School Of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME)

Project ReportProject: Sand Permeability meterSubject: Workshop PracticeStarting Date: 16th November 2015Completion Date: 23rd December 2015Budget Provided: PKR 10,000/_Submitted by: Syndicate 6submitted to: Col. Naveed HASSAN

Index

Sr no. Topic Page no.1 Permeability 12 Role of permeability 33 Significance 44 Permeability meter 65 Types of permeameters 86 Methods of testing permeability 87 Uses of permeameter 98 Industrial and laboratory methods 119 Falling head method 1310 Constant head method 1511 Comparison of both 1912 Apparatus Functioning 2313 Apparatus Design 2714 Materials Used 2915 Components of Apparatus 3016 Photos 3317 Expenditure Bill 3418 Syndicate Personnel 3519 Working Teams 36

PermeabilityDefinition:-

“Permeability or hydraulic conductivity (k) is a property of a material that describes the ease with which fluids (such as water)can move

through pore spaces or fractures”.

Explanation:The permeability of a substance is a measure of the resistance to the flow a fluid. If it takes high pressure to squeeze a fluid through a substance, the material is said to have low permeability and vice versa. It has the units of length per unit time.It is often represented by the permeability coefficient (k) through the Darcy’s equation:

v =k × i

Where, v is the apparent fluid velocity through the medium, i is the hydraulic gradient , and k is the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic conductivity) often expressed in m/s.

This property is necessary for the calculation of seepage through earth dams or under sheet pile walls, the calculation of the seepage rate from waste storage facilities (landfills, ponds, etc.), and the calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits. Permeability depends on the intrinsic permeability of the material, the degree of saturation, and on the density and viscosity of the fluid.

EXAMPLE:-

Permeability is a very important property and used in many processes. In casting, the permeability of the sand used is the measure of how well it allows the gasses to pass through it during ventilation. Impermeable sand allows very little gas to escape. The more permeable the soil the greater the seepage.

Role of permeability in different industries

Introduction:-The concept of permeability is of importance in many processes including the determination of flow characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil and gas reservoirs and the flow characteristics of ground water in aquifers. Apart from geology the concept also has many practical applications in chemical engineering i.e., filtration and in permeable paving that may be included in the list of applications in civil engineering.

ApplicationsPermeable Paving:-Permeable paving is a range of sustainable materials and techniques for permeable pavements with a base and subbase that allow the movement of stormwater through the surface. In addition to reducing runoff, this effectively traps suspended solids and filters pollutants from the water.

Permeable paving surfaces have proved to be efficient in managing the run-off from paved surfaces. In new suburban growth, they prevent water sheds and in existing settlements, redevelopment provides opportunities to implement storm water management practices. Moreover it reduces the impacts on water quality. This method is being implemented in the United States.

Permeability and Agriculture:-In agricultural terms, permeability helps in determining the amount of water soaked in by the soil- whether rainfall soaks into the ground or

runs off to the nearest stream. If the soil is not permeable and allows water to stay on its surface, it will affect plant growth. Water management techniques should be applied to avoid water-logging of agricultural soils. Controlled traffic and zero tillage are the best ways to reduce surface accumulation of water. Improving water entryways and water storage techniques near the field are also good practices to reduce the effect of water-logging on crops. Cover crops have helped farmers and agriculturists to improve permeability of soil and reduce soil surface strength as well.

Oil and Gas Extraction:-Hydrocarbons - crude oil and natural gas - are found in certain layers of rock that are usually buried deep beneath the surface of the earth. In order for a rock layer to qualify as a good source of hydrocarbons, it must meet several criteria with permeability of the rock being one of the many important factors.

Another characteristic of reservoir rock is that it must be permeable. That is, the pores of the rock must be connected together so that hydrocarbons can move from one pore to another. Unless hydrocarbons can move and flow from pore to pore, the hydrocarbons remain locked in place and cannot flow into a well which creates a hurdle during the extraction process.

Aquifers, Soil and Ground Water:-

Generally, soil refers to the top few feet of the land surface.  The soil acts as a natural filter to screen out many substances that mix with the water.  But water will transport some contaminants into theground water. The amount of groundwater recharge, storage, discharge, as well as the extent of groundwater contamination, all depend on the soil properties one of which is the permeability of the soil.

