A

MINOR PROJECT REPORT ON

“VEHICLE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM”

Submitted

In

Partial Fulfillment

For the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology (E&C)

In Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:MR.SUNIL KUMAR LOKESH KUMAR SONISDIT DAUSA MAHESH SHARMA

CHETRAM BAIRWA VIJENDRA SINGH GURJAR IVTH YR. ECE

SHREE DIGAMBER INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DAUSA

2014-15

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Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Shree Digamber Institute of technology, Dausa

A Minor Project Report on

“VEHICLE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM”

For B.tech (E&C) Department, SDIT

Dausa

Name of students: - Lokesh kumar Soni

Mahesh Sharma

Vijendra Singh Gurjar

Chetram Bairwa

Shree Digamber Institute of Technology, Dausa 2014-15

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A Minor Project is one of the important aspects for an engineering student’s carrier. It is basically to strengthen the practical concepts. During this training student gets acquainted with the latest technology and recent development.

Firstly, I convey my sincere thanks to all the Faculty of SDIT, DAUSA. Their love and guidance are omnipotent and of incompatible throughout this period. I convey special thanks to Mr. Sunil Kumar for providing me the opportunity to undergo this Project and I also express thanks to all hard members for their help and cooperation.

I am grateful to our respected Chairperson Mr. M.L. Agarwal, Principal Mr.ARUN GARG, Our respected H.O.D. Mr. Sunil Kumar, SDIT and all staff members of department of Electronics & Communication Engineering for their constant encouragement and all those who helped us directly or indirectly in our endeavor.

Lokesh Kumar Soni Mahesh Sharma Chetram Bairwa Vijendra Singh Gurjar

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Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Lokesh Kumar Soni, Mahesh Sharma, Chetram Bairwa, Vijendra Singh Gurjar a student of B.tech E&C 7th

Semester, 4th year has submitted his minor project report entitled under my guidance.

Name of Guidance Mr. Sunil Kumar

(H.O.D. of E&C Deptt.)

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Table of Contents:- Page No.

1. Abstract 62. Introduction 6-83. Theory 8-124. Collision Avoidance System 13-155. Benefits of collision avoidance system 16-176. Driver reaction time 17-187. Components requirement 19-228. Block Diagram 239. Main component 2410. BRD design 2511. Concept of model 25-2612. Intersection collision 26-2913. Conclusion 29-3014. Reference 3015.

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Abstract:-

An automobile collision avoidance system based on laser radars is disclosed for aiding in avoidance of automobile collisions. The very small beam width, very small angular resolution and the highly directional character of laser radars provide a plurality of advantages as compared with microwave radars. With two sets of laser radars this system can detect the location, the direction of movement, the speed and the size of all obstacles specifically and precisely. This system includes laser radars with transmitters and receivers, a computer, a warning device and an optional automatic braking device. A steering wheel rotation sensor or a laser gyroscope is utilized to give information of system-equipped vehicle's directional change. The system will compare the predicted collision time with the minimal allowable time to determine the immanency of a collision, and when determined, provides a warning. An optional automatic braking device is disclosed to be used when the vehicle user fails to respond to a warning. Furthermore, a wheel skidding detecting system based on a discrepancy between the directional change rate predicted by a steering wheel rotation sensor and the actual directional change rate detected by a laser gyroscope is also disclosed. The detection of wheel skidding can be utilized by various vehicle control designs. An averaging device for a steering wheel and a vehicle tilting sensor are used to supplement the steering wheel rotation sensor to improve the accuracy of the automobile collision avoidance system and the wheel skidding detecting system.

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Introduction:-

A collision avoidance system is an automobile safety system designed to reduce the severity of an accident. Also known as precrash system, forward collision warning system or collision mitigating system, it uses radar and sometimes laser and camera sensors to detect an imminent crash. Once the detection is done, these systems either provide a warning to the driver when there is an imminent collision or take action autonomously without any driver input (by braking or steering or both) Collision avoidance systems, due to their extreme potential for increasing vehicle safety, have remarkably developed during these years. In fact in conditions that the driver cannot prevent incidents in view of human natural judgments in dangerous situations, collision avoidance systems are quite helpful. Therefore, these systems are capable to decrease the intensity of accidents and provide a safe travel for the passengers.

