.Inamajorityofcountries,women’swagesrepresentbetween70and90percentofmen’swages,withevenlowerratiosinsomeAsianandLatinAmericancountries84.AWorldBankstudyinLebanonfounda27percentwagedifferencebetweenmaleandfemaleemployeesandthatwagegapsexistedwithinthesamesectorandoccupation,evenafteradjustingfordifferentlevelsofeducation85.AsillustratedintheexampleinBox4,highereducationcanmakeadifference,butcurrentgapsingirls’educationmeansthatthepotentialisrarelyachieved.

Genderwagegapsdirectlyimpactwomen’sopportunitycostsforenteringintopaidemployment.Becausewomen’sopportunitycostsaretypicallylowerthanmen’s,householdsoftendecidethatitismoreeconomicallypracticalforthewomantostayathome86.Evenachievingahigherlevelofeducationthanmendoesnotalwayshelpwomentogetqualityjobsorbetterpay.Akeychallengeistoencouragewomentoenternon-traditionalandmorehighlyvaluedcareerssuchasthescientificprofessionsandtechnicaloccupations.

SystematicallytrackingandaddressingwagegapsasacentralelementofMDG3isneededtoenableappropriatepolicyresponsesandcorrectivemeasures.Onesuchresponseistopassandimplementlegislationforequalpay,includingrequirementsforemployerstocarryoutpayauditsasthebasisforaddressingpersistentgenderwagegaps.

Social and legal protection for the most vulnerable women workers.Migrantandinformaleconomywomenworkerscompriseasignificantportionofthefemalelabourforceandrequirebothgender-responsivelawsandsocialprotectionpolicies.Globalizationhascontributedtoanincreasingflowofmigrantworkersfromcountrieswithlimitedeconomicopportunitiestofillgapsinnationswithadwindlinglaboursupply.TheWorldBankestimatedremittances

atUS$328billionin2008,revisedfromanearlierfigureof$305billion87.Thesemonetaryinvestments—usedforfood,housing,educationandmedicalservices—alongwithnewlyacquiredskillsofreturnees,canpotentiallycontributesignificantlytopovertyreduction.

Womenconstitute50percentormoreofthemigrantworkforceinAsiaandLatinAmerica88.Studiesindicatethatmigrantwomenworkerscontributetothedevelopmentofbothcountriesoforiginanddestinationandremittancesfromtheirincomesaccountforasmuchas10percentofGDPinsomecountries89.0Yet,whilemigrationcanpromoteeconomicindependenceandstatusforwomenworkers,italsobearsgreatrisksforwomen,manyofwhomareatthelowerendofthejobmarketandfacemultipleformsofdiscrimination.Migrationcanalsohavesocialimpactsforchildren,insomecasesincreasingeducationalopportunities,butinothersresultingincaredeficienciesinsendingcountries.Formigrationtohavealastingimpactonwomen’sempowermentandgenderequality,countriesofdestination,transitandoriginshouldadoptgender-sensitivemigrationpoliciessoastoenhancethebenefitsofmigrationondevelopmentandmitigateitssocialharmfuleffects.InJordan,aspecializeddepartmentformigrantdomesticworkerswasestablishedandastandardcontractformigrantdomesticworkerswasadoptedbytheGovernmentasthefirstofitskindintheMiddleEast90.AgenciesthatrecruitmigrantwomenworkersinNepal,LaoPDRandCambodiahavedevelopedcodesofconductandpre-departuretrainingtosupportwomentobetterunderstandtheirlabourrightsoncetheymigrate91.

Attention to the impact of child labour – particularly girls’ labour – is critical.TheILO’smostrecentglobalestimateshowedthatmorethan100milliongirlsbetweentheagesoffiveand17wereinvolvedinchildlabourin2004,contraveningtheConventionontheRightsoftheChild.Girlsaccountedforapproximately46percentofallchildworkers.Approximately53milliongirlswereestimatedtobe


inhazardouswork,ofwhich20millionwereunder12yearsold.Reliableestimatesontheextentoftheworstformsofchildlabourincludingcommercialsexualexploitationandforcedandbondedlabouraredifficulttoobtain,butstudiessuggestthatthemajorityofchildreninvolvedaregirls.Thereisalsoevidencethatgirlsareinvolvedinsignificantlymoreunpaidhouseholdservicesthanboys.Morethan35percentofworkingyouthbelowtheageof15areinemploymentfor21hoursormoreperweek.Thebarriersthispresentsfortheirparticipationineducationareadirectviolationoftheirrighttoeducation92.

4C.GENDERPARITYINPOLITICALREPRESENTATION

Globally,womenmakeup18.6percentofparliamentarians,stillfarfromthe30percentthatwasenvisagedintheBeijingPlatformforActionasrequiredtoachievea‘criticalmass’ofwomen’srepresentation(Table1).Nevertheless,thisrepresentsanincreaseofsevenpercentagepointssince1995.Inthetwodecadesbetween1975and1995,women’srepresentationrosebylessthanonepercent93.

Therearesignificantdifferenceswithinandbetweenregions.Theverypositiveresultsthatsomeoftheworld’spoorestcountries–includingpost-conflictcountries–havehadinincreasingwomen’sseatsinparliamentsshowthatachievementsonthisindicatorarerelatedmoretopoliticalwillthantolevelofdevelopment.Rwanda,forinstance,wasthefirstcountryintheworldtoelectmorewomenparliamentariansthanmenin2008,andnowhasthehighestnumberoffemaleparliamentariansintheworldat56.3percent.Swedenissecondat47percent,followedbySouthAfricaat44.5percentandCubaat43.2percent.

Table1:RegionalAveragesofWomeninNationalParliaments,October2009(%)94

SingleHouseorlowerHouse UpperHouseorSenate BothHousescombined

Nordiccountries 42.5 - -

Americas 22.6 20.2 22.2

Europe-OSCEcountriesincludingNordics 21.5 19.4 21.1

Europe-OSCEcountriesexcludingNordics 19.5 19.4 19.5

Asia 18.6 16.7 18.4

Sub-SaharanAfrica 17.8 21.0 18.2

Pacific 13.0 32.6 15.2

ArabStates 9.0 7.3 8.6

Indicator:3.3Proportionofseatsheldbywomeninnationalparliament


Overthepast10years,accordingtotheInter-ParliamentaryUnion,27countrieshaveatsomepointachieved30percentorhigherfemalerepresentationintheirparliaments(seebelow).Itisnoteworthythatsub-SaharanAfricaandLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanarewellrepresentedamongcountrieswithatleast30percentfemalerepresentationinparliamentwhileinAsiaonlyNepalhasreachedthislevel.

Whathashelpedtomakeadifference?Positive action and quotas.Constitutionalorelectorallawsmandatingquotasorspecialtemporarymeasuresarethestrongestmeansofincreasingwomen’sengagementinpoliticalcompetitionandareusedin46countries.Asof2008,theaveragerepresentationofwomenwas21.9percentincountriesthatusedthesetypesofquotasasopposedto15.3percentfortherestofthecountries.Othertypesoftemporaryspecialmeasures,suchasquotasatthesub-nationallevelorpoliticalpartyquotasraisethenumberofcountrieswithsuchquotasto95.Themajorityofcountrieswithwomenin30percentormoreofnationalassemblyseatsappliedquotasinsomeform96.

