Exam seat no:

Project Report

On

“HEXAMINE”

Prepared By:-

Roll No:- B.E Semester VIII Chemical.

Guided By:-

Professor & Head of Department, Chemical Engineering Department.

Chemical Engineering Department,Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,

Chandkheda- 3824242009

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,Chandkheda-382424.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. , Roll no. of B.E. Semester VIIIth (Chemical) has successfully completed his project Report on “HEXAMINE”, during the academic year 2009-10.

Date of Submission:

Professor & Head of Department, Chemical Engineering Department.

Acknowledgement

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere regards and deep

sense of gratitude to my Head of the department & my guide Prof. M.G. Desai. I am

thankful to my guide Prof. M.G. Desai , for not only guiding me for this project

report, but also encouraging me and finding time for reading and commenting on

manuscript.

His encouragement kept my spirit alive and lifted my moral up to very high

level of interest during the preparation of this project report.

I am highly thankful of library staff and my guide for providing valuable

references throughout the preparation of this project report. I would like to thank my

college authorities who gave me the internet facility to get some data and other

required information.

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank all my friends without whom

support I would not be able to complete this project report in time.

Finally, my grateful acknowledgements are of those who have helped me

directly or indirectly for preparing this project report.

INDEX

SR. NO

CHP. NO.

CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Regulatory history 61.2 Uses 71.3 Health Effects 71.4 Product specification 7

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 10

2.1 Properties of raw material 102.2 Properties of HEXAMINE 11

3. PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL DESCRIPTIO

13

3.1 Process selection 133.2 Process description 133.3 Schematic representation of manufacturing process 15

4. MATERIAL BALANCE 16

4.1 Material balance around Reactor -1 164.2 Material balance around Reactor -2 184.3 Filter press 204.4 Material balance around Reactor -3 204.5 Spray dryer 214.6 Rotary vaccum dryer 22

5. ENERGY BALANCE 23

5.1 Energy balance around reactor – 1 235.2 Energy balance around reactor – 2 245.3 Energy balance around reactor – 3 265.4 Spray dryer 275.5 Rotary vaccum dryer 27

6. EQUIPMENT DESIGN 28

6.1 Design of shell 286.2 Design of head 316.3 Design of jacket 336.4 Design of agitator 34

6.5 Design of flange 396.6 Design of bracket support 45

7. INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

50

7.1 Process control 507.2 Control centre 517.3 Instrumentation 517.4 Flow control 527.5 Ratio control 537.6 Alarm and safety trips and interlock 53

8. COST ESTIMATION 54

8.1 Purchase equipment cost 548.2 Installation charge 558.3 Total product cost 568.4 Manufacturing cost 568.5 Profitability analysis 598.6 Payout period 598.7 Break even point 59

9 POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY ASSPECT

61

9.1 Pollution control 619.2 Material safety data sheet 63

10. UTILITIES 67

11. PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT 70

11.1 Plant location 7011.2 Site selection criteria 7111.3 Plant layout 73

12. REFERENCES 76

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Regulatory history

Hexamine is also known as hexamethylenetetramine, aminoform, crystamine, methenamine or formin. It was first prepared in 1859 by Butlerov of Russia. It is a white, crystalline powder with a slight amine odor. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform, but it is insoluble in ether. However the aqueous solutions exhibit inverse solubility, i.e., less hexamine dissolves as the temperature increases. The hydrate, C6H12N4.6H2O, can be crystallized from the aqueous solution at temperatures below 14°C.

In 2000 Mexico accounted for 63% of the US imports. In 2001, 58% of imported material came from Germany while 31% came from Mexico. In 2001 two producers, Borden Chemical and Wright Chemical, served the US market. As the above table shows, capacity is much greater than demand.

No longterm demand growth is expected unless a significant new end use is found. There has been growth in some smaller volume applications, (such as commercial explosives and steel pickling solutions). However the growth in these markets will not be great enough to offset the slow decline in the use of phenolic resins that contain hexamine

The price of hexamine can generally be expected to track the price of methanol, which is the raw material for formaldehyde. As a rule of thumb, the realized cost of hexamine moves 1 cent for every 4 cent move in the methanol price. The price also moves one quarter of a cent for every $5/ton move in ammonia costs. Between 1995 and 2000, the price of imported hexamine dropped from $0.54/lb to $0.34/lb.

1.2 USESHexamine is produced as a granular and free flowing powder as well as a 42.5% solution. The solution is shipped in tank trucks, railcars and drums. Solid forms are packed in bags, fiber drums and super sacks. Hexamine is sensitive to moisture. Therefore it should be stored in an atmosphere with a relative humidity below 60%.

Hexamine is used in the following areas:

Rubber Industry: Vulcanization accelerator and rubber blowing agent

Explosives Industry: Cyclonite (RDX), octogen (HMX), hexamethylene triperoxide amine (HMTA)

Synthetic Resin Industry: Liquid resin stabilizer, molding powder, carbohydrate resins, vulcanization of vinyl resins and copolymers, aniline shellac resins

Pharmaceutical Industry: Disinfectant (formin, urotropin, crystazol, helmitol), urinary antiseptic

Photographic Industry: Stabilizer for developers

Organic Synthesis Industry: Additives in deodorizing powder, absorption of phosgene gas, preservation of fresh products

Metal Industry: Inhibitor against acids and hydrogen sulphide

Leather Industry: Conservation of furs and skins

Paper Industry: Surface treatment during manufacture of water repellent papers and cardboards

Lubricant Industry: Stabilizer for greases and oils

Fertilizer Industry: Anticaking agent for prilled urea

Other: Dyeing and artificial aging of wood, preservative for cosmetics, treatment of cholera in chickens

An estimate five (5) million pounds per year of hexamine are consumed to make commercial explosives. Hexamine demand from the phenolic resin segment has declined due to increased competition from formaldehyde free resins and other resins that offer performance advantages.

The production of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) may be the largest application for hexamine (40 to 60 million pounds per year). However, since hexamine for this use is manufactured as a captive intermediate (in solution) this segment is usually not included in the production statistics.

1.3 Health Effects

Acute Health Effects:  Irritating to the skin and eyes on contact. Inhalation will cause irritation to the lungs and mucus membrane. Irritation to the eyes will cause watering and redness. Reddening, scaling, and itching are characteristics of skin inflammation. Follow safe industrial hygiene practices and always wear protective equipment when handling this compound.

Chronic Health Effects:  Prolonged skin contact may produce a rash to affected area(in particular the wrist, ankles, beltline, and collar area of the neck) similar in appearance to poison ivy. Hexamine may decompose to formaldehyde in the presence of perspiration (slighly acidic pH 4-6.5). The formaldehyde is trapped in the sweat pores of the skin and then oxidized to formic acid, which is believed to be the actual agent responsible for the skin rash. (WARNING: Formaldehyde may be a potential cancer hazard).

Acute Health Effects:  Hexamine could decompose to formaldehyde, which is a listed potential carcinogen.

1.4 Product specification

Hexamine is a heterocyclic organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This white crystalline compound is highly soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It has a cage-like structure similar to adamantane. It is useful in the synthesis of other chemical compounds, e.g. plastics, pharmaceuticals, rubber additives. It sublimes in a vacuum at 280 °C.