The motivation for the development of collision avoidance (CA) systems is the improvement which they can bring to vehicular safety. In the UK, it was found that 75% of all crashes occurred at speeds lower than 20mph (32km/h) [1]. In the US, the report “Traffic Safety Facts 2005” released by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) found that 43% of all vehicular-vehicular collisions were rear end collisions. Low speed crashes indicate the need for a CA system well suited for in city driving. Rear end collisions make up a bulk of most vehicle to vehicle collisions and therefore deserve special attention. CA systems should be adequately employed to mitigate such collisions.

The push for automobile CA systems to improve vehicular safety has created a large market for non-entertainment automotive electronics. According to In-Stat, a provider of information resources and analytical assets, the world market for non-entertainment automotive electronics was estimated at US$36.8 billion in 2005 and is expected to reach

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US$52.1 billion by 2010. Automobile safety and convenience systems accounted for 50.3% of the global market in 2005 and were valued at US$18.5 billion. Growth from driver assistance systems such as collision avoidance systems and lane departure systems is expected to be strong. Theory:-

Most of the prior art collision avoidance systems use microwave radars as the ranging and detecting device. There are multiple disadvantages of these automobile collision avoidance systems when microwave radars are used. One major disadvantage is related to the beam width that is the angular width of the main lobe of the radar, and the associated angular resolution of the microwave radar. The beam width is inversely proportional to the antenna diameter in wavelength. With the limitation of the antenna size, it is very difficult to make reasonable size microwave radar with beam width less than 3 degrees. At the desired scanning distance, this beam width will scan an area which is much too big and thus is too nonspecific and difficult to differentiate the received echoes. Besides getting echo from another car in front of it, this radar will also receive echoes from roadside signs, trees or posts, or bridges over passing an expressway. On highways with divided lanes the microwave radar will receive echoes from cars 2 or 3 lanes away and has difficulty to differentiate them from echoes coming from objects in the same lane. Because of the poor angular resolution of microwave radars, the direction of objects cannot be specifically determined and objects too close to one another cannot be separated. The angular resolution of microwave radars is not small enough for them to be effectively used to monitor roadway traffic. The other disadvantage is that the microwave radars have difficulty in distinguishing radar signals coming from adjacent cars with similar equipment. If there are more than two cars with the same radar equipment on the same scene, the signals become very confusing.

The ultrasonic ranging and detecting device's angular resolution is also too poor to be effectively used in roadway traffic monitoring. The

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ultrasonic devices have even more difficulty than the microwave radars in determining the direction and location of echoes precisely, in the detection of directional change of objects and in avoiding signals coming from adjacent vehicles with similar equipment.

In the first, second and third preferred embodiments of this invention, laser radars are used in automobile collision avoidance system to avoid the above disadvantages of microwave radars or ultrasonic devices.

In the prior art, there is no accurate way to predict when a collision may happen when dealing with a mobile obstacle, especially when the obstacle is moving in a direction different from the direction of the system-equipped vehicle. It is very important to be able to precisely predict a collision in order to give a proper warning as soon as possible and, meanwhile to avoid unnecessary warnings. In the first, second and third embodiments of this invention, novel ways to more precisely predict collisions are disclosed.

In U.S. Pat. No. 4,072,945 dated Feb. 7, 1978 Katsumata et al uses minimum allowable distance as the basis for their collision avoidance system. However, the concept of minimum allowable distance fails to take into consideration many other factors which influence the collision timing. In this invention a novel concept of minimum allowable time is disclosed. Minimum allowable time can be easily adjusted by other factors, including road condition, visibility, driver's physical and mental condition and other factors.

Furthermore, in the prior art there is no reliable way to get information of system-equipped vehicle's directional change. In the third embodiment of this invention, a novel concept of utilizing a laser gyroscope to get very accurate information of directional change of the system-equipped vehicle is disclosed.