Soil is a mixture of three soil separates:

sands (the coarsest) silts clays (the finest)

Classification of these separates is based on grain size.

The size of pore space and thee inter connectivity of the pores help determine the permeability. The property is also increased by the uniformity in the grain size. Water can move between the pore spaces. The larger the pore space, the greater is the permeability allowing water to move faster through the pores. This is why clay having a fine structure and poor connectivity off the grains has a low permeability creating confining layers in the subsurface.

Significance of permeabilitySoil Permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the most important qualities of soil to consider.

Why knowledge of permeability of soil is important? The answer lies in its significance in the following engineering problems:

 Seepage through earthen dams and canals.

Unfit pressure under hydraulic structure and safety against piping.

 Rate of settlement of a saturated compressible soil layer.

Yield from a well and drainage of water logged agricultural land.

Stability of upstream and downstream slopes of dams.

Fish culture.

Choosing proper sand for casting in Foundry Work.

The details of some of above problems are mentioned below:

Fish Culture:A pond built in impermeable soil will lose little water through seepage. The more permeable the soil, the greater the seepage. Some soil is some permeable and seepage is so great that it is not possible to build a pond without special construction techniques. Soils are generally made up of layers and soil quality often varies greatly from one layer to another. Before pond construction, it is important to determine the relative position of the permeable and impermeable layers. The design of a pond should be planned to avoid having a permeable layer at the bottom to prevent excessive water loss into the subsoil by seepage.

Slopes of Dams:-The slopes of Dams should be built in such a manner that will ensure a good water retention. Again, soil permeability will have to be checked with this in mind.

Choice of proper sand for sand casting:-To ensure the formation of a proper Article through casting process and to avoid errors(like blow holes, pin holes and Cavitation), it is necessary for the casting sand to possess some sort of “ventilation”. This is achieved by choosing a casting sand having appropriate value of permeability.

Permeameter

“It is a device which is used to check the permeabilityor coefficient of permeability (measure of how easily a soil allows fluids to pass through

it )of a medium”.

If we look at the sand through a microscope there are spaces between the sand particles like sponge.So the sand allows the fluids to pass through it and hence we check the permeability of soil. It is a cylinder(tank) in which the soil sample is placed and has inlet and outlet valves to connect manometers and to allow the in flow and out flow of water to check the permeability of a given soil sample.

Types of permeameters Air Pressure Permeameter Digital Permeameter Constant Head Permeamter Falling Head Permeameter Magnetic Permeameter Electronic Permeameter

Methods of Testing PermeabilityFinding the permeability of sand can be achieved in many ways. The techniques vary based on the type of sand being used, accuracy of result and time required for the test. The permeability of sand can be tested with the help of:

Pressurized Air

Constant Pressure Water Supply

Electricity

Horizontal Testing Methods:-These testing methods require the columns of sand to be tested to be kept in a horizontal position. Gravity and falling resources do not take part in these types of permeability tests.

The horizontal testing methods include:

1. Air Pressure Permeameter:- In this method pressurized air with the help of fans and exhausts

is created around a horizontal sand column.

Time is noted for the air to pass through the column and calculations are made accordingly.

This method is used for very finely grained sand and heavy ramming of sand is required.

2. Digital Permeameter:- This special permeameter uses electricity of controlled voltages

to help find the permeability of sand.

A Menard probe is inserted into a horizontal column of compressed sand which measures the electric field strength of the sparks at different locations of the sand column.

This information is then graphed and calculated with the help of computers and permeability is found.

This method although expensive gives accurate readings for both coarse and finely grained sand.

Vertical Testing Methods:

Vertical testing methods are the processes in which the column of sand is set vertically and water is passed through the column. The pressure of the water column is found at various parts using manometers. In these experiments water is entered from the top and drained from the bottom of the column.

There are two main types of vertical testing methods:

1. Falling Head Permeameter:- Compact the sample in the lower chamber section of the

Permeameter, in layers approximately 1.5 cm deep, to within about 2 cm of the lower chamber rim. Use an appropriate ramming device to compact the sample to the desired density.

Water is pushed from the top at constant flow and the initial “Head” reading is taken from the manometer.