Specification for technical grade Hexamine

Properties Unit Standard

Content % ≥ 99

Moisture % ≤ 0.5

Ash % ≤ 0.03

Heavy metals % ≤ 0.001

Chloride % ≤ 0.015

Sulphates % ≤ 0.02

Ammonium % ≤ 0.001

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Physical and Chemical Properties

2.1 PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIALS:

1. Formaldehyde Solution (37 %)

Physical State at 15° C and 1 atm: Liquid

Molecular Weight: 18-30

Boiling Point at 1 atm: Varies with concentration

Freezing Point: Varies with concentration

Critical Temperature: Not pertinent

Critical Pressure: Not pertinent

Specific Gravity: 1.1 at 25°C (liquid)

Liquid Surface Tension: Not pertinent

Liquid Water Interfacial Tension: Not pertinent

Vapor (Gas) Specific Gravity: Not pertinent

Ratio of Specific Heats of Vapor (Gas): Not pertinent

Latent Heat of Vaporization: Not pertinent

Heat of Combustion: Not pertinent

Heat of Decomposition: Not pertinent

Heat of Solution: (est.) –9 Btu/lb = –5 cal/g = –0.2 X 105 J/kg

Heat of Polymerization: Not pertinent

Heat of Fusion: Currently not available

Limiting Value: Currently not available

Reid Vapor Pressure: 0.09 psia

2. Ammonia

Molecular Weight: 17.03

Boiling Point (°C): 33.35 at 760 mm Hg

Freezing Point (°C): 77.7

Decomposition Temperature (°C / °F): 450 to 500 / 842 to 932

Color: Colorless

Critical Temperature (°C): 133.0

Critical Pressure (kPa / psi): 1‚425 / 1‚657

Specific Heat (J/kg °K)0 °C: 2‚097.2100 °C: 2‚226.2200 °C: 2‚105.6

Solubility in Water (weight %)0 °C : 42.820 °C: 33.125 °C: 31.840 °C: 23.460 °C: 14.1

Specific Gravity of Anhydrous Ammonia40.0°C : 0.69033.4°C : 0.6820.00 °C : 0.63940.0 °C : 0.580

Vapor Pressure: 116.6 psig at 21°C (70 °F)7‚500 mm Hg at 25 °C

Vapor Density (Air = 1.0): 0.6 at 0 °C

Flammable Limits in Air (% by Volume)Lower Explosion Limit (LEL): 15Upper Explosion Limit (UEL): 28

Autoignition Temperature (°C / °F): 651 / 1‚204

NFPA Ratings for Storage VesselsHealth : 3 out of 4Flammability : 1 out of 4Reactivity : 0 out of 4

2.2 PROPERTIES OF HEXAMINE

Chemical name : Hexamethylenetetramine

Formula : (CH2)6N4

Molecular Weight : 140.19

Sublimation Temperature : 285 – 295°C

Flash Point : 250°C

Density of solid @ 20°C : 1.33 g/cm3

Bulk Density : 700 to 800 g/L

Particle Size : 700 micron Maximum

Specific Heat : 36.5 cal/°C

Heat of Formation @ 25°C : 28.8 kcal/mol

Heat of Combustion @ 25°C : 1,003 kcal/mol

Solubility in Water20°C : 874 g/L25°C : 867 g/L60°C : 844 g/L

pH of 10% Aqueous Solution : 8 to 9

Vapor Pressure @ 20°C : 0.0035 mbar

CHAPTER-3

3.1 PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL PROCESS DESCRIPTION

PROCESS 1:

Main Process Features

The feed materials for the production of Hexamethylene Tetramine (Hexamine) are Formaldehyde and Ammonia. Formation and crystallization of Hexamine proceed simultaneously in the same reactor. Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously discharged from the reactor. Subsequent separation from the mother liquor and drying are sufficient for product conditioning prior to bagging. The Hexamine process delivers a pure white and crystalline product with best flow characteristics for all applications and down stream uses of Hexamine.

Brief Process Description

Hexamine is produced from compressed Ammonia and Formaldehyde solution (37%). In the process, gaseous Ammonia from store fed to the compressor and compressed ammonia is bubbled in the Formaldehyde solution, which is already fed to the reactor.The reaction of Formaldehyde with Ammonia to Hexamine proceeds according to the following chemical equation:

6 CH2O + 4 NH3 (CH2)6N4 + 6 H2O + 746 kJ

The formation of Hexamine takes place in the reactor. Due to the large amount of water, hexamine produced, is remain dissolved in water. Therefore from reactor it will feed to the Triple Effect Evaporator.

The concentration of hexamine is increased from 26% to 60%. Then the concentrated feed is charged to the crystallizer, where hexamine crystals are formed.

Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously withdrawn from the crystalliser and separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a filtration unit and returned to the Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried to the desired rest moisture content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed. The Hexamine produced by this process meets highest requirements for all down stream uses. The Hexamine crystals are pure white and show best flow characteristics.

PROCESS 2:

In this process, gaseous Ammonia from store and Formaldehyde process gas are directly introduced into the Hexamine reactor without intermediate condensation. The Formaldehyde process gas is generated either by a Metal Oxide Catalyst process or by a Silver Catalyst process for the production of Formaldehyde. The formation and crystallization of Hexamine take place in the same reactor. The heat of reaction, i.e. the heat of formation of Hexamine, and the heat of solution of are directly used for the evaporation of excess water, Methanol and other condensable components accumulating in the mother liquor within the reactor. Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously withdrawn from the reactor and separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a filtration unit and returned to the Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried to the desired rest moisture content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed.

CHAPTER-4

MATERIAL BALANCE:

Basis: Plant is to be designed to consume 1000-kg/batch of formaldehyde. Reactants used:

Formaldehyde solution (37%) Ammonia (compressed)

DATA:Components Molecular Weight

Formaldehyde 30

Ammonia 17

Water 18

Hexamine 140

Reaction:

6CH2O + 4NH3 (CH2)6N4 + 6H2O

Formaldehyde Ammonia Hexamine Water

4.1 Reactor:

Assuming 90% conversion of reactants into hexamine.

For 1000 kg of formaldehyde, its solution required:

CH2O = 1000 Kg

NH3 = 377.7 Kg

Hexamine = 700 kg

Reactor 1

= 1000/0.37 = 2702.7 kg/batch (Aq. Formaldehyde solution)

water added:

= 2702.7 - 1000 = 1702.7 kg/batch

Mole feed of formaldehyde = 1000/30 = 33.33 kmol HCHO

NH3 required :

6 kmol HCHO required 4 kmol NH3

33.33 kmol HCHO required 22.22 kmol NH3

Amount of NH3 is consumed: = 22.22 * 17 = 377.77 kg/batch

Total feed in reactor : HCHO solution + NH3

2702.7 + 377.77 = 3080.478 kg/batch

Since the conversion is 90%Therefore,

HCHO reacted = 900 kg/batchAmmonia reacted = 340 kg/batchHCHO unreacted = 100 kg/batchNH3 unreacted = 37.7 kg/batch

Solubility of ammonia is 33.1% weight in water at 20ºC.

Composition at Reactor outlet

Hexamine produced: 6 kmol HCHO required 1 kmol Hexamine29.99 kmol HCHO required 4.99 kmol hexamine

Amount of Hexamine produced:= 4.99 * 140= 699.76 = 700 kg/batch

Water: 6 kmol of HCHO = 6 kmol of water2.99 kmol of HCHO = 2.99 kmol of water

Amount of water produced:= 29.99 * 18

= 540 kg/batch

Water from HCHO solution = 1702.7 kg/batch

Total water = 2242.52 kg/batch

INPUT KG/BATCH OUTPUT KG/BATCHHCHO 1000 Hexamine 700Water 1702.7 Water (produced) 540NH3 377.7 Water (as reactant) 1702.7

HCHO 100NH3 37.7

TOTAL 3080.4 3080.4

4.2 TRIPPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR:

In triple effect evaporator hexamine solution is concentrated to 60 %.

Overall material balance:mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3

Material balance of hexamine

26% hexamine entered and 60% hexamine is collected from outlet.