Quotasareimportantbecausegrantingwomentherighttovoteandrunforelectionisnot,initself,sufficient.Ittook30yearsbeforewomeninLebanonorMoroccowonseatsintheirnationalparliaments,althoughtheyhadbeengrantedpoliticalrightsinthe1940sand1950s97.

IntheKyrgyzRepublica‘policyofachievinggenderequality,’wasformulatedandlinkedtotheNationalActionPlan(NAP)for2007-2010.Animportantoutcomewastheestablishmentofthetargetof30percentforwomendeputiesoftheParliament98.In2005,therewerenowomeninParliamentandonlyonewomaninahighgovernmentposition.By2008,theKyrgyzRepublichadthehighestproportionofwomeninParliament(26.6percent)andingovernment(21percent)inCentralAsia99.

Stronger investments in women’s participation in governance at the local level.WhileMDG3focusesonnationalparliaments,itiscrucialtoprovidewomenwithopportunitiesandincentivestoleadatthelocallevel,wheretheresultsofwomen’sleadershipcanoftenbeseenmorequicklyandtheycanbuildconstituenciestosupporttheiraspirationsatthenationallevel.Agrowingnumberofcountries–fromCambodiatoArgentinaandRwanda–areintroducingquotasatthelocallevel.InIndia,a1992constitutionalreformintroducedgenderreservationsatalltiersoflocalgovernance,includingthelocalpanchayatvillagecouncilsystem.One-thirdofallcouncilseatswerereservedforwomen-onlycompetitionaswereone-thirdofcouncilheads(pradhan).Specificpanchayatcouncilswererandomlydesignatedtohaveafemaleleader.AstudyofasampleofpanchayatcouncilsinWestBengalandRajasthanvillagesfoundsystematicdifferencesinthewaythatpanchayatcouncilsrespondedtocomplaints.Inbothstateswomenweremorelikelythanmentomakerequestsandcomplaints

Table2:Countrieswithatleast30PerCentFemaleParliamentarianssince200095

Rwanda TheNetherlands NewZealand UnitedRepublicofTanzaniaSweden Norway Nepal GuyanaSouthAfrica Denmark Germany Timor-LesteCuba Angola Ecuador SwitzerlandIceland CostaRica Belarus FYRMacedoniaArgentina Spain Uganda AndorraFinland Belgium Burundi


concerningwaterresources,reflectingtheirroleasmanagersofdomesticwatersupplies.Therewerenodifferencesinthepatternofrequeststomale-ledandfemale-ledcouncils,butthenumberofdrinkingwaterprojectswasmorethan60percenthigherinfemale-ledthaninmale-ledpanchayats100.AstudyofmunicipalpoliticsinNorwayfoundadirectcausalrelationshipbetweentheproportionoffemalecitycouncillorsandchildcarecoverage101.

Proportional Representation (PR).Electoralsystemsareastrongpredictorofthenumberofwomeninrepresentativepolitics.PRoftenallowsmorewomentocompeteandwinthaninsimplemajoritysystems.Thisisbecausetheytendtohavemulti-memberconstituencieswhereseatsareassignedinproportiontothepercentageofvoteswonbytheparties,whichencouragemorediversityinpartyplatformsandcandidates.Simplemajoritysystemsinwhichonecandidatealonerepresentsaconstituencytendtodiscouragepartiesfromfieldingwomen.Outof176countriesforwhichdatawasavailablein2007,PRsystemshadaglobalaverageof20.7percentoftheirparliamentaryseatsheldbywomen,comparedto13.3percentinnon-PRsystems102.

Whatcontinuestoimpedeprogress?Evenatthecurrentrateofincrease,the‘parityzone’whereneithersexholdsmorethan60percentofseatswillnotbereachedfor40years.Moreover,thecurrentrateofincreaseisunlikelytobesustainedunlesscountriescontinueestablishingquotasorothertemporaryspecialmeasures.ThenewgenerationofquotasusedbycountriessuchasSpainandNorwayisworthhighlightingasparticularlyeffective.Thesequotasfollowtheprinciplesofbalancedgenderpresenceandapplytobothmenandwomen.

Creating an even playing field within political parties.Politicalpartiesarethemainroutetopoliticalparticipation,soensuringwomen’srepresentationandadvancementwithinthemiscrucial.Dataonfemalemembershipinpoliticalpartiesisdifficulttoobtain,but

a2008studyinLatinAmericarevealedthatevenincountriesinwhichwomen’smembershipinpartiesishigh,theirparticipationinleadershipremainsdisproportionatelylow.InParaguay,womenmakeup46.5percentofmembers,but18.9percentofexecutivepositions;45percentofpartymembersinPanamaarewomen,buttheyoccupyonly18.8percentofleadershippositions.InCostaRica,however,womenhold43.9percentofpartyleadershippositions,bringingwomenintotheparityzone.Thisistheresultofanelectoralcodeamendmentin1996,requiringCostaRicanpartiestofillatleast40percentoftheirleadershippostswithwomenin‘electablepositions’103.CostaRicahasrecentlyelecteditsfirstfemalePresident,LauraChinchilla.Improvingdataonpoliticalpartymembershipworldwideandopportunitiesforwomen’sleadershipinpartiesisakeystepinadvancingprogressonthisindicator.

4D.SEXUALANDREPRODUCTIVEHEALTHANDRIGHTS

Thecentralityofwomen’ssexualandreproductivehealthandrightsisrecognizedinseveralinternationalagreements,includingCEDAWandtheInternationalConferenceonPopulationandDevelopmentProgrammeofAction.Thelatterrecognizesthatadvancinggenderequalityandwomen’sempowerment,theeliminationofallkindsofviolenceagainstwomenandensuringwomen’sabilitytocontroltheirownfertilityarecornerstonesofpopulationanddevelopment-relatedprogrammes.ItstatesthatStatesshouldtakeallappropriatemeasurestoensure,onabasisofequalityofmenandwomen,universalaccesstohealthcareservices,includingthoserelatedtoreproductivehealthcare,whichincludesfamilyplanningandsexualhealth.Thebasicrightofallcouplesandindividualstodecidefreelyandresponsiblythenumberandspacingoftheirchildrenandtohavetheinformation,educationandmeanstodosoisalsoreaffirmed104.

Withoutcontrolovertheirownbodiesandfertility,itisverydifficultforwomentoaccessothersocial,


economicandpoliticalrights,ortobenefitandcontributetodevelopmentprocesses.InadditiontothethreenewindicatorsunderGoal5,theimportanceoftheserightsisalsoreflectedintwotargetsunderGoal6(seeBox5).

OneoftheMDGswheretherehasbeenleastprogressisMDG5onmaternalmortality.Accordingtonewanalysisoncurrenttrends,just23countriesareontracktomeetingthetargettoreducematernalmortalitybythree-quartersby2015.Globally,thenumberofmaternaldeathshasbeendecreasingbylessthantwopercentayearsince1990105.Toreachthetarget,globalannualreductionsof5.5percentareneeded.Inadditiontodeaths,between8and20millionmorewomenareaffectedbyseverepregnancy-relatedcomplications,whichinduceongoingmorbidityandlong-termdisability106.