The fall in the head is noted after 2 hours and calculations are made accordingly.

This method is easier and cheaper as only 1 manometer is used.

It can give accurate readings for coarse river sand and is quicker than the other methods.

2. Constant Head Permeameter:- This is again a vertical testing method but in this case water of

constant pressure is used to pass through the sand sample and two manometers are used.

The water is allowed to fully soak the sand manometer readings are taken once a constant flow of water through the sample has been achieved.

The differentials in height of the upper and lower manometer as well as the time taken for the water to pass through it are the main readings for this experiment.

This method is more feasible as it gives accurate readings of a large variety of sand easily and relatively quickly.

This is the purpose of our Project.

Uses of Permeameter Permeameteris used to determine whether or not the soil content of

a specific area of land may be suitable for a wastewater treatment system, by testing the permeability of the ground around where the system would be placed.

Permeameter is used in instances where the amount of electromagnetic permeability of natural substances such as iron may be identified to determine whether or not they are suitable for commercial use.

A permeameter may be used in a number of different applications where the user needs to know different aspects of the elements underneath a specific surface. For instance, a permeameter may be used to inform a user in the construction field exactly how permeable a certain section of concrete is. The higher the level of allowed permeation by any liquid substance, the weaker the piece of concrete is.

Permeameters may also be used to check the permeability of different roadway surfaces to ensure that the materials being used to construct the roadways are suitable. Surfaces that allow water or other fluids to seep them and possibly wash out soil under them can lead to dangerous sinkholes and basins.

Permeameter can be used in is determining soil compaction. This is used to determine whether a specific ground area is suitable for construction. It is important to know the permeation level of the soil or clay and whether its conducive to shifting or washing out with the introduction of water.

There are a number of uses for the different types of permeameters, however the two main functions are to measure the amount of electromagnetic permeability in different soil components and to determine soil compaction for suitability for construction.

While making artificial pond the permeability is a very important factor. Soils are generally made up of layers and soil quality often varies greatly from one layer to another. Before pond construction, it is important to determine the relative position of the permeable and impermeable layers. The design of a pond should be planned to avoid having a permeable layer at the bottom to prevent excessive water loss into the subsoil by seepage.

Industrial and laboratory methodsLaboratory Methods:- 1) Constant head Permeability test:-The constant head permeability test is a common laboratory testing method used to determine the permeability of granular soils like sands and gravels containing little or no silt. This testing method is made for testing reconstituted or disturbed granular soil samples.

2) Falling headPermeability test:-The falling head permeability test is a common laboratory testing method used to determine the permeability of fine grained soils with intermediate and low permeability such as silts and clays. This testing method can be applied to an undisturbed sample.

The falling head permeability test involves flow of water through a relatively short soil sample connected to a standpipe which provides the water head and also allows measuring the volume of water passing

through the sample. The diameter of the standpipe depends on the permeability of the tested soil. The test can be carried out in a Falling Head permeability cell or in an oedometer cell.

Field Methods:-1) Pumping out tests

2) Pumping in testThe purpose of pumping test is to get the information of permeability; pumping test is the active way to get k, the permeability. The principle of a pumping test is that if we pump water from a well and measure the discharge of the well and the drawdown in the well and in piezometers at known distances from the well, we can substitute these measurements into an appropriate well-flow equation and can calculate the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer

The well will consist of an open-ended pipe, perforated or fitted with a screen in the aquifer to allow water to enter the pipe, and equipped with a pump to lift the water to the surface. A pumping test does not require expensive large-diameter wells. If a suction pump placed on the ground surface is used, as in shallow watertable areas, the diameter of the well can be small. A submersible pump requires a well diameter large enough to accommodate the pump. The well should be drilled to the bottom of the aquifer, if possible, because this has various advantages, one of which is that it allows a longer well screen to be placed, which will result in a higher well yield. The well should be developed by being pumped at a low discharge rate. When the initially cloudy water becomes clear, the discharge rate should be increased and pumping continued until the water clears again. This procedure should be repeated until the desired discharge rate for the test is reached.

Pumping in test is conducted irrespective of the position of water table in the stratum, whilethepumping out test is suited for the test below the water table. The water table is the level to which underground water will raise in a soil and will be at atmospheric pressure.