0.26 * 10784 = 0.6 * m1

m1 = 4673 kg

Let us assume the U1 = 2500 W/m2KU2 = 2000 W/m2KU3 = 1000 W/m2K

Ts = 150ºC = 443 K (Temp of steam to the 1st effect)

Boiling point of solution in last effect = 90ºC

Overall temperature drop ∆T = 150 – 90 = 60ºC

Assuming heat loads equal in all sides

Q1 = Q2 = Q3

U1A1∆T1 = U2A2∆T2 = U3A3∆T3

For equal heat transfer surfaceU1∆T1 = U2∆T2 = U3∆T3

∆T1 = U2/U1 ∆T2

∆T = ∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3

∆T = ∆T1 [ 1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3 ]

60 = ∆T1 [ 1 + 1.25 + 1.25 ]

∆T1 = 12ºC

Similarly,∆T2 = 15.8ºC∆T3 = 31.6ºC

Now,

T1’ = Ts - ∆T1

= 150 – 12 = 138ºC

T2’ = 138 – 15.8 = 122.2ºC

T3’ = 122.2 – 31.6 = 90.6ºC

Now we assume that amount water evaporated in every effect is samei.e.

mv1 = mv2 = mv3 = mv

mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3

mf = m1 + 3mv

10784 = 4673 + 3 mv

mv = 2037 kg = mv1 = mv2 = mv3

Now, mass balance at 3rd effect

mf = m3 + mv3

10784 = m3 + 2037m3 = 8747 kg

mass balance at 2nd effectm3 = m2 + mv2

8747 = m2 + 2037m2 = 6710 kg

m1 = 4673 kgm2 = 6710 kgm3 = 8747 kg

Heat transfer area required, A2 = mv1 * ƛv1/U2 * ∆T2

= 2037 * 2199.46 * 103/ 2000*15.8*3600= 40 m2

similarly A3 = 40 m2

Evaporator outlet composition: Hexamine solution 60% + Water 40%.

4.3 Crystallizer:

Solubility of hexamine at 100ºC = 814 g/l

1866.68 * 0.814 = 1517.3 kg

Hence 1517.3 kg of hexamine remains dissolved in water.

Crystals form = total hexamine – hexamine dissolved

Feed = 1550.57 kg

M.L. = 4920 kg

Hexamine crystals

= 1282.7 Crystallizer

= 2800 – 1517.3 = 1282.7 kg

M.L. = water + hexamine + HCHO soln + NH3 soln

= 1866.68 + 1517.3 + 1080 + 455.6= 4920 kg

INPUT KG/DAY OUTPUT KG/DAYHexamine 2800 Hexamine crystals 1282.7

Water 1866.68 Hexamine dissolved

1517.3

HCHO soln 1080 Water 1866.68NH3 soln 455.6 HCHO soln 1080

NH3 soln 455.6Total 6202.28 6202.28

4.4 Centrifuge:

PPT = 987.7kg

Feed = 737.552kg

M.L.= 1193 kg

Input :

Feed = 1282.7 kg hexamine + 30% water= 1667.5 kg

Process water = 1 kg water / kg hexamine= 1282.7 kg

Total feed = 2950.2 kg

Output :

Water = 10% water / kg hexamine

= 0.1 * 1282.7 = 128.27 kgHexamine = 1282.7 kgTotal = 1411 kg

Centrifuge

Mother Lye = 1540 kg

INPUT KG OUTPUT KGHexamine 1282.7 Hexamine 1282.7Water 384.8 Water 128.27Process water 1282.7 M.L. 1540

2950.2 2950.97

4.5 Drier:

Feed = 1411 kg Product = 1295.5 kg (1% water)

Water = 1 % water / kg hexamine= 0.01 * 1282.7 kg = 12.82 kg

Hexamine = 1282.7 kg Water evaporated = 115.44 kg

INPUT KG OUTPUT KGHexamine 1282.7 Hexamine 1282.7Water 128.27 Water 12.824

Water evap. 115.441410.97 1410.964

CHAPTER-5

Drier

ENERGY BALANCE

5.1 REACTOR :

Base temp 0°C

In reactor temp is 60°C to 70°C

Cp for HCHO soln: 3.42 KJ / Kg K

Cp for NH3: 2.226 KJ / Kg K

Cp for Hexamine: 0.153 KJ / Kg K

Cp for water: 4.176 KJ / Kg K

HEAT INPUT = Σ m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt HCHO + m Cp Δt NH3

= (2702.7×3.42× 35+273) + (377.77×2.226×308)

= 3105220.21 KJ / batch

HEAT OUTPUT = m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt HCHO + m Cp ΔtWater + m Cp ΔtNH3 + m Cp Δt Hexamine

= (100.3x3.43x353) + (2242.520x4.17×353) + (37.804×2.226×353) +

(700x0.153x353)

= 3384580.27 KJ / Batch

Heat of reaction at 68ºC = 745 KJ/mol

Therefore, (700/140) ×745 = 3725 KJ/batch (heat generated)

Q = HEAT OUTPUT - HEAT INPUT + Hreaction

= 3384580.27 – 3105220.21 + 3725

= 283085.06 KJ / Batch

Water required for Jacket in reactor

Qtotal = mCp Δt Water

283085.06 = m(4.176)[(75—40)+273]

m = 220.09 Kg/batch

5.2 TRIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Q = A U ∆TLMTD

= 10 x 2500 x 144

= 3.6x106 W = 12.96x106 KJ/S

[Note: Detailed calculations of above equipment is calculated in Chapter 4 Material Balance]

5.3 ROTARY DRYER:

HEAT INPUT = Σ m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt Hexamine + m Cp Δt Water + m Cp Δt Hot air

= (1282.7 x 0.153 x 353)+(128.27 x 4.176 x 353)+(1282.7 x 1.014 x 393)

= 769522.25 KJ / Batch

HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT

769522.25 = m Cp Δt Hexamine + m Cp Δt Water + m Cp Δt water evaporated

+ m Cp Δt Air

769522.25 = (1282.7 x 0.153 x T2) + (12.824 x 4.176 x T2) + (115.44 x 4.176 x T2)

+ (1282.7 x 1.014 x T2)

769522.25 = 2032.52 T2

T2 = 378.6 K = 105ºC

CHAPTER-6

PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

6.1 Triple Effect Evaporator

Design data for the evaporator in the first effect:

Feed inlet = 6706.5 kg

Product outlet = 4666.68 kg

Water evaporated = 2040 kg

Steam inlet = 2040 kg

Pressure of steam = 5 kg/cm2

Temperature of steam = 150 ºC

Temperature inside evaporator = 138 ºC

Pressure inside evaporator = 3.46 kg/cm2

Heat transfer area, A = 40 m2

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 2500 W/m2 ºC

∆TLMTD = (150 + 138)/2 = 144 ºC

Q = U A ∆TLMTD

= 2500 × 40 × 144 = 14.4×106 W

Tube Diameter, Do = 1 inch = 25.4mm

Tube Length, L = 4 Ft = 1219.2 mm

Area, A = 40 = Nt π Do L

No. of tubes, Nt = 40 / (π × 0.0254 × 1.219)

= 411.2 = 411 tubes

Cross section area of 1 tube = π/4 × Do2

= 506.7 mm2

Cross section area of 411 tubes = 411 × 506.7

= 208253.7 mm

We assume that c.s. area of tubes are 25% of the total c.s. of evaporator.