ProgresstowardsthegoaltostopandreversethespreadofHIVandAIDShasoverallbeenmixed.At33.4millionpeople(adultsandchildren),theabsolutenumbersofpeoplelivingwithHIVaregreaterthaneverbefore.Insub-SaharanAfrica,womennowaccountfor61percentofthoselivingwiththevirus;intheCaribbean,womenaccountedfor50percentofalladultslivingwithHIV,upfrom37percentin2001;whileinAsia,theproportionofwomenlivingwithHIVrosefrom19percentin2000to35percentin2008107.

Thenumberofdeathshasfallenfrom2.1millionin2001to1.7millionin2007,mainlyasaresultofthegrowingavailabilityofantiretroviraldrugs.Althoughtheproportionofwomenreceivingservicesforpreventionofmother-tochildtransmissionofHIVincreasedfrom10percentin2004to45percentin2008,only21percentofpregnantwomenreceivedHIVtesting

Box5:SexualandreproductivehealthandrightsintheMDGs

GOAL5:ImproveMaternalHealth

TARGET5A:Reducebythreequarters,between1990and2015,thematernalmortalityratio•Maternalmortalityrate•Proportionofbirthsattendedbyskilledhealthpersonnel

TARGET5B:Achieve,by2015,universalaccesstoreproductivehealth•Contraceptiveprevalencerate•Adolescentbirthrate•Antenatalcarecoverage•Unmetneedforfamilyplanning

GOAL6:CombatHIV/AIDS,malariaandotherdiseases

TARGET6A:Havehaltedby2015andbeguntoreversethespreadofHIV/AIDS

TARGET6B:Achieve,by2010,universalaccesstotreatmentforHIV/AIDSforallthosewhoneedit


andcounsellingandonlyone-thirdofthoseidentifiedasHIV-positiveduringantenatalcareweresubsequentlyassessedforeligibilitytoreceiveantiretroviraltherapyfortheirownhealth108.

Whathashelpedmakeadifference?Strengtheninghealthsystemsandincreasingskilledbirthattendanceiscriticaltomakingprogressonmaternalmortality.Four-fifthsofdeathsaretheresultofcomplicationsthatcouldbepreventedbythepresenceofskilledbirthassistanceoremergencyobstetriccare,butonlyone-thirdofallbirthsinthepoorestcountriesareattendedbyskilledhealthpersonnel109.Therearealsolargeequitygaps,withwomenlivinginpoorandruralhouseholdsparticularlyunlikelytoreceivesuchcare.

Rwandahasimplementedhealthreformsthatarebasedonadecentralizedsystem,performance-basedfinancingandcommunity-providerpartnerships.Thereformshaveestablishedgrantstohealthfacilitiesthatareconditionalonmeetingperformancebenchmarksandindicators.Traditionalbirthattendantsarepaidtobringwomentohealthcentresandwomenaregivenfreeinstitutionaldeliveriesiftheyattendantenatalclinicsregularly.Asaresultofthesereforms,injustthreeyearsbetween2005and2008,theproportionofbirthsattendedbyskilledpersonnelrosefrom39percentto52percentandinfantmortalitydropped35percent110.

Aswellasadequatehealthsystems,specificpoliciesonsexualandreproductivehealthandrightsareneeded.Oneinsevenmaternaldeathsiscausedbyunsafeabortion111.UNFPAestimatesthatoneinthreematernaldeathsrelatedtopregnancyandchildbirthcouldbeavoidedifwomenwhowantedcontraceptionhadaccesstoit112.Inthiscontext,Target5B,whichwasaddedtoMDG5in2007,toachieveuniversalaccesstoreproductivehealth,withitsindicatorsoncontraceptiveprevalencerateandunmetneedforfamilyplanning,isawelcomedevelopment.

Nepalhasmanagedtoincreasecontraceptiveprevalenceamongwomenfrom23percentin1991to48percentin2006andnowhasoneofthehighestlevelsofcontraceptionuseamongwomenofanypoorcountry.Inthethreeyearsbetween2005and2008,Rwandamorethandoubleditscontraceptiveprevalenceratefrom17percentto36percent113.

MakingprogressonstoppingthespreadofHIVandAIDSdependsonrecognizingthegendereddriversofthepandemic.ApproachessuchastheInterventionwithMicrofinanceforAIDSandGenderEquity(IMAGE)programmehaveaddressedwomen’saccesstoresourcesandstrengthenedtheirresilienceinHIVpreventionandintimatepartnerviolence.Theprogrammeprovidesaccesstomicrocredit,whilealsobuildingasupportsystemtoprovideparticipantswithinformation,supportfortheirsmallbusinessesandspacetodiscussHIV,genderandotherissuesrelatedtosexualdecision-making114.

Whatcontinuestoimpedeprogress?MuchofthecurrentinternationalefforttocombatHIVandAIDSassumesthatwomenandmenareequal,andarethereforeequallyempoweredtoprotectthemselves,makedecisionsabouttheirsexualactivity,andaccesshealthcare.ThislackofagenderperspectiveontheHIVandAIDScrisishasledtowomenassumingagreatershareofinfectionandnegativeimpactsfromthedisease.Barriersandconstraintstoaccessingservicesthatstemfromwomen’ssocio-economicstatusinsocietyneedtoberecognizedandaddressed.Forexample,duetofamilyresponsibilitiessuchaschildcareoftenwomencannottraveldistancestoaccessfreetreatment;stigmaanddiscriminationbyhealthcareworkersaffectwomendisproportionately;womendonotcontrolincomeinthehousehold,whichlessenstheirabilitytopayforcostsassociatedwithaccessingtreatment(i.e.userfees,costsfortests,transportationcosts,etc.)115.Furthermore,wherewomen’srightsandagencyaredenied,theirabilitytoprotectthemselvesisseverelylimited.


Women’svoices–particularlythoseofwomenlivingwithHIV–aretooseldomheardinAIDSdecision-makingforums.A2006surveybyUNAIDSfoundthatinfewerthan10percentofthe79countriessurveyeddidwomenparticipatefullyinthedevelopmentofnationalAIDSplans.Strengtheningwomen’sparticipationinthesecontextsisamatterofequity,butalsoofeffectivenessinshapingtheglobalresponsetoHIVandAIDS.


5. CRITICAL CROSS-CUTTING GAPS IMPEDING PROGRESS ON GENDER EQUALITY

DespitethecentralityofgenderequalitytoeachoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,genderisnotmainstreamedintothegoalstatements,theindiceschosen,northemethodsusedformeasuringagainsttheseindices.Agenderreviewof78nationalMDGreportsfoundthatreferencestowomenandgenderwerelargely‘ghettoised’underGoals3and5,andthatdiscussionsaroundGoal7onenvironmentandGoal8onpartnershipswerealmostalwaysgender-blind116.

TheNovember2009UNExpertGroupMeetingontheImpactoftheImplementationoftheBeijingPlatformforActiononAchievingtheMDGsconcluded,“…inordertoachievetheMDGs,itisnecessarynotonlytoemphasizespecificstrategiesinparticularcountries,but…tochangetheoverallpolicyframeworkofbothnationalgovernmentsandinternationalorganizationsinamoreequitableanddemocraticdirection,recognizingtheneedforagenderperspectivethroughout117.”Despiteeconomicgrowthinmanycountriesandadvancesinformalguaranteesofequalityinconstitutionalandlegislativeframeworks,progressformanywomen–particularlythepoorestandmostexcluded–hasbeenfartooslow118.