The pumping in test is suitable for low permeability and thin strata where adequate yield may not be available for pump out test. By this test, permeability of a soil at the bottom of the bore hole is obtained. Thus this is recommended for permeability determination of stratified deposits and, hence, to check the effectiveness of grouting in such deposits.

Indirect Methods:-1) Computation from the particle size

2) Computation from consolidation test

Falling Head MethodProcedure:-The following steps are to be done:

Compact the sample in the lower chamber section of the Permeameter, in layers approximately 1.5 cm deep, to within about 2 cm of the lower chamber rim. Use an appropriate tamping device to compact the sample to the desired density.

Remove the upper section of the chamber tie rods and place the upper porous stone on the specimen, securing the upper section of the chamber with spring to the unit.

Measure and record the length of the specimen. Use the clamp to attach the falling head burette to the support rod.

Position the burette as high as is possible for practicality. Place the

meter stick directly behind the burette, so the height of water in the burette above the chamber outflow port may be read.

Saturate the specimen, following the steps outlined above. Measure the heights of the two levels from the outflow level. After a stable flow has been established, note the drop in head (Δh)

in 2 hours. (use a stop watch).

EQUATION TO BE USED:-

K = AlAt ln(h0/h 1)

Where,K = Coefficient of permeabilitya = Area of the burette L = Length of soil column A = Area of the soil column h0 = Initial height of water h1 = Final height of water = h0 - Δht = Time required to get head drop of Δh

CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

Standards:-ASTM D2434 - 68(2006) Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)

Equipments:- Permeameter manometers constant head tank constant-head-tank stand porous screen compaction equipment such as a rammer stop watch graduated cylinder funnel thermometer weighing balance pan for keeping sand sample

Theory:-The constant-head method allows water to move through the soil under a steady state (constant head) condition while the quantity (volume) of water flowing through the soil specimen is measured over a period of time. By knowing the quantity Q of water measured, length L of specimen, cross-sectional area A of the specimen, time t required for the quantity Q of water to be discharged, and head h, the permeability(hydraulic conductivity) k can be calculated as:

k= QLAht

Procedure:-

Measure the initial mass of the pan along with the dry soil (M1).

Remove the cap of the permeameter and measure the inside diameter of upper and lower chambers. Calculate the average inside diameter of the permeameter (D).

Using a funnel, pour the soil into the lower chamber using a circular motion to fill it until the soil sample is 1.5 cm below the upper manometer valve.

Measure the final mass of the pan along with the dry soil (M2).

Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil.

Level the top surface of the soil and place the upper porous screen on it.

Place the compression spring on the porous screen and replace the cap.

Measure the sample length at four locations around the circumference of the permeameter and compute the average length. Record it as the sample length.

Connect the gas tube from the outlet of the constant head tank to the inlet of the permeameter and keep the inlet valve of the permeameter closed.

Open the inlet valve of the constant head tank.

Place tubing from the overflow outlet of constant head tank to the sink to collect any water that may come out.

As soon as the water begins to flow out of the overflow valve, open the inlet valve to permeameter.

Keep outlet valve closed for some time and then open it when equilibrium inside the permeameter established.

Allow adequate time for the flow pattern to stabilize.

Measure the time it takes to fill a volume of 750 - 1000 ml using the graduated cylinder, and then measure the temperature of the water.

Measure the vertical difference between the two heads of permeameter and record the distance as h.

Calculate the permeability,using the following equation:

k= QLAht

Where:

k= coefficient of permeability at temperature T, cm/sec.

L = length of specimen in centimeters

t = time for discharge in seconds

Q = volume of discharge in cm cube (1 ml = 1 cm cube)

A = cross-sectional area of permeameter

h = hydraulic head difference between manometers, in cm.

The viscosity of the water changes with temperature. As temperature increases viscosity decreases and the permeability increases. The coefficient of permeability is standardized at 20°C, and the permeability at any temperature T is related to K20 by the following ratio:

K20 = kt (nt / n20)

Where, ηt and η20 are the viscosities at the temperature T of the test and at 20°C, respectively.

Compute the volume of soil used from: V = LA.