Cross section area of evaporator = 208253.7/0.25

= 833014.8 mm2

Diameter of evaporator, do : π/4 × do2 = 833014.8

do = 1.029 m

Downcomer area = 25% of 833014.8

= 208253.7 mm2

Diameter of downcomer = 208253.7 × 4 / π

= 514.9 mm

MECHANICAL DESIGN

The required data are as following:

• Internal pressure = 5 kg/cm2

• External pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2

• Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

• Modulus of Elasticity = 1.9×105 N/mm2

• Allowable stress, f = 966.5 kg/cm2

• Height of the evaporator, H = 2710 mm

• Inside Diameter of the evaporator, Di = 1030 mm

6.2 DESIGN OF SHELL:

Internal design Pressure = operating pressure × 10% of operating pressure

= (5 - 1.033) × 1.1 = 4.3637 kg/cm2

External design pressure = operating pressure × 10% of operating pressure

= 1.033 kg/cm2

SHELL THICKNESS:

Thickness of shell required to withstand internal pressure:

ts’ = P × ri / (f × j - O.6 × P) + C.A

Where, ri = inside radius of shell

P = internal design pressure

f = maximum allowable stress

j = joint efficiency

(If we go for double welded butt joint with 10% radiography) then j = 0.85 & CA = 1.5 mm

= 4.3637 × 515/ (966.5 × 0.85-0.6 × 4.3637) + 1.5 (f = 966.5kg/cm2)

= 0.42cm

ts = l.06 × ts’

=1.06 × 4.2 = 4.452 mm

Let ts = 8 mm

Thickness of shell required to withstand external pressure:

We find thickness by graphically method

Let ts = 8 mm, t = 8 - 1.5 = 6.5 mm

D0 = Di + 2t – 1.5 = 1044.5 mm

L/D0= 2.59

D0/t = 160.69

From graph given in illustrated of process equipment design. (Appendix - C)

A=0.00014

B = 3500 Psi = 246.48 Kg/cm2

Pallow = B / (Do/t) = 1.533 Kg/cm2

Pd < Pallow, satisfied

So ts= 8mm

Outside Diameter of reactor D0 = Di + 2 th

= 1030 + 2 (8) = 1046mm

WEIGHT OF SHELL:

= π (Di + tas) × ts × l × δ

= π (1030 + 8) × 8 × 2710 × 8000 × 10-9

= 565.58 kg

6.3 HEAD DESIGN

Top head (torispherical head is used) :-

Internal design pressure = 4.3637 kg/cm2

External design pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2

Internal diameter = 1030 mm

Crown radius =1030 mm

MOC = SA - 285, grade -C (c.s. plate material)

Now Knuckle radius = 0.1 × 1030 = 103 mm

Concentration factor, W = ¼ [3 + (Rc/Rk)1/2]

= 1/4 [3 + (1030/103)1/2]

= 1.54

Thickness of head required to withstand internal pressure:

th’ = P × Rc × w/(2fj-O.2P)+C.A

W = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rc = crown radius, ID of reactor

Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor

W=l.54

th’ = 4.3637 × 1030 × 1.54 1(2 × 966.5 × 0.85 - 0.2 × 4.3637) + 1.5

= 5.71 mm

th = 1.06 × th’

= 6.05 mm.

Thickness of head required to withstand external pressure (By analytical method):

th’ = Pe × Rc × W/(2fj-O.2P) + C.A

w = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rc = crown radius, i.D of reactor

Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor

Pc =1.67 × 1.033

= 1.725 kg/cm2

W= 1.54

th’ = 1.725 × 1.54 × 1030 /(2 × 966.5 × 0.85 - 0.2 × 1.725) + 1.5

= 3.16 mm

th = 1.06 × th’

=3.35 mm

Here we take the thickness for top head is ts = 6mm

Head diameter D0 = 1030 + 2 × 6 = 1042 mm

SF = 3 × th or 1.5 inch which ever is greater.

= 1.5 × 25.4 = 38.1 mm, iCr = 10% ID of reactor,

Blank diameter = OD + OD/24 + th + 2SF + 2/3 × iCr

= 1042 + 1042/24 + 6 + 2 × 38.1 + 2/3 × 103 = 1236.3 mm

Weight of Head = (π /4) × (blank diameter) × th × δ

= (π /4) × (1.23632 × 0.008 × 7800)

= 74.9 = 75 Kg

Height of head OA = th + b + SF

b = Re – [(Re - Ri)2 – (i.D/2 - Ri)2]0.5

= 1030 - [(1030 - 103)2 - (1030/2 - 103)2]0.5

= 199.58 mm = 200mm

6.4 DESIGN OF FLANGE:

Gasket material = asbestos composition

Internal design pressure = 1.133 Kgf/cm2

Gasket factor m = 2.75

Minimum design seating stress y = 251.77 kg/cm2

Flange material = SA 240 Grade S type 304

Maximum allowable stress of flange material at design temp = 1020.7 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of f1ange material at atm. temp = 1257.9 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at design temp = 816.5 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at atm. temp = 1020.7 kgf/crn2

GASKET WIDTH:

do/di = [y-Pm]/[y-p(m-1)] ___________________(a)

where, do = outside diameter of gasket

di = inside diameter of gasket

Internal diameter of flange = O.D of shell

di= 1.046 meter

Put the value in Eq-(a) then

do/di = 1.023,

do = 1.07m

minimum gasket width = (do-di)/2 = (1.07 – 1.046) /2 = 0.014 m

Hence minimum gasket width N =14 mm

Basic gasket seating width bo = N/2 =7mm = 0.275” > 0.25”

Effective gasket seating width b = (bo)0.5/2

= 1.323 mm

Mean diameter of gasket G = (1.07+1.046) / 2 = 1.058 m

BOLT DESIGN:

Load due to design pressure, (operating pressure)

H= (π/4) ×G2×P

= π/4 × (1058)2 × (1.133/100) = 9960.7 kgf

Load to keep joint tight under operation

Hp = π × G×2b×mxp

= π × 1058 × 2 × 1.323 × 2.75 × 1.133 = 27402.36 kgf

Total operating load,

W1 = H + Hp

= 9960.7+27402.36 = 37363.06 kgf

Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition,

W2= π ×G × b × y

= π× 1058 × 1.323 × 251.77/100 = 11071.32 kgf

Bolt area required at operating condition

Am1 = W1 / fb

= 37363.06/816.5

= 45.76 cm2

Bolt area required at bolting up condition

Am2 = W2 / fa

= 11071.32/ 1020.7

= 10.846 cm2

Root area of bolt = 0.302” x 2.5422

= 1.9483 cm2

Amax. = 45.76 cm2

So no. of bolts required. = Am / 1 .9483

= 45.76/1.9483 = 23.48

Use 24 nos. of bolts

Bolt circle diameter is, C = B + 2(g1+ R)

B = ID of shell = 1.03 m

g1 = 1.5 × thickness of shell = 1.5 x 8 = 12 mm

R = (do-Do)/2 + dbh/2 + th (dbh=22mm, assume)

(1070—1046)/2 + 22/2 + 8 = 31 mm

C= 1030 + 2 (12+ 31) = 1116 mm

Bolt spacing = πC / n

= π 1116/ 24

= 146.084mm = 146 mm

Bs is not in range of 45 to 75 mm so take n = no. of bolts = 50

Bs = 70 mm

Thickness of flange t mm,

Bs = 2db + 6 × tmin / (m+0.5)

70 = 2×22 + 6×tmin / (2.75 + 0.5)

tmin = 14.083 mm

Check of gasket width.

Ab actual = 50 × 1.9483

= 97.415 cm2

Min gasket width = (Ab×fba) / (2πyG)

= (97.415 × 1020.7) / (2×π×251.77×105.8)

= 0.594 cm

criteria for selection of flange

1. t -= 14.08 mm < 15.875 mm

2. B/t = 73.13 mm < 320 mm

3. P = 1.133 kg/cm2

Conditions are satisfied hence loose flange can be used.

Bending moment calculation.

For bolting up condition.