Wheel skidding is another important cause of vehicle collisions or accidents. The prior art is replete in roadway vehicles with four wheel steering capability with various designs to control the steering of rear

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wheels. It has been well known that steering the front wheels and rear wheels in the same direction, also called coincidence-phase direction, at a high vehicle speed can promote the stability of the vehicle and decrease the possible lateral skidding of wheels caused by the centrifugal force during turning. Adjusting the rear wheel steered angle is used to prevent or correct wheel skidding.

This invention also utilizes novel concepts of minimal allowable time. The minimal allowable time is dependent on multiple factors, including the vehicle's speed, obstacle's speed, steering wheel information, road condition, the light condition, the driver's condition and the obstacle's size. This invention includes various means to obtain data for all of these factors. This data is processed by the computer. The minimal allowable time is obtained by the computer either by specifically reading pre stored memory matrices or by calculation with a multivariable function. The memory matrices or the multi-variable function are both based on the aforementioned multiple factors influencing the minimal allowable time. When the predicted collision time is shorter than the minimal allowable time, the computer will generate warning signals to be sent to an alarm system and an optional automatic braking device.

The second preferred embodiment is a much more advanced version of this invention as compared with the first embodiment. In the second embodiment, two laser radar sets are utilized, one set being mounted near the right end of the front side of a vehicle, and the other set being mounted near the left end of the front side of the vehicle. Each laser radar set has a scanning zone of 180 degrees. Based upon the difference of the measured relative speed components in the radial directions of the right and the left laser radar sets respectively, the exact relative speed and the direction of movement of any obstacle can be determined. Thus the precise courses of movement of the vehicle and all adjacent obstacles can be predicted, whereupon very reliable predicted collision time can be calculated for all obstacles within the 180 degree or near 180 degree scanning zone.

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A steering wheel rotation sensor is utilized in the second embodiment to give the computer information about the system-equipped vehicle's direction of movement. However, the information generated by a steering wheel rotation sensor will be inaccurate when there is any significant wheel skidding, road tilting or unbalanced braking of the tires. These factors can be corrected by a vehicle tilting sensor and a novel averaging device for a steering wheel. In the third embodiment, a laser gyroscope is utilized to detect the vehicle's directional change. The directional information based on the laser gyroscope is more reliable than that based on the steering wheel rotation sensor. The rest of the third embodiment is the same as the second embodiment.

The automatic braking device is suitable when the vehicle user is unresponsive. Referring back to FIG. 10, the decision circuit (64) of the computer further includes means to detect any response from the vehicle user within a predetermined period of time after an uppermost degree alarm has been actuated. The vehicle user's response includes any active application of at least the accelerator, the brake or the steering wheel. A sudden change of the vehicle's speed as detected by the speed sensor (54) and the speedometer (55) exceeding a predetermined amount, or a Page | 11

sudden change of the vehicle's direction of movement as detected by the steering wheel rotation sensor (51) exceeding a predetermined amount constitute input information for a vehicle user's response. When the decision circuit (64) of the computer does not receive any input information for the vehicle user's response within a predetermined period of time after an uppermost degree alarm has been actuated, the decision circuit (64) will send a braking commanding signal to an optional automatic braking device (66) to actuate automatic braking of the vehicle. After a braking commanding signal has been sent out by the decision circuit (64) of the computer, reception of input information from the steering wheel rotation sensor (51) will cause the decision circuit (64) to cancel the braking commanding signal. The automatic braking device can decrease the severity of car accidents. For special purpose situations or for vehicle users who have past medical history of fainting spells, the automatic braking device may be actuated sooner, by making its activation associated with either the less serious degree alarm or the further less serious degree alarm, such that an accident may be prevented or minimized.

A steering wheel rotation sensor (83) is functionally connected with the computer (82) to give the computer electronic signals about the steering wheel rotation direction, degree, speed and acceleration. A speed sensor (84) is functionally connected with a speedometer (85) of the vehicle and the computer (82) such that the speed sensor can send to the computer electronic signals about the vehicle's speed. Optionally, the computer (82) may further receive and process signals from a vehicle tilting sensor (93), and correction factor signals from an averaging device (94). The averaging device is connected with the steering wheel rotation sensor (83), and an odometer device (95) or the speed sensor (84) or a timer (96). The designs and the functions of the vehicle tilting sensor (93) and the averaging device (94) are similar to the teachings of the second embodiment. A data processing means (86) of the computer can process the signals of the steering wheel information, the vehicle tilting signals, the correction factor signals and signals of the vehicle's speed to determine the vehicle's predicted directional change rate.