Compute the mass of dry soil used in permeameter:

M = initial mass - final mass= M1-M2

Compute the dry density (ρd) of soil

ρd = M/V

Comparison of constant head method and falling head method

 Constant Head:-Objective:-

To determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using constant head method.

Need and scope:-The knowledge of this property is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.

 Planning and organization:-

1: Preparation of the soil sample for the test2:  Finding the discharge through the specimen under a particular head of water.     

Definition of co-efficient of permeability:-

The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability. 

Equipment:-1. Permeameter mould of non-corrodible material, with an internal diameter and internal effective height. 2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension counter.

3. Drainage bade: A bade with a porous disc, with some specified thickness which has the permeability 10 times the expected permeability of soil.

4. Drainage cap: A porous disc having a fitting for connection to water inlet or outlet.

5. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the permeameter under constant head. 6. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.

7. Stop watch to note the time. 8. A meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.

Test procedure:-

1. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet to the constant head reservoir.

2. Open the bottom outlet.

3. Establish steady flow of water.

4. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.

5. Repeat three times for the same interval.

Falling head method:-Objective:-To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample, using falling head method.

Need and Scope:-The test results of the permeability experiments are used:

1. To estimate ground water flow.2. To calculate seepage through dams.3. To find out the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.4. To plan the method of lowering the ground water table.5. To calculate the uplift pressure and piping.6. To design the grouting.7. And also for soil freezing tests.8. To design pits for recharging.

 The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, where as the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.

 Principle of the experiment:-

The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with continuous voids is called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a porous material which permits passage of fluids through inter connecting conditions.Hence permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions through a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature conditions. The principle behind the test is Darcy’s law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge is proportional to (i x A) q= kiAwhere q= Discharge per unit.A=Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow. i=hydraulic gradient.k=Darcy’s coefficient of permeability =The mean velocity of flow that will occur through the cross-sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.

 Planning and organization:-

The tools and accessories needed for the test are:1.Permeameter with its accessories.2.Standrd soil specimen.3.Deaires water.4.Balance to weigh up to 1 gm.5.I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm.6. Mixing pan.7.Stop watch.8.Measuring jar.9.Meter scale.10.Thermometer.11.Container for water.12. Trimming knife etc.

 Knowledge of equipment:-

1. The permeameter is made of non-corrodible material, with an internal diameter and effective height. The mould has a detachable base plate and a removable exterior collar.

2. The drainage base is a porous disc, with a specified thickness with a permeability 10 times that of soil.

3. The drainage cap is also a porous disc of specified thickness with an inlet/outlet fitting.

4. The container tank has an overflow valve. There is also a graduated jar to collect discharge.

5. The stand pipe arrangements are done on a board with 2 or 3 glass pipes of different diameters.

Test Procedure:-

1. Prepare the soil specimen as specified.2. sturate it. Deaired water is preferred.3. assemble the permeameter in the bottom tank and fill the tank

with water.4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow

some water to flow until steady flow is obtained.5. Note down the time interval tfor a fall of head in the stand pipe

h.6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine t for the same head.7. Find a by collecting q for the stand pipe. weight it correct to 1

gm and find a from q/h=a.

Apparatus FunctioningThe first component of our apparatus is our reservoir which is used to store water which then would be used to check the permeability of the given sand.The reservoir acts as a storage tank and water is filled into the reservoir through an inlet which is connected to some water source. Our permeability meter is “Constant Head Permeability Meter” so for this meter the level of water must be kept constant inside the reservoir.