Design bolt load W = (Ab+Am)fa/2

W = (97.415+45.76) ×1020.7/2

= 73069.36 kgf

hG = ½ (C-G)

= ½ (1116-1058)

= 29 mm

Bending moment created in flange material at bolting-up condition

Ma = WhG

= 2119 kgfm

Bending moment for operating condition

Mo = MD + MG + MT

Where MD = HD hD

HD = hydrostatic force acting on inside area of flange

HD = π/4 B2 P

= π/4 (10302) × (1.133/100)

= 9440.48 kgf

hD = (C-B)/2

= (1116-1030)/2

= 43 mm

MD = 9440.48×43

= 405.94 kgf

MG = HG × hG

HG = Wm1- π/4 G2P

= 37363.06 – 993.07

HG = 36369.99 kgf

hG = (C-G)/2

= (1116-1058)/2

= 29 mm

MG = 1054.7 kgfm

MT = HT × hT

HT = π/4 G2 P - π/4 B2 P

HT = 52024.54

hT = (2C – B - G )/2

= 72 mm

MT = 3745.76 kgfm

MO = 405.94+1054.7+3745.76

= 5206.4 kgfm

Ma . Ffo/Ffa

= 2119 × 1020.7/1257.9

= 1719.42 kgfm < MO

Mmax = MO = 5206.4 kgfm

Thickness of flange.

tf = ((YMmaxCF)/fB)^0.5 + C.A.+ M.A.

here, C.A. = corrosion allowance and M.A. = mechanical allowance

Assuming that CF = 1

For SS-304 C.A. = 0

K = = (O.D. of flange)/(ID of flange)

= 1186/1030

= 1.15

Y = (k2log10K/(k2-1))

Y = 25.579

tf = 11.56 cm.

tf = 115.6+5 (adding 5mm machining allowance)

actual bolt spacing Bs= C/n

= π× 2626/24

= 146 mm

Bolt pitch correction factor = CF = (Bs/(2d+t))0.5

= (146/(2×19.05+115.6))0.5

= 0.974

(CF)1/2 = 0.987

tf = 0.987 × 115.6

= 114 mm

CHAPTER:7

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

Instrumentation and process control deal with the measurement and control of physical conditions required for mass production of high iuality products. Instrumentation and process control ensures high output and uniform quality of products and to ensure that least amourt of raw material are used. Physical science have been used to argument over sense of temperature, viscosity, pressure and color, we arc incapable of sensing within narrow slits, dillerence in temperature, speed, color or light intensity. It produces mechanical aids that never get tired, seldom get into trouble but are accurate and sensitive in response for long period of time while also eliminating the elements of human errors.

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:

A. Safe plant operation:

o To keep the process variable within safe operating limits.

o To dictate dangerous situation as they develop and provide alarm automatic

shut down system.

o To provide interlock and alarms to prevent dangerous operating system.

B. Production Rate: To achieve the desired product output.

C. Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within, the specified quaiity standards.

D. Cost: To operate at lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.

E. In a typical chemical plant, these objectives arc achieved by combination of automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

7.1 Process Control:

Automatic process control and instrumentation are considered the mechanical brains, and never of modern chemical processing. Automation is the must as it reduces labor and improves feasibility of the product plant operation; the process and other units are sensitive to temperature, pressure, and flow rate. I lcnce these variables are as follows:

The reaction vessel is the heart of the plant operation. Its performance determines product quality and its efficiency is a major contributing factor to the total plant production.

For temperature control cascade loop is used. The controlling variable is jacket heating oil steam, which is allowed to adjust a jet point of a secondary loop; whose response to change is rapid. Reaction temperature controller varies set point of jacket temperature control ioop. The advantage of this loop is that a change in supply is corrected for in sleeve loop and does not upset master controllers.

7.2 Control centre:

Since all devices are controlled from a control center, it becomes the brain of process plant; it is designed for comfortable working conditions. It consists of a control board and data logging system. Instruments are mounted closely together to centralize working area, and central room is small in size, thus giving a good location. The room must he air conditioned and free from flammable and toxic gases, green door is used as it is pleasing and restful comfortable working surface, locate control panels lhr’opcrating functionality.

7.3 Instrumentation:

Selection installation maintenance and operations of an instrumentation system are of great importance to the company. Adequate effective instrumentation provides one way to increase quality control, while maintaining or reducing prices ir the face of higher cost of material supplied and labour. We will describe here the instrumentation system for temperature, pressure, and levels and flow rate measuremems. We have to select instrument which satisfy both our perfect technical and economy.

7.3.1 Instrumentation for temperature:

In our plant teiupciature is oi the prime importance and it should be strictly maintained a the required level.

For this purpose, we have &li if erent types of expansion thermometers as

1) Mercury in glass thermometer

2) Bimetallic thermometer

3) Pressure spring thermometer

4) Pneumatic balance thermometer

7.3.2 Instrumentation for pressure Measurement:

Pressure is one of the most important factors in our process industry. For pressure measurement we ave liquid column manometers such as U — tube manometer, enlarged leg manometers, inclined tube manometer and well manometer. Beside from this pressure spring gauge bellows pressure elements, melallic and non —metallic diaphragm pressure elements and differential pressure meters. We select pressure spring thermometer and especially bourdoii pressure gauge. it is simple in construction and without any Conipi ication in oper it covers wind range of pressure scale most system-handling vapour or gas ; the method of control will depend on the process.

7.1.3 For level indication:

It is all-important to maintain the specified level in all storage tank and reaction vessels. The level to be maintained depends upon quantities to be processed and design specifications. For generally float end tube liquid level gauge float and shaft liquid level unit and hydraulic remote transmission units are used. For the level measurements in open vessels bubble system and diaphragm box system are widely used. Level measurements in the pressure vessel liquid differential pressure manometer, liquid scale with manometer and displacement float liquid level gauge are used. For the measurement of flow, venturei meter, orifice meter, head flow meter, pitot tube area flow meter such as rotameter and some quantity meters are used most widely.

In many equipment, where an interface exists between two phases some me of maintaining the interface the required level must be provided. This may be incorporated in the design of the equipment as is usually done for the decanter or by automatic control of the flow to the equipment.

7.4 Flow control:

Flow control is usually assGciated with inventory control in a storage tank or other equipment; there must be a reservoir to take up the change in flow rates.

To provide flaw control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying near constant volume output by a pass control be used.

7.5 Ratio Control:

Ratio control can be used when it is deckled to maintain two Ilows at a constant ratio. For e.g. reactor feeds and distillation column reflux.

7.6 Alarm and safety trips and interlock:

Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in process conditions. Key instruments arc fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and visual alarm on the control panels, lack ol’ response by the operator is likely to land on the rapid development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would be fitted with a tirp system to take action utomatically to prevent the hazard, such as shutting down pumps, closing valves, operating energy.

The basic components of an automatic trip system are:

A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a present value is exceeded instrument. A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system ‘of pneumatic or electric relays. An actuator to carry out required action, close or open valve or switch offmonitor.

CHAPTER-8

Cost Estimation

Cost estimation mainly consists of three parts:

1. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT 2. TOTAL PRODUCTION COST 3. PROFITABILITY

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT WORKING CAPITAL

(10% OF FCI)

DIRECT COST INDIRECT COST

1. Purchased equipment 1. Engg. And supervision 2. Purchased equip. installation 2. Construction expanse 3. Instrument & control 3. Contractor’s fees

4. Piping installation 4. Contingency

5. Electrical installation

6. Building installation

7. Yard improvement

8. Service facilities

9. land

SUMMARY OF PURCHASED EQUIPMENT & ITS COST:

SR. NO EQUIPMENTNO. OF

EQUIPMENTCOST IN $ COST IN Rs.