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Collision avoidance system:-

A collision avoidance system is an automobile safety system designed to reduce the severity of an accident. Also known as precrash system, forward collision warning system or collision mitigating system, it uses radar and sometimes laser and camera sensors to detect an imminent crash. Once the detection is done, these systems either provide a warning to the driver when there is an imminent collision or take action autonomously without any driver input (by braking or steering or both).

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Acquiring data on driving behavior during emergency braking can be a very hazardous task. Subject safety is a major concern and equipment damage is very costly in terms of time and money. In this study, these considerations were largely overcome by using a towed trailer representing a dummy vehicle (Surrogate Vehicle). It is a half body vehicle made of Fiberglass supported by an aluminium truss structure that is able to collapse in a collision.

The two stages that summaries the action of an ACAS, are:

x To initiate a warning to the driver about potentially dangerous situations.

x To undertake initial braking to minimize the risk of a collision before the driver starts to respond.

Initiating a warning is the crucial stage, as an ACAS cannot start to

respond until a danger threshold is passed, and drivers also need such

warnings to shorten their reaction time. In order to assess the benefit of

ACAS, two theories of collision warning were tested and assessed for

the extent to which they could successfully give advance warning to a

driver.

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Three graphs showing kinematics parameters during an emergency braking incident

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Benefits of Collision Avoidance System:-

To improve the ability of drivers to avoid accidents, collision avoidance systems continue to be tested and deployed. A number of different vehicle-based technologies are under development:

Intersection collision warning systems are designed to detect and warn drivers of approaching traffic and potential right-of-way violations at intersections.

Obstacle detection systems use vehicle-mounted sensors to detect obstructions, such as other vehicles, road debris, or animals in a vehicle's path or projected path and alert the driver.

Lane change warning systems have been deployed to alert bus and truck drivers of vehicles or other obstructions in adjacent lanes when the driver prepares to change lanes.

Lane departure warning systems warn drivers that their vehicle is unintentionally drifting out of the lane.

Rollover warning systems notify drivers when they are traveling too fast for an approaching curve, given their vehicles' operating characteristics.

Road departure warning systems warn drivers that their vehicle is about to leave the roadway, whether they are approaching a curve too fast, or about to drift off the road on a straight roadway segment.

Forward collision warning systems, often known as rear end collision avoidance systems, warn drivers that they are in a conflict situation with a lead vehicle. These conflicts can arise when the lead vehicle is stopped, slowing, or traveling at a constant speed.

Rear impact warning systems warn the following vehicle driver that they are in conflict with the lead vehicle. The warning can be presented by the lead vehicle or transmitted to an in-vehicle warning system in the following vehicle.

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While most collision avoidance systems are still in the research, prototype, and testing phases, some (e.g., forward collision warning and lane control) have begun to emerge in mainstream markets. Cost data are not readily available for collision warning systems in the early development stages or even for those systems in the commercial market. Much of the collision avoidance system cost data in reports and studies is based on estimates and/or market analysis of the public's willingness to pay for a specific in-vehicle feature. Also, some of these features are available as factory-installed options, as standard items included in the base cost of a vehicle, or as a component of an upgrade package. Hence, this section contains few examples of system cost data.

Driver Reaction Time:-

Driver reaction time is an important parameter and plays a major role in the success of the collision warning systems. In this paper the driver reaction time includes the human mental processing time in response to a signal or stimulus, the movement time for the driver’s foot to move to the brake pedal, and the brake system delay.

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Warning and Overriding Algorithms;-

Most warning and overriding criteria used in automotive collision avoidance systems are expressed in terms of range. The measured current range R is compared with the warning range Rw or overriding range Ro to decide if warning or overriding is needed. It is difficult to clearly quantify the level of danger or threat from the comparison result since the range criteria vary nonlinearly under different dynamic conditions. For instance, a non-dimensional linear warning level w was proposed.