The2008GenderEquityIndex(GEI)revealsthatnocountryintheworldhasachievedfullgenderequality119.TheGEIshowsthatprogresstowardstheachievementofgenderequityisnotassociatedwithGDPlevels(Figure2).Forexample,accordingtoGEIindicators,RwandaandMozambique,twocountrieswithlowincomelevelshaveachievedhigherlevelsofgenderequalitythansomemuchricherEuropeancountries.

TheprevioussectionsofthispaperhaveidentifiedcriticalgapsrelatedtothespecifictargetsandindicatorsoftheMDGs,withaparticularfocusonMDG3.Theimpedimentstomakingmoreconsistentprogressongenderequalitydifferbetweencountriesandregions.Whatcutsacrossallofthemisthecriticalneedtoenhanceaccountabilityforcommitmentsmade

togenderequalityandwomen’sempowerment.Someofthecross-cuttinggapareasincludethefollowing:

Generating, analyzing and using sex disaggregated data and statistics, including on agricultural and unpaid care work.Gapsindataneededtotrackprogresstowardgenderequalityareamanifestationoftheinadequateinvestmentandaccountabilitythathaveplaguedeffortstoadvancevisionarycommitments.Manycountriesdonotdisaggregatetheirstatistics,especiallythoserelatedtoemploymentand/oragriculturalproduction.Forexample,neitherIndianorChina,theworld’stwomostpopulousnations,havesufficientsex-disaggregateddatatoalloweasyanalysisofprogresstowardsgenderequalityoverthepastdecade120.Somecountries,includinginpartsofsub-SaharanAfrica,donotproducedatafrequentlyenoughtomonitorchangesinpatternsortrendsinemployment.Furthermore,therearemanyareasthatarefundamentaltoachievinggenderequality–fromendingviolenceagainstwomentoguaranteeingwomen’slandandpropertyrights–forwhichtherearenoglobaldatabases.Consequently,recommendationsthathaveemergedfromthemajorityofexpertgroupsandhigh-levelconveningsongenderandtheMDGsstresstheindispensabilityofsex-disaggregateddata,aswellasofbuildingcapacitytogeneratedatainotherareasthatfuelgenderinequality.

Dataonwomen’stimeuseandtheirinvestmentinunpaidcareworkisparticularlyessentialtoinformpolicy-making.Aresolutionadoptedatthe2008InternationalConferenceofLabourStatisticiansurgescountriestodevelopcomprehensivestatisticsonworkingtimethatcanadequatelyaccountforalllabourinputsintoproductiveactivity,including‘unpaidhouseholdserviceandvolunteerwork’asthebasisofbettertargetedlabourmarket,economicandsocialpolicies121.

ThePopulationandHousingCensusthatmanycountrieswillembarkonin2010providesagood


opportunityforensuringthatessentialgender-sensitivedata(includingontimeuse)iscollected.Beyondthis,nationalstatisticssystemsshouldmakegreateruseofUNStatisticalDivisionguidelinesongenderstatisticsintheirplanningandexecutionofcensusesandsurveys122.

Reducing women’s time burden through investments in infrastructure and gender-responsive economic stimulus packages. Supportingimprovementstoruralwaterandirrigationsystems,domesticenergyandruraltransportationhavesubstantialmultipliereffectsincreatingjobsforwomenandmenandreducingwomen’sunpaidcarework.Providingfacilitiesforchildcarealsotendtoreducewomen’sburdenofunpaidcareworkandprovidesopportunitiesforwomentoenterthelabourmarket.Yet,theOECD/DACGenderEqualityMarkerinitsCreditorReportingSystemshowsthatfarfewerdonorresourcesareallocatedtogenderequalityintheeconomicinfrastructuresectorthaninhealthandeducation.Giventhatseveralstimuluspackagesarefocusingoninfrastructure,thereisaneedtocreatetheconditionsforwomentoentermale-dominatedsectorssuchaspublicworksandinfrastructure123.

Scaling up and accounting for investments in gender equality.Atthe52ndsessionoftheCommissionontheStatusofWomen(March2008),MemberStatesagreedthatrealizingthemultipliereffectofgenderequalityonsustainedeconomicgrowthrequiresgender-responsivemacroeconomicpoliciesaswellasgreaterresourcesatalllevels.TheWorldBankhasestimatedthatexternalresourcesintherangeofUS$13billionannuallyarerequiredtofinancegenderequalityinthecontextoftheMDGsinlow-incomecountriesoverthenextfewyears,withreadjustmentsthereafterbasedonincreaseddomesticresourcesfortheseinterventions.Theyfurtherestimatedthatthecostsforachievinggenderequality,onaverage,accountedforbetweenonethirdandone

halfofthetotalMDGcosts(intherangeofUS$37-$57percapitaperyear),dependingonthecountry124.

Inthepast10years,therehavebeenimportantadvancesintrackinginvestmentsforgenderequality.TheGenderEqualityMarker(GEM)oftheOECD/DAChasshownthat,oftheUS$26.8billioninODAdisbursementsthatdonorswhousetheCreditorReportingSystemaccountedforin2006,US$7.2billion(roughly27percent)wereallocatedtoprogrammesthathadgenderequalityaseitheraprincipalorsignificantobjective.Inthecontextofaideffectiveness,withmorefundsexpectedtobechannelledviageneralbudgetsupport,securingandaccountingforinvestmentsingenderequalitycouldbecomeevenmorechallenging.InstitutionalizingGender-ResponsiveBudgeting(GRB)indonorandprogrammecountries,aswellasinmultilateralorganizations,isalsoakeypriorityandanareawheretherehasbeensomeprogress.

Thereareatleast70countriesthathavehadsomeexperiencewithGRBinthepast10years.ThroughGRBanalysis,women’sgroupsandparliamentariansarehighlightingthedifferentialimpactofpublicspendingonservicesforwomenandmen.AgrowingnumberofcountriesareinstitutionalizingthiscapacityintheirMinistriesofFinance,byregularlyissuingcallcircularsandbudgetlawsrequiringGRBinthecontextofpublicfinancialmanagementreform,inadditiontoundertakingGRBatlocallevels.Thishasledtoreallocationofresourcestoincreaseinvestmentsinwomen’seconomicsecurity,health,agriculturalproductivityandeducationincommunitiesinAfrica,theArabStates,AsiaandLatinAmerica.UNDP,incollaborationwithnationalandglobalresearchers,hasundertakenaneightcountryresearchprojecttohighlightimplicitandexplicitgenderbiasinthenationaltaxsystemsofArgentina,Ghana,India,Mexico,Morocco,SouthAfrica,UgandaandtheUnitedKingdom.Suchbiases,particularlyinincome


taxes,mayprovideimportantobstaclesanddisincentivesforwomentojointhelabourmarketandforwomenandmentoequallysharetheburdenofunpaidcarework125.GreaterinvestmentinapplyingGRBtorevenues–includingtaxation–aswellasexpendituresisthusapriorityforthefuture.

InadditiontoGRBothervehiclestoenhanceaccountabilityareemerging.Throughpublicauditsoflocalgovernmentspending,corruptionisbeingexposedandbettercontrolsonspendingatthelocallevelarebeingidentifiedtoenablewomentobenefitfrompublicresources.Throughcitizens’reportcardssurveyingthequalityofurbanpublicservices,womenandcommunitygroupsareidentifyingpoorperformanceanddemandingimprovementsfrommunicipalauthoritiesinsanitationsystems,streetlighting,andpublichousing126.