1. Reactor 1 32,400 14,90,400

2.Triple effect evaporator

1 494,100 2,27,29,060

3. Crystallizer 1 46,800 21,52,800

4. Centrifuge 1 12,900 5,93,400

5. Drier 1 155,900 71,71,400

6. Filter bag 1 19,700 9,06,200

7. Agitator 1 4,000 1,84,000

8. Storage tank 4 104,400 48,02,400

9. Pump 4 22,500 10,35,000

10. Compressor 1 69,600 32,01,600

TOTAL ------- 868,340 4,42,66,260

All the equipments cost are taken from the internet http://www.matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm

Now, 1$ = 46 Indian Rupees

Therefore, Total Purchased Equipment Cost =Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 --------------- (A)

8.1 CALCULATION OF FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (FCI):

For calculating fixed capital investment we have to calculate

(A) Direct Cost

(B) Indirect Cost

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT COST:

1. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST:

The cost of purchased equipment is the basis for estimating fixed capital investment.

The most accurate method for determining purchased equipment cost is to obtain quotation from fabricators or suppliers.

The second best method is to obtain cost values from the file of past purchased record. From above the total purchased equipment cost is found to be Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 ----------------------------------------(A)

The total purchased equipment cost is always 15 to 40% of fixed capital investment.

For our convenience we take it as 22% of fixed capital investment.

As we know purchased equipment cost we can calculate estimated fixed capital investment.

Therefore Estimated fixed capital investment = 4, 42, 66, 260 0.22

= Rs. 20,12,10,272.70 So, The estimated fixed capital investment = Rs. 20, 12, 10,272.70.

2. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION:

The installation of equipment involves cost for labor, foundation, support, platform, construction expense & other factors directly related to the erection of purchased equipment.Purchased equipment installation is always 6-14% of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of purchased equipment installation = 0.09*20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,81,08,924.55 -------------- (B)

3. INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL:

Instrument costs, installation cost constitute the major portion of capital investment required for instrumentation. Total instrumentation cost depends on the amount of controller required. This cost is always 2-8% of fixed capital investment.

For our convenience we take it as 6% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of instrumentation & control = 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ---------------(C)

4. PIPING:

The cost of piping covers labor, valve, fitting, pipe, support & other item involved in erection of all piping used in the process. This cost is always 3-20% of fixed capital investment. But For our convenience we take it as 10% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of piping = 0.1 * 20,12,10,272.70 =Rs. 2,01,21,027.27 ---------------- (D)

5. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION:

The costs for electrical installation consist primarily of installation, labor & material for power & lighting. The electrical installation consists mainly of four major components namely power wiring, lighting, transformation & service & instrument & control wiring. This cost is always2-10 % of fixed capital investment. But For our convenience we take it as 7% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of electrical installation = 0.07 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,40,84,719.09 ---------- (E)

6. BULIDING INSTALLATION:

The cost for building including services consists of expense for labor, material & supply involved in the erection of all building connected with the plant. In this cost of plumbing, heating, lighting, ventilation & similar services are included.This cost is always 3-18 % of fixed capital investment. But For our convenience we take it as 11% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of building installation = 0.11 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 2,21,33,130 ----------- (F)

7. YARD IMPROVEMENT:

Cost of fencing, grading, roads, sidewalk, railroad siding, landscaping & similar item constitute the portion of yard improvement. This cost is always 2-5 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 4% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,

Cost of yard improvement = 0.04 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 80,48,411 ------------ (G)

8. SERVICE FACILITIES:

Utilities for supplying steam, water, power, compressed air & fuel lies in the service facilities. Waste disposal, fire protection & miscellaneous service item such as first aid & cafeteria equipment are included in this. This cost is always 8-20 % of fixed capital investment. But For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of service facility = 0.09 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,81,08,924.54 ------------- (H)

9. LAND:

The cost of land & the accompanying surveys & fees depends on the location of property & may vary by cost factor. This cost is always 1-2 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Cost of land = 0.02 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 40,24,205 ----------------- (I)

Now, Direct Cost = (A) + (B) + (C) + (D) + (E) + (F) + (G) + (H) + (I) = Rs. 16, 09, 68, 218 ------------------------- (A#)

B. CALCULATION OF INDIRECT COST :

1. ENGINEERING &SUPERVISION:

The cost of construction design & engineering, drafting, purchasing, accounting, construction & cost engineering, travel, reproductions are included in this cost. This cost is always 4-21 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 12% of fixed capital investment. Therefore, Engineering & supervision cost = 0.12 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 2,41,45,232.72 -------- (A)

2. CONSTRUCTION EXPENSE:

This includes temporary construction & operation, construction tool & rental office, home office at construction site etc. This cost is always 4-16 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 13% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Construction expense = 0.13 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 2,61,57,335.45 ----------- (B)

3. CONTRACTOR’S FEES:

The contractor’s fee varies for different situation but it is always 2-6 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 3% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Contractor’s fees = 0.03 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 60,36,308.181 ------------ (C)

4. CONTINGENCIES:

A contingency factor is usually included in an estimate of capital investment to compensate for unpredictable events such as storms, floods, strikes, price change, small design change etc. This is always 5-15 % of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 5% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Contingencies = 0.05 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,00,60,513.64 --------------- (D)

Now, Total indirect cost = (A) + (B) +(C) + (D) = Rs. 6, 63, 99, 390 ------------------ (B#)

Therefore, Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost = (A#) + (B#) = Rs. 22, 73, 67, 607.8

8.2 CALCULATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):

TCI = FCI + WORKING CAPITAL ---------- (1#) Working Capital is always 10% of TCI. Therefore equation (1#) become, TCI = FCI + 0.1 TCI 0.9 TCI = 22, 73, 67, 607.8

Therefore, TCI = Rs. 25, 26, 30, 675.3.

9 CALCULATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

RAW MATERIAL COST FOR 1.3 TPD OF Hexamine PRODUCTIONS:

Total working days in a year = 300 days

Raw Material Rs/Kg Rs/AnnumFormaldehyde (37%

solution)15 1,80,00,000

Ammonia (gas) 28 1,26,93,072Water 0.06 15,840Total 3,07,08,912

All chemical’s price data taken from the internet http://www.sunivo.com .

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT PRODUCT COST :

1. RAW MATERIAL COST:

The amount of raw material which must be supplied per unit time can be determined from process material balance & from that we can find raw material cost required per annum.

The raw material cost for our product is Rs. 3,07,08,912 ---------- (a)

The raw material cost is always 10 -50% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 49% of total product cost.

Therefore,Estimated total product cost = Raw material cost / 0.49 = 3,07,08,912 / 0.49 = Rs 6,26,71,249

2. OPERATING LABOR COST:

In general, operating labor cost is divided into skilled & unskilled labor. It is most commonly 10 -50% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.

Therefore, Operating labor cost = 0.10 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 62,67,124.9--------- (b)

3. UTILITIES:

The cost for utilities such as steam, electricity, process & cooling water, compressed air varies depending on the amount of consumption. As a rough approximation it is always 10-20% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.

Therefore,

Utility cost = 0.10 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 62,67,124.9------------- (c)

4. MAINTENANCE & REPAIRS:

A considerable amount of expense is necessary for maintenance & repair if a plant is to be kept in efficient operating condition. As a rough approximation this is always 6% of Fixed Capital Investment

Therefore, Maintenance & repair cost = 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70 = Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ------- (d)

5. OPERATING SUPPLIES:

In any manufacturing operation, many miscellaneous supplies are needed to keep the process functioning efficiently & it is not included in the raw material cost. It is always 15% of maintenance & repair cost.

Therefore, Operating supplies cost = 0.15 * 1,20,72,616.36 = Rs. 18,10,892.45 ----------- (e)

6. LABORATORY CHARGES:

The cost of laboratory test for control of operation & for product quality is covered in this cost. For quick estimates, this is always 10-20% of operating labor cost. For our convenience we take it as 10% of operating labor cost.