Components Requirement:-

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Most collision avoidance systems draw on existing technologies. Since these systems require front-facing sensors, they often pull data from the same sensors that are used by an adaptive cruise control system. Depending on the particular system, those sensors may use radar, lasers, or other techniques to map the physical space in front of a vehicle.

Micro-Controller:-

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Sensors:-

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micro machinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the more traditional fields of temperature, pressure or flow measurement,[1] for example into MARG sensors. Moreover, analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine and robotics.

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Infra-Red Sensor:-

A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-based motion detectors.

Ultrasonic Sensor:-

Ultrasonic sensors (also known as transceivers when they both send and receive, but more generally called transducers) work on a principle

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similar to radar or sonar, which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Active ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object. Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present under certain conditions.

Radar Sensor:-

A radar detector is an electronic device used by motorists to detect if their speed is being monitored by police or law enforcement using a radar gun. Most radar detectors are used so the driver can reduce the car's speed before being ticketed for speeding. Only doppler radar-based devices can be detected — other speed measuring devices including those using ANPR, piezo sensors, and VASCAR technology cannot be detected. LIDAR devices require a different type of sensor, although many modern detectors include LIDAR sensors. Most of today's radar detectors detect signals across a variety of wavelength bands: usually X, K, and Ka. In Europe the Ku band is common as well.

Radar-Detector

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Radar detector on Vehicle

Radar Sensors:-Radar sensors use Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar to reliably detect moving or stationary targets, including cars, trains, trucks and cargo in extreme weather conditions.

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Side sensors

Side sensors

Block Diagram

Side sensorsFront Sensor Rear sensor

LCD display for displayingMicrocontroller

the corresponding distances

Stepper Stepper Motor

Motor Drivers

Main Components:Page | 23

Sensor Rear

Sensor Front

x MSP430F413 – Microcontroller x 40 KHz Ultrasonic Transducers x SN74194 – Universal Shift Register x ULN2003 – Darlington Arrays

Schematics for the msp-sensor PCB

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BRD design of the stepper motor driver

The stepper motor driver works fine but msp430 circuit did not give efficient results with the US transducer, therefore post‐midsem we shifted our focus and started to work with ATMEGA32 building the circuit on similar lines and concept as the msp430 circuit.

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Concept behind this model

40-kHz ceramic ultrasonic transducers are to transmit and receive the ultrasonic sound waves. The MSP430 drives the transmitter transducer with a 12-cycle burst of 40-kHz square-wave signal derived from the crystal oscillator, and the receiver transducer receives the echo.

The measurement time base is very stable as it is derived from a quartz-crystal oscillator. The echo received by the receiver transducer is amplified by an operational amplifier and the amplified output is fed to the Comparator _A input. The Comparator _A senses the presence of the echo signal at its input and triggers a capture of Timer_A count value to capture compare register CCR1. The captured count is the measure of the time taken for the ultrasonic burst to travel the distance from the system to the subject and back to the system. The distance in inches from the system to the subject is computed by the MSP430.

The Basic Timer1 is programmed to interrupt the MSP430 every 205 milliseconds. The interrupt signal from the Basic Timer1 wakes up the MSP430 to repeat the measurement cycle and update the display.

The output drive circuit for the transducer is powered directly from the 9-V battery and provides 18 VPP to drive the ultrasonic transmitter. The 18 VPP is achieved by a bridge configuration with hex inverter gates U4-CD4049. TLV2771 has a high-gain bandwidth and provides sufficiently high gain at 40 kHz.

In this case 0f 4 sensors, 40 khz bursts are sent to all the four US transmitters together, then polling is done via a Multiplexer/Demultiplexer to obtain the US transmitter where the echo has been received and accordingly the stepper motors are moved to avoid the obstacles.

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Intersection collision:-To avoid in intersections junction i.e. four junctions joining sides. In case our car is going in 90km when the intersection junction is coming means our sensor senses the other side of directions and give the message to the LCD. The driver can assume that some vehicle coming in other directions and we can easily stop the car at the same time in case the driver is not listening to the LCD means we can fix one alarm for indication purpose also. So our sensor will sense and send the message to the LCD and alarms also rings means we can easily save the car from accidents.