Addressing impediments to advancing women’s human rights and end gender discrimination.GenderdiscriminationremainsakeyimpedimenttosecuringprogressontheMDGs,despiteglobal,regionalandnationalcommitmentstoensuregenderequalitymadeundercoreinternationalhumanrightscovenantsandconventions–CEDAW,theBeijingPlatformforAction,theCairoProgrammeofAction,SecurityCouncilresolutions,ILOConventions127,andkeyregionalgenderequalityagreementssuchastheProtocoltotheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples’RightsontheRightsofWomeninAfrica.InOctober2009,theHumanRightsCouncilcalledonMemberStatestotakeallmeasurestoeliminatediscriminationagainstwomenandexpressedconcernthat,despitepledgesmadeintheBeijingPlatformforActionandtheGeneralAssemblyreviewin2000,manycountriesstillhavelawsinforcethatdiscriminateagainstwomenandgirls128.

Ofthemanyareasthatrequiregreaterattention,twothatareconsistentlycitedasprioritiesareguaranteeingwomen’sinheritanceandpropertyrightsandendingviolenceagainstwomen.Bothareessentialtomaking

progressonMDG3,aswellasontheotherMDGs,andinadequateattentiontobothcontinuestocrippleoverallefforts.

Women’s unequal access to land and property rightshassevereeconomicconsequencesonalloftheMDGs.Inmanycountries,womenhavelimitedrightstoinherit,disposeormanagelandorotherassets.Womenwithoutassetsareunabletoputupcollateraltoborrowmoneyandhavetoseekoutamarginalexistenceintheinformaleconomy.Insomecases,lackofassetscanmakewomenmorevulnerabletoHIVandAIDSandsocialexploitationanddiscrimination.Weakpropertyandinheritancerightscanalsoleadtofemalehomelessnessandeconomicdestitution129.

Whileinadequate,thereareagrowingnumbersofeffortstoreversediscriminatorylawsandpracticesthatrestrictwomen’srighttoandownershipoflandandproperty.Intheimmediatepost-conflictperiod,bothMozambiqueandRwandainstitutedpoliciesandlawstoenablewomentoclaimpropertyonanequalbasiswithmen.The2005amendmentoftheHinduSuccessionActinIndiagaveequalinheritancerightstodaughtersandsonsinallformsofproperty,includingagriculturalland.Landreformprocessescanalsoplayanimportantroleinaddressingthisinequality.ManyearlylandreformprocessesinLatinAmerica,forinstance,targetedmaleheadsofhouseholds.Butmorerecenteffortsareshowinggreaterpromise.InGuatemala,thestate-sponsoredlandandmarketprogramme,basedonalandbank,requiresthenamesofbothspousestoappearondocuments.InpartsofIndia,incentives–suchascutsinstampdutyrates–areofferedwhenpropertyisregisteredinawoman’snameorinbothnames130.

Ending violence against women and girlsis,accordingtomanywomen’srightsadvocatesandfromahumanrightsperspective,“themissingMDG”.Basedonnationalsurveys,from17to76percentofwomenexperiencephysicaland/orsexualviolencebymenat


somepointintheirlifetime,mostoftenperpetratedbyhusbandsandintimatepartners131.Violenceagainstwomenandgirlshasfar-reachingconsequences,harmingfamiliesandcommunities.Forwomenandgirls16to44yearsold,violenceisamajorcauseofdeathanddisability.ThereisincreasingevidenceonthedirectandindirectlinkagesbetweenviolenceagainstwomenandgirlsandHIVthatstemfromgenderdynamicsandsocialnormsinrelationships.AstudyinLesothofoundthatsexualandphysicalviolenceisakeydeterminantofthecountry’sHIVepidemic:47percentofmenand40percentofwomeninLesothosaywomenhavenorighttorefusesexwiththeirhusbandsorboyfriends132.Asurveyamong1,366SouthAfricanwomenshowedthatwomenwhowerebeatenbytheirpartnerswere48percentmorelikelytobeinfectedwithHIVthanthosewhowerenot133.

Countriesaremakingsomeprogressincreatingabetterenablingenvironmenttoaddressviolenceagainstwomenandgirls.AccordingtotheUNSecretary-General’s2006‘In-depthstudyonallformsofviolenceagainstwomen’,89countrieshadsomelegislationondomesticviolence,andagrowingnumberofcountrieshadinstitutednationalplansofaction.Maritalrapeisaprosecutableoffenceinatleast104Statesand90countrieshavelawsonsexual

harassment.However,intoomanycountriesgapsremain.In102countriestherearenospecificlegalprovisionsagainstdomesticviolenceandmaritalrapeisnotaprosecutableoffenceinatleast53nations134.Thepersistentinvisibilityofthispandemic–includingintheglaringabsenceofnationally-availabledataonprevalenceinmostcountries–led,in2008,totheUNSecretary-General’slaunchoftheglobalcampaign,UNiTEtoEndViolenceagainstWomen.Hecalledforallcountriestomoveforwardonfivemaingoals,includingthroughtheactiveinvolvementofmenandboysinendingthisscourge.Amongthefivetopprioritiesatthecountrylevel,theUNiTEcampaignproposesurgentactionto:adoptandenforcenationallawstoaddressandpunishallformsofviolenceagainstwomenandgirls;adoptandimplementmulti-sectoralnationalactionplans;strengthendatacollectionontheprevalenceofviolenceagainstwomenandgirls;increasepublicawarenessandsocialmobilization;andaddresssexualviolenceinconflict.

Thesocialmobilizationcampaign,SayNO–UNiTEtoEndViolenceagainstWomen,www.saynotoviolence.org,firstlaunchedasasignaturecampaignin2007andsubsequentlydevelopedintoanadvocacyandcommunicationsplatformin2009,contributesdirectlytotheUNSecretary-General’sglobalcampaign.


6. RECOMMENDATIONS

WhileprogressonMDG3hasbeenunevenand,inmanycases,fartooslow,thereareagrowingnumberofpromisingexamplesthatdemonstratepathwaystoadvancingwomen’sempowermentandgenderequality.Greaterinvestmentsintestingandscalingupthesepracticesoffergreatpotential.AWorldBankstudyofsuccessful‘scalingup’effortstoreducepovertyidentifiedfourdimensionsforlearningfromchange:(i)institutionalchange–changeintherules,norms,behaviours,andorganizations;(ii)experimentationandlearning–howchangeislearnedfromandadaptedtodifferentcontexts;(iii)politicalleadershipandcommitment–howdifferentinterestgroupsandcoalitionssupportchange;and(iv)supportiveexternalenvironments–howexternalenvironmentscancatalyzeandsustainchange.‘Scalingup’,therefore,shouldbeviewedintermsofenablingandsupportingchangeinawaythatmaximizesthepotentialofresourcestoachieveimpact135.Forthisreason,simplereplicationofsuccessfulprojectsoractivitiesinnewlocationsisunlikelytobeeffectiveunlessitisaccompaniedbyaconduciveenablingenvironment.