Therefore, Laboratory charges = 0.10 * 62,67,124.9 = Rs. 6,26,712.49-------- (f)

7. PATENTS & ROYALTIES:

Many manufacturing processes are covered by patents & it may be necessary to pay a set amount for patent right or royalty based on the amount of material produced. For rough approximation this is 0-6% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.

Therefore, Patent & royalty cost = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 6,26,712.5---------- (g)

Therefore, Direct product cost = (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) + (e) + (f) + (g) = Rs. 5,83,80,095.61 ------------------ (C#)

B. CALCULATION OF FIXED CHARGES :

1. DEPRECIATION:

Equipment, building & other material object comprising a manufacturing plant require an initial investment which must be written off as a manufacturing expense. This is called as depreciation. This is always 10% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Depreciation = 0.1 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8 = Rs. 2, 27, 36, 760.78 ---------- (h)

2. LOCAL TAXES:

The magnitude of local property taxes depends on the particular locality of the plant & regional laws. This is always 2-4% of fixed capital investment. For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Local taxes = 0.02 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8 = Rs. 45,47,352.156--------- (i)

3. INSURANCE:

Insurance rate depends on the type of process being carried out in the manufacturing operation & on the extent of available protection facilities. It is always 1% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Insurance = 0.01 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8 = Rs. 22,73,676.078 ----------- (j)

Therefore Fixed charges = (h) + (i) + (j) = Rs. 2,95,57,789.01 ---- (D#)

C. CALCULATION OF PLANT OVERHEAD COST:

The expenditure required for routine plant services are included in plant overhead cost. This is always 50- 70% of total expense of operating labor cost. For our convenience we take it as a 50% of operating labor cost.

Therefore, Plant overhead cost = 0.50 * 62,67,124.9 = Rs. 31,33,562.45 -------------- (E#)

Therefore, Manufacturing cost = (C#) + (D#) + (E#) = Rs. 9,10,71,447 -------- (F#)

D. CALCULATION OF GENERAL EXPENSES :

1. ADMINISTRATIVE COST:

The expenses connected with top management or administrative activities are necessary to include if economic analysis is to be done. This is always 20-30% of total expense of operating labor cost. So we take it as 20% of operating labor cost.

Therefore, Administrative cost = 0.20 * 62,67,124.9 = Rs 12,53,424.98 ---------- (k)

2. DISTRIBUTION & MARKETING COST:

Distribution & marketing cost vary widely for different types of plant depending on the type of material being produced, plant location & lay out etc. For rough approximation this is 2-20% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 2% of total product cost.

Therefore, Distribution & marketing cost = 0.02 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 12,53,425 ---------- (l)

3. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

This includes salaries & wages for all personnel directly connected with this type of work. In chemical industry this cost amount is about 1% of total product cost.

Therefore, Research & development cost = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (m)

4. INTEREST:

Interest is considered to be compensation paid for the use of borrowed capital. For rough approximation this is 0-10% of total product cost. For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.

Therefore, Interest = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249 = Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (n)

Therefore, General expenses = (k) + (l) + (m) + (n) = Rs. 37,60,275 ------- (G#)

Therefore, Total product cost = Manufacturing cost + General expenses = (F#) + (G#) = Rs. 9,48,31,722 --------- (H#).

8.4 CALCULATION OF PROFIT:

Hexamine production/ day = 1.3 TPD Therefore, Hexamine production/annum = 1.3 * 300 = 390 TPA Selling price of 1 kg of Hexamine = Rs. 300

Therefore, Sales income from Hexamine = 390,000 * 300 = Rs. 11,70,00,000 --------- (I#) Now, Gross profit = total sales income – total product cost = (I#) – (H#) = Rs. 2,21,68,278 ---------------- (J#) Now, total income tax is equal to 35%

Therefore, Total income tax = 0.35 * Gross profit = 0.35 * 2,21,68,278 = Rs. 77,58,897.3-------------- (K#)

Therefore,Net profit = Gross profit – Income tax = (J#) – (K#) = Rs 1,44,09,380.7

Now, Rate of return = (Net profit/Total capital investment) = (1,44,09,380.7/25, 26, 30, 675.3) * 100 = 5.70%

Now,Payback period: depreciable fixed capital investment Net profit per year + depreciation per year

= 25, 26, 30, 675.3/(1,44,09,380.7+ 2, 27, 36, 760.78)

Payback period = 6.8 years

Turn over ratio = Gross Annual Sales F.C.I = 40, 80, 00,000 22, 73, 67, 607.8

Turn over ratio = 1.8

8.4 BREAK EVEN POINT CALCULATION (n):

F.C. + (DPC/kg) n = sell price* n Break Even Point ‘n’ (B.E.P.) = F.C* 100/ (sell price – DPC/Kg)

Here, F.C. (Fixed Cost) = Fixed Charges + Overhead + General Expenses = 2,95,57,789.01 + 31,33,562.45 + 37,60,275= Rs. 3,64,51,626.5

D.P.C. /kg = Rs. /kg 150

Sell Price = Rs. /kg 300

n = 243010.8433 kg/year = 243 ton/year = 0.81 ton/day = 62.31 %

Thus, from the above Break Even Point it is required that the plant must produce 0.81 ton/day for no loss and no profit conditions. That is the plant must regularly run at an efficiency of n = 62.31 %.

Chapter 9

Material Safety Data Sheet

Hexamine MSDS

Section 1: Chemical Product and Company IdentificationProduct Name: MethenamineCatalog Codes: SLM4459, SLM3688CAS#: 100-97-0RTECS: MN4725000TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: MethenamineCI#: Not available.Synonym: Hexamine; HexamethylenetetramineChemical Name: MethenamineChemical Formula: C6H12N4

Section 2: Composition and Information on IngredientsComposition:Name CAS # % by WeightMethenamine 100-97-0 100

Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Methenamine: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 569 mg/kg [Mouse].

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.

Potential Chronic Health Effects:CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available.Repeated or prolonged exposure is not known to aggravate medical condition.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact:Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention.

Skin Contact:In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.

Serious Skin Contact:

Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention.

Inhalation:If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.

Serious Inhalation:Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.

Ingestion:Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed, call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Serious Ingestion: Not available.

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: Flammable.Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not available.Flash Points: CLOSED CUP: 250°C (482°F).Flammable Limits: Not available.Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2),

nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2...).

Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:Slightly flammable to flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Non-flammable in presence of shocks.

Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available. Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static discharge: Not available.

Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:Flammable solid.SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.LARGE FIRE: Use water spray or fog. Cool containing vessels with water jet in order to prevent pressure build-up, autoignition or explosion.

Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Not available.Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:Explosive reaction with acetic acid + acetic anhydride + ammonium nitrate + nitric acid, 1-bromopenta borane(9) above 90 C, iodoform (at 178 C), iodine (at 138 C).

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container.

Large Spill:Flammable solid.Stop leak if without risk. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray curtain to divert vapor drift. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Eliminate all ignition sources. Call for assistance on disposal.

Section 7: Handling and StoragePrecautions:Keep locked up. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.

Storage:Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Do not store above 25°C (77°F).

Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls:Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below the exposure limit.

Personal Protection:Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves.

Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.Exposure Limits: Not available.

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Crystals solid. crystalline powder.)Odor: Odorless.Taste: Not available.Molecular Weight: 140.19 g/moleColor: White.pH (1% soln/water): Not available.Boiling Point: Not available.

Melting Point:Sublimation temperature: 280°C (536°F) [Lewis, R.T., Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary]263 C [Merck Index]

Critical Temperature: Not available.Specific Gravity: 1.331 @ -5 C (23 F) (Water = 1)Vapor Pressure: Not applicable.Vapor Density: 4.9 (Air = 1)Volatility: Not available.Odor Threshold: Not available.Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available.Ionicity (in Water): Not available.Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water.

Solubility:Soluble in cold water.Insoluble in diethyl ether.Soluble in chloroform.Soluble in alcohol.