The water continuously flows into the reservoir and incase of overflow we have another outlet which will allow the water to flow out of the reservoir so that the level of water inside the reservoir is kept constant. From the reservoir the water through an outlet flows into a pipe which carries this water into the main part of our apparatus i.e the sand permeameter .The reservoir is placed on a stand which is a feets high and allows the water to flow easily from the reservoir to the permeameter. As water flows from an area of high pressure to low pressure so that’s why the stand is used. The water flows from the reservoir to the permeameter. The permeameter is completely filled with sand. In the permeameter we have circular wire meshes which do not allow the sand to go below a certain height. At the top of the sand a spring is placed which applies pressure on the sand and does not allow it to expand when water flows through it. When the water enters the permeameter it flows through the sand. The amount of water flowing through the sand will tell us about its permeability. It flows through the sand and passes through the wire mesh from where it flows it from an outlet. On the permeameter we have 2 valves and 2 outlets. One of the valve is used to make the water flow through the permeameter while the other Is used to make it flow out of the permeater. While the two outlets are connected with the two tubes of the manometer. The manometer tell the pressure difference between the top and bottom the permeameter this pressure difference will help us calculate the permeability of the given sand. The manometer is attached on a woddenstand. The two tubes of the manometer are attached to the sand permeameter with the help of pipes. The stand is made up of lasani wood. A graduated cylinder is used for calculating amount of water flowing through an outlet from sand permeameter. Wooden stand used for giving support to manometer is made of lassani artificial wood. Wooden stand is painted with brown paint as brown colour is standard colour for wood. Paint is done so that wood can be saved from external effects and microorganisms. Paint saves it from damage. Iron stand used for giving height to reservoir is made from mild steel and is coloured black as standard colour of iron is

black. This paint saves stand from corrosion and arc welded area from oxidation. Arc welding is done to join the assembly of mild steel material for preparing the stand. Its height is set so that a sufficient pressure can be given to the water to flow into the sand permeameter. Reservoir has three holes. One for outlet to sand permeameter and other two for overflow and supply of water. Manometer used for measuring of pressure works when due to difference of water level is caused due to difference in pressure which it measures. Rubber tubes are used for the purpose of water supply because it is economical and better flow of water. Lasani wood is used for making the stand because it is best for making a stand due to its better strength. Silicon is used in joining the wire mesh with sand permeameter because its adhesion or joining strength is too much and it does not allow the sand to move through sides. Same silicon is used for joining spring with cap of sand permeameter. Stop watch will also be used so that time for the flow of definite amount of water could be calculated.

Design

Components

There are 3 major components of the permeability meter which include:

1. Manometer tubes2. Reservoir3. Cylinder

The detailed study of these is as follows:

1. Manometer:-A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid

to measure pressure, although the term is currently often used to mean any pressure measuring instrument.

Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g. inches of water). Manometric measurement is the subject of pressure head calculations. The most common choices for a manometer's fluid are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to measure a given pressure. The abbreviation "W.C." or the words "water column" are often printed on gauges and measurements that use water for the manometer.

In our Sand permeability meter, two glass tubes have been attached to a wooden stand i.e. manometer wooden stand. . These are connected with the cylinder. The working principle is that water goes into the cylinder from the reservoir and after passing through the sand, into the manometer tubes.

In our Sand permeability meter, we are required to calculate ‘Pressure difference’ between the two glass tubes installed. This pressure

difference would be given by the difference in the heights of water columns in the two tubes. The tube connected with the lower outlet of cylinder will have more pressure of water column and thus more height. This height or pressure difference thus calculated is then used in the formula of determining permeability constant.

Manometer is made up of two glass tubes each having a length of 2.5ft. These are clamped on a wooden board of length 3ft 2inches. This wooden board is joined on another base made up of wood having a length of 40 inches. A slot had been made in the base of 15 inches in which the board had been fixed using a support. This is the simple arrangement and the functioning of the manometric tubes.

2. Reservoir:-“Reservoir is in literal meanings a water storing device or tank.”

The reservoir of this instrument also contains water which is then used to check the permeability of the sand. It is basically a large storage of water placed at the top most place so that water flows down in the cylinder from it if it is on the same level as the other apparatus then water will not flow. Torricellis Law is used here. There are 3 orifices in the reservoir. There function is as follows:

Top: Excess water outlet valve. The excess water is removed from this orifice.

Middle: Inlet valve. Through this orifice water is filled in the reservoir.

Bottom: Cylinder outlet valve. Through this orifice the water enters the cylinder.

Gas valve's are connected at these orifices. Gas pipes are used to carry water from the reservoir to other places.

The reservoir is places on a Mild steel stand whose length is almost about 4.5 feet about the surface of the earth.

The orifices in the cylinder are made with the help of a drill. At first a 6mm holes was created which was then enlarged to 12mm gradually. The reason for this was if a direct orifice of 12mm would've been made then the reservoir might crack.