Basedonthereviewinthispaper,andonmanyofthekeyconveningsandanalysesgeneratedoverthepastseveralyearsonthegenderdimensionsoftheMDGs,thereareeightkeypoliciesand/oractionsthathavepotentialtopropelprogress:

1. Removekeybarrierstogirls’education,includingbyprovidingscholarships,cashtransfersandeliminatinguserfees;trackingcompletionandattendancerates;improvingthequalityofeducation,includingtacklingviolenceagainstgirlsinschool;andscalingupinvestmentsingirls’enrolmentinsecondaryschool.

2. Makethegenerationoffullandproductiveemploymentandthecreationofdecentworkandincometheprimarygoalofmacroeconomic,socialanddevelopmentpolicies,includingbypromotingequalskillsdevelopmentandemploymentopportunities;reducingwagegapsbetweenwomenandmen;introducingsocialprotectionmeasuresandlabourlawsandpoliciesthataregender-responsive;andintroducingandenforcinglegalprotectionsforthemostvulnerablewomenworkers.Particularattentionshouldbepaidtogendergapsinschool-to-worktransitionforyouth,makingeducationandtrainingrelevanttolabourmarketdemand,basedonalife-cycleandrights-basedapproach.

3. Introducepositiveactiontoimprovethenumbersandinfluenceofwomeninallpoliticaldecision-making,includingbyinvestinginwomen’sleadershipinlocaldecision-makingstructuresandbycreatinganevenplayingfieldformenandwomenwithinpoliticalparties.

4. Investinsexualandreproductivehealthasakeyfoundationforachievinggenderequalityandwomen’sempowerment,includingcommunityhealthapproachestotacklematernalmortality,meetingunmetneedforfamilyplanningandaddressinghighadolescentfertilityrates,aswellasmeasurestoensurethatwomenlivingwithHIVhavetheirreproductivehealthneedsmetandareabletoparticipatefullyinshapingpolicytotacklethepandemic.

5. Improvenationallevelcapacitytotrackandreportonprogress,gapsandopportunitiesthroughbettergenerationanduseofsex-disaggregateddataandstatistics,includingontimeuse.


6. Reducewomen’sworkburdenthroughinvestmentsininfrastructure,laboursavingtechnologiesandgender-responsiveeconomicstimuluspackages.

7. Strengthenaccountabilityforenhancingwomen’srightsandendinggenderdiscrimination–inlinewithcommitmentsmadeunderinternationalhumanrightsinstruments,CEDAW,theBeijingPlatformforAction,andrelevantILOConventions–includingthrougheliminatinginequalitiesinaccesstoland

andpropertyandbyinvestinginimplementationoflaws,policiesandprogrammestopreventandaddressviolenceagainstwomen.

8. Scaleupandaccountforinvestmentsingenderequality,includingbyinstitutionalizingGenderResponsiveBudgetingaspartofpublicfinancialmanagementreformstoensurethatfinancialcommitmentsarecommensuratewithpolicycommitmentstogenderequality.


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14 See‘MaryKay’sTruthAboutAbuse,surveyof600sheltersacrosstheUS,May12,2008;ESCAP,quotedinIPS,‘FinancialCrisisThreatensWomen’sMeagreGains,’5March2009;SIREN,‘Cambodia:ExodustotheSexTrade?’PhnomPenh,20July2009.

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20 SeeUNDP.The need for rethinking: Vision for a Better World: from Economic Crisis to Equality.2010.

21 ILO.Formula for progress: Educate both girls and boys.2008.22 UnitedNations.Millennium Development Goals Report

2009.2009.23 DFIDFactSheet,December2008.24 UNESCO.Education for All Global Monitoring Report.2008.25 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report

2009.2009.Page20.26 KeithM.Lewin.Access to education in sub-Saharan Africa:

patterns, problems and possibilities.2009.27 Id21.“GirlsEducation”.Education Highlights 4.2007.

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30 ILO.Global Employment Trends.January2010.Page22.31 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.

Page123.32 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report

2009.2009.Page26.Arecentindependentestimate(seeTheLancet,Maternal mortality for 181 countries, 1980—2008: a systematic analysis of progress towards Millennium Development Goal 5,EarlyOnlinePublication,12April2010availableathttp://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(10)60518-1/abstract)suggeststhat343,000deathsoccurredin2008.Atthetimeofwriting,up-to-dateUNagencyestimateswerestillinprocess.However,themarginsoferroroftheestimatesoverlap.Improvementofdatasystemsanddetailednationallevelexaminationofthecausesofmaternalmortalityarerequired.

ENDNOTES


33 InternationalLabourConference,98thsession.ReportVI.Gender Equality at the Heart of Decent Work.ILO,2009,Page38.

34 MayraBuvinic,etal.Equality for Women: Where Do We Stand on Millennium Development Goal 3?WorldBank.2009.

35 Examples:ReportoftheExpertGroupMeetingon“TheimpactoftheImplementationoftheBeijingPlatformofActionontheFullAchievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.”November2009;UNMillenniumProject,TaskForceonEducationandGenderEquality.Taking Action: Achieving Gender Equality and Empowering Women.2005.

36 MayraBuvinic,etal.Equality for Women: Where Do We Stand on Millennium Development Goal 3?WorldBank.2009.

37 UnitedNations.Millennium Development Goals Report 2007.2007

38 DFID.Child mortality factsheet.November200739 SeeTheLancet,Maternal mortality for 181 countries,

1980—2008: a systematic analysis of progress towards Millennium Development Goal 5,EarlyOnlinePublication,12April2010,availableathttp://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(10)60518-1/abstract

40 UNDP.Human Development Report: Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis.2006.

41 UnitedNations.In Larger Freedom: Toward Security Development and Human Rights for All.2005.Page56.

42 UnitedNationsGirls’EducationInitiative.Transforming Policy and Practice for Gender in Education: A Gender Review of the 2010 EFA Global Monitoring Report.January2010.

43 WorldBank.Global Monitoring Report 2009.2009.44 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report

2009.2009.45 Ibid.46 WorldBankandUNICEF.Abolishing School Fees in

Africa: Lessons from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique.2009.

47 WorldBankandUNICEF.Six Steps to Abolishing School Fees: Operational Guide.SchoolFeeAbolitionInitiative.2009.

48 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009.2009.

49 GovernmentoftheRepublicofSierraLeone.Millennium Development Goals Report for Sierra Leone 2005.2005

50 KattanRajaBentaouetandNicholasBurnett.User Fees in Primary Education.WorldBankEducationAdvisoryService.2004.

51 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.52 ILO.Give Girls a Chance: Tackling Child Labour, a Key to

the Future.2009.53 Ibid.54 RajaB.KattanandNicholasBurnett.User Fees in Primary

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Women in Least Developed Countries.2006.56 NationalPlanningCommissionofNepalandthe

UnitedNations.Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 2005.2005.

57 Id21.Education Highlights 4.March2007.http://www.id21.org/publications/girl%27s_ed4.pdf

58 ILO.Give Girls a Chance: Tackling Child Labour, a key to the future.2009.

59 AnnabelS.ErulkarandEuniceMuthengi.Evaluation of Berhane Hewan: A Program to Delay Child Marriage in Rural Ethiopia.InternationalPerspectivesonSexualandReproductiveHealth.Volume35,Number1.March2009.

60 UNICEF.Child Friendly School Evaluation.2009.61 AsianDevelopmentBank.Pursuing Gender Equality

through the Millennium Development Goals in Asia and the Pacific.2006.

62 UNESCO.The New Courier.April2003.http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=10513&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

63 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009.