Intersection image

Front and back side collision:-Secondly we had given the example for front and back side image collision.This is our proposed model image for front and back side image collision. This image can be taken as front and back side image collision. Here we were using the concept based on the avoidance of collision in Laser rays. In case we are going to implement in real time means we can prefer on Radar also. The car is going in front side means Page | 27

if any vehicles coming in front or back side means our sensor will sense and send the message to the LCD or alarm. The driver can easily save the car from accidents.

Front side image collision

Left side and right side collision:-Here we had given the example on both sides of the collision.

Side View collision

In case the car is going in front side if there is any vehicles is coming in side direction means our both sides of the sensor will detect and send the message to the LCD or alarm. The driver can easily stop or save the car

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from accidents.

This is the demo model we were given the idea in case real time we are implanted the concept means we can avoid the four side vehicle crash i.e. front side, back side, right side and left side. This is not for only based on vehicles collision at the same time if any obstacles like wall, trees, people, etc are coming on the road lane means our sensor will detects all things and send the message to the LCD and then we can save the car from such type of accidents. So simply we can say if this concept was implements in real time systems it will get success means we can say as Accident free vehicle collision system

CONCLUSION:

Our proposed model is facing a new challenge to further improve the reliability of road side testing techniques, while seeking for new and emerging technologies in Laser rays or that aid the avoidance of collision in the road sides networks. With the Laser rays test equipment, focus has been on better understanding of the Laser receiver at the Can controller and the interaction of with the can controller with the defects through the main CAN node to the Zigbee. Further results, such as the avoidance location, depth, type etc. can be deduced through the analysis of the Laser Ongoing work is under way to develop improved vehicle collision system, mostly in the field of employing the proposed model for avoidance of collision of vehicles. Development of new processing algorithms to avoidance collision vehicles has become the major focus of most research activities to avoid vehicle collision system. But our concept is mainly to avoid the collision in the road side vehicles will be carried out successfully. So simply we can say if this concept was implements in real time systems it will get success means we can say as Accident free vehicle collision system.In this paper, unsafe condition avoidance of an autonomous vehicle is studied with introduction of a new path coding system named road matrix navigation algorithm. It was demonstrated that the suggested algorithm provides higher reliability to specify vehicle in the path owing to its higher precision and less calculation cost. For the purpose of the

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demonstrating the applicability of the concept in the motion planning of the autonomous vehicles, a two-layer fuzzy controller was designed and simulated. The first layer measures the level of collision risk and instructs the second fuzzy layer. Finally, the future speed and direction of the vehicle motion is obtained by the second layer in order that the vehicle evades the dangerous situation. Results of simulations show that this concept is feasible for collision avoidance of road vehicles during sever conditions.

Reference:-

[1] British Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre (ThatCham), “The car we couldn’t crash”, vol 3 no.2, February 2008

[2] Auto Electronics market to exceed US$50 Billion by 2010: http://www.instat.com/press.asp?ID=1752&sku=IN0603375R E

[3] Yi Kyongsu, Woo Minsoo, Kim Sung Ha, Lee Seong-chul, “Experimental investigation of a CW/CA System for automobiles using Hardware-in-the-loop simulations”, Proceedings of the American Control Conference, volume 1, p 724-728 (1999)

[4] An-Ping Wang, Jie-Chang Chen, Pao-Lo Hsu, “Intelligent CAN based automotive collision avoidance warning system”, Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and control, volume 1, p 146-151 (2004)

[5] Yizhen Zhang, “Engineering Design Synthesis of Sensor and Control Systems for Intelligent Vehicles”, California Institute of Technology (2006)

[6] A. Doi, T. Butsuen, T. Niibe, T.Yakagi, Y. Yamamoto, and H. Seni. “Development of a Rear-End Collision Avoidance System with Automatic Braking control”, JSAE Review, vol. 15, p335-340, October 1994

[7] Peter Seiler, Bongsob Song, J. Karl Hendrick, “Development of a collision avoidance system”, SAE Special Publications, ITS Advanced Controls and Vehicle Navigation Systems, volume 1332,

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p97-103 (1998) [8] Y. Fujita, K. Akuzawa, and M. Sato, “Radar Brake System”,

Annual meeting of ITS America, vol. 1 p95-101, March 1995

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