3. Cylinder:- Cylinder is the component in which the entire experiment

takes place. It is basically a small cylinder in which there are 4 orifices. Their function is as follows:

Cap orifice: Inlet valve. Water enters from the reservoir into the cylinder from this orifice.

Top: It is connected to one of the glass manometer tubes. As it is in the top hence less water will flow through it hence the water level in the corresponding tube will be less.

Bottom(without switch): It is connected to the second manometer tube. As it is at the bottom hence the water pressure will be more by torricellis law so the tube connected to this orifice will contain higher water level.

Bottom(with switch): It is the outlet valve to remove the water from the cylinder for the experiment.

Near the bottom of the cylinder two porous metal sheets are placed and in between them wire mesh is placed. This is the filtering assembly which does not allow the sand to flow past it. Above it sand is placed and then another metal sheet is placed. It's purpose is to press the sand between the desired space. It is pushed with the help of a spring which is connected to the lid of the cylinder.

Water enters the cylinder form the lid valve and passes through the sand which is placed on the metal sheets. Water then passes through the wire mesh and is accumulated at the bottom. From the bottom it flows into

the manometer tubes. It also flows to the other tube of the manometer through the upper valve. When they are filled to the desired level outlet valve is opened to let the water escape.

This assembly is placed above a wooden stand and is placed below the reservoir. Beneath this there is a container to accumulate the water removed whose volume is measure later on.

Material UsedThe material and the instruments used in the making of the apparatus assembly are:-

Mild Steel Rod Mild steel round sheet Stainless steel clamps Angle iron Plastic container Plastic Reservoir Nozzles Valves MaleFemales Wire Mesh Silicon Seal Lassani wood Soft wood Spray paint Paint Emulsion Gas pipes Teflon tapes Rubber bases Glass tubes Clamps

Connectors Foams Filter paper River Sand Meter Rod Stop watch Mass determining device Graduated cylinder

Photos of the apparatusExpenditure bills

The following table concludes the expenditure of the above mentioned constant head permeameter constructed for the workshop project.

Sr no

Material Quantity Cost Purchasing place

1 glass tube 2 900/. Hathi chowk

2 container 1 480/. I /10

3 cylindrical box

1 180/. i/10

4 Kl sheet 1 230/. G-9/1

5 Sprays(black , brown)

2 300/. G-9/1

6 valves 12 310/. G-9/1

7 Metal rods 4 370/. G-9/1

8 Acrylic sheet 1 600/. saddar

9 paint 1 240/. saddar

10 Wooden piece 3 500/. Saddar

11 Wire mesh 1 300/. Saddar12 Angle iron 2 kg 140/. G-9/113 Round ms

sheet1 300/. G-9/1

14 Foam and filter paper

2 130/. Hathi chowk

15 Transport -- 600/. Different places

16 Miscellaneous items

4 270/. Sadder,G-9/1, i-10/1

Total cost = PKR 6800/.

Syndicate Personnels

Syndicate leader: Taimoor Asif

Coordinator: Umair Jamal

Resourceable person: Syed Ali Haider Abidi

Working teamsReservoir and reservoir:-

Leader: Usman Humayun

Taimoor asif

Abdullah Awais

Muhammad Sajawal

Shumail Hassan

Muhammad Usama Zia

Saad Tahir

Manometer stand and cylinder base:-Leader: Syed Mazhar Abbas Naqvi

Syed Ali Haider Abidi

Muhammad Sohail Omer

Arsal Rauf

Muhammad Ibrahim Quddusi

Muhammad Irtaza Arshad

Zain Ahmed

Cylinder(permeameter):-Leader: Umair Jamal

Osaid Ahmed

Saqib Ali

Muhammad Khizar

Abdul Mannan Fouzi

Saad bin Shariq

Muhammad Fahad Zahid

Finance:- Syed Ali Haider Abidi

Taimoor Asif

Logistics:-Leader: Muhammad Irtaza Arshad

Muhammad Usama Zia

Saqib ali

Muhammad Ibrahim Quddusi

Abdul Mannan Fouzi

Publications:-Leader: Taimoor Asif

Syed Ali Haider Abidi

Arsal Rauf

Umair Jamal

Presentation:- Leader: Saad Tahir

Arsal Rauf

TaimoorAsif

Umair Jamal