64 ECLAC.Demographic change and its influence on development in Latin America and the Caribbean(LC/G.2378(SES.32/14).Santiago,Chile.UnitedNationsPublication.June2008.

65 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009.2009.Page20.2009.


66 ILODepartmentofStatistics.LABORSTADatabase.http://laborsta.ilo.org/.

67 UnitedNations.The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009.2009.Page21.

68 Ibid.69 ILODepartmentofStatistics.LABORSTADatabase.

http://laborsta.ilo.org/.70 UN-ESCWA.Promoting the economic participation of Arab

women.2009.71 ILO.Global Employment Trends for Youth, October, 2008.

Geneva.2008.72 JanetStotsky.Gender and its Relevance to Macroecnomic

Policy: A Survey.IMFWorkingPaperWP/06/233,2006;MayraBuvinicandElizabethM.King,‘SmartEconomics,’Finance and Development(IMF),June2007.

73 ILO.Global Employment Trends for Youth, October, 2008.Geneva.2008.

74 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.75 ILO.Current Employment Strategies and Women’s

Work.2009.76 ILO.Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender

Equality Brochure.2009.http://www.ilo.org/empent/Whatwedo/Publications/lang--en/docName--WCMS_118096/index.htm

77 UN-OHRLLS.Gender Perspectives and Employment of Women in Least Developed Countries.2006.

78 WorldBank.Enterprise Surveys 2009.Seehttp://www.enterprisesurveys.org/gender

79 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.80 StatisticsNorway.2009.Seehttp://www.ssb.no/en.81 UNIFEMNews.“EgyptianGovernmentScalesUpGender

EquityCertificationforPrivateFirms.3November2009.http://www.unifem.org/news_events/story_detail.php?StoryID=969.

82 UNDP.Innovative Approaches to Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment.2008.

83 UNDP.Meeting the Employment Challenge Can the Government Act as Employer of Last Resort?2010;UNIFEM.ProgressoftheWorld’sWomen2008/2009.2008.Chapter3.

84 ILO.Global Employment Trends for Women.March2009.85 UN-ESCWA.Women’s control over economic resources and

access to financial resources.2009.86 FalthandBlackden.Unpaid Care Work Gender Equality

and Poverty Reduction.2009.87 WorldBank.Migration and Development Brief.Number8.

July2009.88 UnitedNationsPopulationDivisionDatabase,illustrated

inUNIFEM,Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009,Page59

89 UN-INSTRAWandUNDP.Migration, Remittances and Gender-Responsive Local Development Case Studies: Albania, the Dominican Republic, Lesotho, Morocco, the Philippines and Senegal.2010.

90 UNIFEM,“EmpoweringWomenMigrantWorkers(Jordan)”seehttp://www.unifem.org.jo/pages/project.aspx?pid=553#

91 Ibid.92 ILO.Tackling Child Labour, a Key to the Future.2010

(forthcoming).93 Inter-ParliamentaryUnion.Women in National Parliaments.

http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm.94 Ibid.95 Ibid.96 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.97 UN-ESCWA.Protecting the Rights of Women in the ESCWA

Region through the Proper Use of UN resolutions and International Protocols on War and Armed Conflict.2009.

98 UnitedNationsintheKyrgyzRepublic.Second Periodic Report on the Millennium Development Goals in the Kyrgyz Republic.2009

99 UnitedNationsintheKyrgyzRepublic.Translating Commitments on Gender Equality into Actions.2009.

100 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.101 Bratton,K.andL.P.Ray,‘DescriptiveRepresentation,Policy

OutcomesandMunicipalDay-CareCoverageinNorway,’American Journal of Political Science 46,no.2.April2002.

102 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.103 ibid.Page21.


104 UnitedNationsInternationalConferenceonPopulationandDevelopment1994.Summary of the Programme Action.March1995.http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/populatin/icpd.htm#chapter2

105 SeeTheLancet,Maternal mortality for 181 countries, 1980—2008: a systematic analysis of progress towards Millennium Development Goal 5,EarlyOnlinePublication,12April2010,availableathttp://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(10)60518-1/abstract

106 UNFPA.Maternal mortality figures show limited progress in making motherhood safe.October2007:www.unfpa.org/mothers/statistics.htm

107 UNAIDS.2009 AIDS Epidemic Update.2009.http://data.unaids.org/pub/report/2009/2009_epidemic_update_en.pdf

108 WorldHealthOrganization.Women and Health: Today’s Evidence Tomorrow’s Agenda.2009.

109 UnitedNationsPopulationFund.Maternal mortality figures show limited progress in making motherhood safer.October2007.Seewww.unfpa.org/mothers/statistics.htm.

110 SushellaSingh,etal.Adding it Up: The Costs and Benefits of Investing in Family Planning and Maternal and Newborn Health.UNFPA.2009.

111 UNFPA.No Woman Should Die Giving Life Facts and Figures 1.http://www.unfpa.org/safemotherhood/mediakit/documents/fs/factsheet1_eng.pdf.

112 UnitedNationsPopulationFund.Facts about safe motherhood.Seewww.unfpa.org/mothers/facts.htm.

113 UnitedNationsStatisticsDivision.MillenniumDevelopmentGoalsIndicatorsDatabase.Seehttp://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx.

114 UNIFEMandtheEuropeanUnion.Promoting Gender Equality in HIV and AIDS Responses: Making Aid More Effective Through Tracking Results.2009.

115 Nanda,Priya.‘Genderdimensionsofuserfees:Implicationsforwomen’sutilizationofhealthcare’.Reproductive Health Matters.Elsevier.10(20):127-134.2002.

116 Menon-Sen,Kalyani.En Route to Equality: a Gender Review of National MDG Reports:,BureauofDevelopmentPolicy,UNDP.2005.

117 ReportoftheExpertGroupMeetingon‘TheimpactoftheImplementationoftheBeijingPlatformofActionontheFullAchievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.’November2009.

118 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.119 SocialWatch.http://www.socialwatch.org/node/9274.120 OverseasDevelopmentInstitute.Gender and the MDGs.

BriefingPaperNumber42.September2008.http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2386.pdf.

121 ILO.Report of the Conference.18thInternationalConferenceofLabourStatisticiansGeneva2008.2009.http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---integration/---stat/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_101467.pdf.

122 UnitedNationsStatisticsDivision.Handbooks, Guidelines and Training Manuals.http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/standmeth/handbooks/default.htm.

123 FalthandAbbadi.UNDPDraftGuidanceNote.2009.124 UNIFEM.Gender Equality Now.2008.125 UNDP.Policy Brief on Gender and Taxation.2010

(forthcoming).126 UNIFEM.Progress of the World’s Women 2008/2009.2008.127 EspeciallyILOConventions100(onequalremuneration);

111(onendingdiscrimination);156(onfamilyresponsibilities);and183(onmaternityprotection).

128 UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.HumanRightsCouncil.A/HRC/12/L.3/Rev.1.Promotion and Protection of all Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, including the Right to Development.NewYork:UnitedNations.2009.

129 UN-OHRLLS.Breaking Barriers: Gender Perspectives and Empowerment of Women in Least Developed Countries.2006.

130 UN-DAW/UN-DESA.ReportoftheExpertConsultation.2009WorldSurveyontheRoleofWomeninDevelopment:‘Women’sControlOverEconomicResourcesandAccesstoFinancialResources,includingMicrofinance.’2009.