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data

Stability: The product is stable.Instability Temperature: Not available.Conditions of Instability: Heat, incompatible materialsIncompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents.Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.

Special Remarks on Reactivity:Reacts violently with Na2O2.Decomposes when in prolonged contact with strong acids and concentratred solutions of organic acids.Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available.Polymerization: Will not occur.

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Inhalation. Ingestion.Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 569 mg/kg [Mouse].Chronic Effects on Humans: MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria

and/or yeast.Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.

Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:May cause cancer (tumorigenic) based on animal data.May affect genetic material (mutagenic).

Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans:Acute Potential Health Effects:Skin: Causes skin irritation.Eyes: Causes eye irritation.Inhalation: Causes respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation. May affect urinary system, and metabolism.Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract irritation/distress with nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting. May affect the urinary system (bladder, kidneys), behavior (excitement, muscle contraction, spasticity, tremor).

Section 12: Ecological Information

Ecotoxicity: Not available.BOD5 and COD: Not available.Products of Biodegradation:Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long term degradation products may arise.

Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less toxic than the product itself.

Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not available.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste Disposal:Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental control regulations.

Section 14: Transport Information

DOT Classification: CLASS 4.1: Flammable solid.Identification: Hexamethylenetetramine UNNA: 1328 PG: IIISpecial Provisions for Transport: Not available.

CHAPTER- 10

UTILITIES

(A) Utility Requirement

(B) Labour Requirement

1. Utilities

The work utilities is now generally used for the ancillary service needed in operation. These services will normally be supplied form a central site facility. The utilities requi ed include.

1. Water

2. Electricity

3. Steam requirement for process heating

4. Storage & movement of raw materials/products

5. Fire protection

6. Maintenance facilities

7. Plant sewer system and waste disposal

Water:

Water is vital for any plant following types of water used for the plant.

Cooling water:

Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site. Water cay bt deacon form a river, lake of form wells.

Some treatment is necessary for once through system to prevent scale f small quantity of surface active agents is added to the water. So it increases the solubility of the salt in the water by preventing. Prevented by adding corrosion inhibitors such as, chromate or surfaces acidic phosphates.

Dematerialized Water:

Dematerialized water form which all the minerals have been removed by ion-exchange, is used when pure water is needed for process use and as boiler feed water.

Fire water:

Requirement for fire water are intermittent and assumed that other services will be shunt if necessary to provide sufficient water capacity. The fire water lop system should be so designed that breakdown at a specific hydrant does nto put the entire system out of operation. Provision should be made for emergency connection of the fire water system into the large reservoir of water. Sea water and brackish water is often used if plant is located at the coastal area.

Sanitary water:

It must be free disease causing bacteria and potable Treated water is chlorinated to destroy bacteria. Sanitary water systems are operated at 20-30 psi. An elevated water storage tank is installed to ensure uninterrupted flow of water.

Utility water:

Utility water is used for miscellaneous washing operations such as cleaning an operating area. It should be free form sediments. Notices should be put to wan personnel not to drive this.

Electricity:

The power required for motor drivers, righting and general use, may be generated on site, but usual it is purchased form the local supply company. In our plant main air blower is the high power consuming equipment. As in our plant large quantity of excess is available, we produce power in plant itself by using steam turbine. Actually electricity is one of the by-products of our company.

The voltage at which the supply is taken will depend on the demand. In this case three phases 415V is used for general industrial purpose and 210V single phase for lighting and other low l)0 requirments.

Steam:

The steam for process heating is usually generated in waste heat boilers using the most economic fuel available. In our plant we produce steam in Reboiler-I&II Steam is used for power generation In power plant.

Storage & Movement of Raw Materials & Product:

The process contains liquid raw material and products for storage area & n a floor. The CS is highly corrosive storage tank is located away form main plant storage tank is properly lined to prevent any hazard. For the movement of liquid pipe lined arc required. Pipelines are provided with flow meters to measure the flow rate.

Maintenance Facilities:

Maintenance facilities are provided to ensure efficient working of equipment. The expensive units must be maintained by a knowledge mechanic as outlined by the manufacture. The most efficient filtration system available for breathing air is employed. .lf laboratory contain chromatography, it should be properly set-up.

One more item deserving mention is to blow down cylinders fI while compressing air and inspecting annually with an inner scrape for water and rust.

So converter should be checked at frequent time periods, its construction and performance should match with the standards set—up.

Fire Protection:

Acid handling line must be leak proof. If acid is present in atmosphere, hazard may occur which can become a source of Accordion. Therefore, acid handling line should be lea proof. Maintenance work is required for keeping it as leak proof.

Plant Sewer System and Waste Disposal:

Preliminary sources of sewage and waste in the plant are;

• Sanitary Waste

• Process Drain

• Surface Drainage

The plant sewer system is designed to conduct these wastes to the disposal system without becoming clogged with solids.

Plant Roadways:

Plant roadways are designed to permit easy access to all points of plant for mobile servicing equipment, trucks and fire fighting equipment.

CHAPTER- 11

11.1 PLANT LOCATION

The geographical location of the final plant can have stron influence on the success of the industrial venture. Considerable care imist he exercised in selecting the plant site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located where. the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other lactors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the ad and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal factors that must be considered while selecting a suitable plant site, are briefly discussed in this section. The factors to be considered are:

1. Raw material availability.

2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)

3. Availability of suitable land.

4. Transport facilities.

5. Availability of fabors.

6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).

7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.

8. Local community considerations.

9. Climate.

10. Political strategic considerations.

11. Taxations and legal restrictions

11.2 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA -

Location:

The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of pioduct distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because thc buyer usually l advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the major consumers are fi industries and hence the plant should be erected in close proximity to those units.

Availability Of Suitable Land:

The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully. The topography of the tract of lami structure must be considered, since either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.

Transport

The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail transport will be ch for the long- distance transport. If possible the plant site should have access to all three types of’ transportation. There is usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the plant personnel are necessary.

Availabi of Labors:

Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally and labors suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability .of the labors for recruitment and training.

Availability of Utilities:

The word “utilities” is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of any production process. ‘Ihese services will normally be supplied from a central facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity, which are briefly described as follows: Water: -

The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production of sulfuric acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it’s desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The temperattire, mineral content, slit a sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply. Demineralized water, from which all the minerals hav been removed is used where pure water is needed l tIle process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site.

Electricity: -

Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of olant site.

Environmental impact and Effluent Disposal:

Facalities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requiren’euts for additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste products, full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal. The disposal of’ toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.

Local Community Considerations:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk to the community.

Climate

Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems

and must be co:isidered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.

Political And Strategic Considerations:

Capital grants, lax conccsstoils, and other inducements are olten given by governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The availability of such grants can he the overriding consideration in site selection.

Taxation And Legal Restrictions:

State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the plant site.

Conclusion: Considering the above factors the plant should be

Located near the refinery for getting propylene. It should have a near the sea because of discharging a lot of brine solution

or should be near the chior/alkali plant.

11.3 PLANT LAYOUT :-

After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process nit will depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below:

1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.

2. Process requirements.

3. Convenience of operation.

4. Convenience of maintenance.

5. Health and Safety considerations.

6. Future plant expansion.

7. Modular construction.

8. Waste disposal requirements

Costs:

Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of co pipe between equipment, and least amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

Process Requirements:

An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump.

Convenience of Operation:

Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must he provided to allow easy access to equipment.

Convenience of Maintenance: -

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can he easily withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires (hsmanhling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places under cover.

health and Safety Considerations: -

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process buildings.

Future Plant Expansion: —

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.

Modular Construction: -

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea. The advantages of modular construction are:

1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.

3. Less need for skilled labors on site.

The disadvantages of modular construction arc:

1. Higher design costs & more structural stem work.

2.More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.