131 García-Moreno,C.,etal.,WHO Multi-Country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women. Geneva, 2005;Johnson,H.,Ollus,N.andNevala,S.,Violence Against Women: An International Perspective (IVAWS).NewYork:SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,2008.


132 UNAIDS.AIDS Epidemic Update 2009.2009.133 Dunkle,KristinL.etal.‘Genderbasedviolence,relationship

power,andriskofHIVinfectioninwomenattendingantenatalclinicsinSouthAfrica.’The Lancet.363(9419):1415.2004.

134 UnitedNations.In-depth study on all forms of violence against women.ReportoftheSecretary-General.2006.http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/61/122/Add.1.

135 UNESCO.Scaling up Good Practices in Girls’ Education.2005.


ORGANIZATION PRINCIPALMEMBER TITLE ADDITIONALMEMBERS:

UNICEF RichardMorgan,[email protected]

DirectorofPolicyandPractice

MDGTaskForceSecretariat:

[email protected]

[email protected]

FAO AnnikaSoder,[email protected]

AssistantDirector-General,OfficeforUNCoordinationandMDGFollow-up(UNC)

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

UNDP [email protected]

MDGSupportTeamLeader ShantanuMukherjee

[email protected]

UNIDO [email protected]

SpecialAdvisortotheDirector-GeneralonMDGs

ILO [email protected]

DeputyDirector,PolicyIntegrationDepartment

[email protected]

[email protected]

UNESCO [email protected]

DeputyDirector,BureauofStrategicPlanning

UNFPA [email protected]

DeputyDirector,TechnicalDivision

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

WFP [email protected]

SeniorAdviserforEconomicPolicy

[email protected]

UNEP [email protected]

SeniorProgrammeOfficer

MillenniumCampaignUnitedNations

[email protected]

Director,MillenniumCampaign

[email protected]

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE UNDG MDG TASK FORCE

(cont’d)h



OfficeoftheSecretary-General

[email protected]

Economist,ExecutiveOfficeoftheSecretaryGeneral

[email protected]

OfficeoftheDeputy-SecretaryGeneral

UNCHR [email protected]

ChiefofSection,FieldInformationandCoordinationSupportSection(FICSS)intheDivisionofOperationalServices

[email protected]

DESA [email protected]

Head,CapacityDevelopmentOffice

[email protected]

[email protected]

CEB/HLCP [email protected]

Secretary,High-LevelCommitteeonProgrammesChiefExecutiveBoard

[email protected]

RegionalComissions [email protected]

Officer-in-chargeRegionalCommissionsNewYorkOffice

[email protected]

OHCHR [email protected]

Chief,DevelopmentandEconomicandSocialIssuesBranch

[email protected]

[email protected]

UN-HABITAT [email protected]

DeputyDirectorNewYorkOffice

UNAIDS [email protected]

DirectorNewYorkOffice

[email protected]

[email protected]

WHO [email protected]

SeniorAdvisertotheAssistantDirectorGeneral,HIV/AIDS,TB,MalariaandNeglectedTropicalDiseases

UNIFEM [email protected]

DeputyExecutiveDirectoronProgrammes

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

g (cont’d)

(cont’d)h



DOCO [email protected]

AssociateDirector [email protected]

[email protected]/MDGs

ORGANIZATION PRINCIPALMEMBER TITLE

WorldBank [email protected]

CounselorTheWorldBankOfficeoftheSpecialRepresentativetotheUnitedNationsinNewYork

UnitedNationsNon-GovernmentalLiaisonService(UN-NGLS)

[email protected]

ProgrammeAssociate

g (cont’d)

Observers


MDG TASK FORCE THEMATIC PAPERS LIST OF LEAD AND SUPPORTING AGENCIES

NO. THEMEAREA(S) LEADAGENCY(IES) SUPPORTINGAGENCIES

1. MDG1Sub-Groups:(i)Povertyreduction

andemployment

(ii)Hunger(includingmalnutrition)

(i)ILOAliceOuedraogoAnitaAmorimAndrewDale

(ii)FAO/WFPAnnikaSoder/FAOHenk-JanBrinkman/WFPRicardoSibrian/FAOKarfakisPanagiotis/FAOBarbaraHuddleston/FAO

UNEP–DavidSmithUNICEF–ArchanaDwivediUNFPA–RalphHackertandJoseMiguelGuzmanUNHCR–KimberlyRobersonUNDP–DianaAlarconUNIFEM–YassineFallRegionalCommissions–AdibNehmehMillenniumCampaign–SeringFaluNjieUNDESA–RobertPVosWorldBank–EricSwanson,DelfinGo,KennethSimler,PierellaPaci,JaimeSaavedraandErikaLorenzanaDelVillar

2. MDG2 UNESCOOlavSeim

ILO–PatrickQuinnandWilliamRattereeUNICEF–DinaCraissatiWFP–NancyWalters

3. MDG3 UNIFEMJoanneSandlerLauraTurquetEvaRathgeber

UNDPMetteBlochHansen

FAO–YiannaLambrouILO–RaphaelCroweUNFPA–GayleNelsonandEdilbertoLoaizaUNAIDS–BertilLindbladWFP–IsatouJallowRegionalCommissions–RaniaAl-JazairiECE-MalinkaKoparanovaOHCHR–RioHadaECLAC–SoniaMontano

(cont’d)h


NO. THEMEAREA(S) LEADAGENCY(IES) SUPPORTINGAGENCIES

4. MDGs4,5and6 UNICEFBalajiLN

FAO–FlorenceEgalILO–SoniaSmith,LauraAddatiandJuliaLearUNAIDS–BertilLindblad,Karl-LorenzDehneandMarineDavtyanUN-DESA–ChristineBrautigam,FrancoisPelletier,VladimiraKantorovaandFrancescaPerucciUNFPA–StanBernsteinandYvesBergevinUNIFEM–NazneenDamjiWFP–MartinBloem,NilsGredeandTinavandenBrielWHO-SusanElaineHolckandWinnieMpanju-ShumbushoWorldBank—SadiaChowdhury,ArielFizsbein,MukeshChawlaandErikaLorenzanaDelVillar

5. MDG7 UNEPZehraAydin

FAO–MetteLoycheWilkie,YeYiminandAlemnehDejeneWHO–RobertBosUNDP–GregoryWoodsworthandHollyMerglerUNHABITAT–YaminaDjactaandGoraMboupUNIDO–OleLundbyUNICEF–ClarissaBrocklehurst,ThereseDooleyandWilliamFellowsILO–AnaBelénSanchezUNFPA–JoseMiguelGuzmanWFP–CarloScaramellaRegionalCommissionsNYOffice–PaolaBetelliUNECE–MarcoKeiner,LidiaBratanovaUNECLAC–MarianneSchaperUNESCWA-CaroleChouchaniUNEPOzoneSecretariat–MarcoGonzalezandGeraldMutisyaUNEPWCMCSecretariat-MattWalpoleUNEPDRC–BobKakuyoandNicolasGonzeUNDESA–MatthiasBrucknerWorldBank:Glenn-MarieLangeandGiovanniRuta

g (cont’d)

Thematic Papers on

THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

2015

Documents

PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER …Thematic Paper on MDG 3 1 1. INTRODUCTION In000,89 2 1 UN member states adopted the Millennium Declaration, which distils the key goals and targets