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i
INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY CAPACITY BUILDING ON PERFORM ANCE OF
WATER RESOURCE USERS ASSOCIATIONS IN WATER CATCHMEN T
MANAGEMENT IN THARAKA – NITHI COUNTY
BY
FRANCIS KOOME SIMON
A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULF ILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MAST ER OF ARTS
IN PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE UNIVERSIT Y OF NAIROBI
2012
ii
DECLARATION
This Research Project report is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any
other university.
Signature ………………………………………… Date: ………………………………
Francis Koome Simon
This Research Project report has been submitted for examination with our approval as the
university supervisors
Signature …………………………………………. Date ………………………………..
Dr. Jamleck Muturi John
Lecturer, Department of Zoological science
Kenyatta University
Signature ………………………………… Date ………………………………………….
Mr. Chandi John Rugendo
Lecturer, School of Continuing and Distance Education,
Department of Extra Mural Studies,
University of Nairobi.
iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my wife Jacinta Karimi who made sure that my study is a success
through moral support. Also my humble dedication and appreciations goes to my kids Maureen
and Lewis for their encouragement and support.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My acknowledgement goes to my supervisors Dr. Jamleck Muturi John and Mr. Chandi John
Rugendo for their guidance, encouragement, moral support while writing this project and also for
supporting me through my study at the University of Nairobi- Meru Extra Mural Centre.
My appreciation also goes to my lecturers for their support, encouragement and their kindness
through the two years of my studies at the University of Nairobi. Special thanks go to my
classmates for their moral support and encouragement and my family for encouragements and
support. Special thanks also go to all working colleagues for supporting me throughout my study.
Special appreciation goes to my Project Manager for allowing me attend studies to the
inconvenience of my work.
May God, bless them abundantly.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
DECLARATION …………………………………………………………………………….ii
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………v
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………… …… ..v
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... xii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................. xiiii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. xv
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Purpose of the study ................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Research questions .................................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Assumptions of the study .......................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Delimitations of the study ......................................................................................................... 6
1.9 Limitation of the study .............................................................................................................. 7
1.10 Definition of significant terms ................................................................................................ 7
1.11 Organization of the study ……………………………………………………..…………….8
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 10
LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.1 Water resource issues ........................................................................................................... 10
vi
2.2 Water Sector Reforms in Kenya ............................................................................................. 12
2.3 Organization of Water Resources Users Associations ............................................................ 13
2.4 Formation of Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) ................................................ 14
2.5 Adequate Funding WRUA’s ................................................................................................... 15
2.6 Management of WRUAs ......................................................................................................... 17
2.7 Relationship with Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) ................................. 18
2.8 Capacity building issues ......................................................................................................... 19
2.9 Community participation challenges ...................................................................................... 22
2.10 Staff quality and involvement ............................................................................................... 23
2.11 Organization adaptability challenges .................................................................................... 24
2.12 Collaboration challenges ....................................................................................................... 24
2.13 Knowledge management and sharing ................................................................................... 26
2.14 Review of Water Users Associations performance Challenges ............................................ 26
2.15 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 28
2.16 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................................ 29
2.17 Research gaps........................................................................................................................ 31
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 32
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 32
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.2 Research Design...................................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Target population .................................................................................................................... 32
3.4 Sampling procedure and sampling size................................................................................... 33
3.4.1 Sampling procedures ............................................................................................................ 33
3.4.2 Sample size .......................................................................................................................... 34
3.5 Instruments and Techniques of Data collection .................................................................... 35
vii
3.5.1 Focused –group interviews. ................................................................................................. 36
3.5.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 36
3.5.3 Questionnaire ....................................................................................................................... 36
3.6 Pre-Testing .............................................................................................................................. 36
3.7 Validity ................................................................................................................................... 36
3.8 Reliability ................................................................................................................................ 37
3.9 Operational definition of variables ......................................................................................... 38
3. 10 Methods of data analysis ...................................................................................................... 43
3.11 Ethical Consideration ............................................................................................................ 43
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 44
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION .................................... 44
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 44
4.2 Analysis................................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.1 General characteristics of the respondents ........................................................................... 44
4.2.1.1 Gender of the respondents ................................................................................................ 44
4.2.1.2 Age of the respondents...................................................................................................... 45
4.2.1.3 WRUA performance ......................................................................................................... 45
4.2.2 Education and Training ........................................................................................................ 47
4.2.2.1 Education .......................................................................................................................... 47
4.2.2.2 Training ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.2.3 Coordination and management. ........................................................................................... 52
4.2.3.1 Information ....................................................................................................................... 53
4.2.3.2 Communication ................................................................................................................. 55
4.2.3.3 Motivation factors. ............................................................................................................ 56
4.2.3.4 Collaboration of the WRUAs............................................................................................ 59
viii
4.2.3.5 Other coordination and management issues ..................................................................... 60
4.2.4 Accessibility and reliability of resources. ............................................................................ 64
4.2.4.1 Sources of funds ................................................................................................................ 64
4.2.4.2 Quantity and types of resources ........................................................................................ 66
4.2.4.3 Consistency of funds and resources. ................................................................................. 67
4.2.4.4 Management of resource ................................................................................................... 69
4.2.4.4.1 Record keeping .............................................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………………….71
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS, CONLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................ 71
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 71
5.2 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 71
5.2.1 Education and training ......................................................................................................... 71
5.2.1.1 Education .......................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.1.2 Training ............................................................................................................................. 71
5.2.2 Coordination and management ............................................................................................ 72
5.2.3 Accessibility and reliability of resources. ............................................................................ 74
5.3 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 75
5.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 80
5.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 81
5.6 Suggestions for further research ............................................................................................. 82
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 83
Appendix I: Introduction letter ……………………………………………...…………………..88
Appendix II: Questionnaire for the WRUA committee ................................................................ 89
Appendix III: Questionnaire for WRUA stakeholders to guide in the interviews ........................ 99
ix
Appendix IV: Questionnaire to WRMA staff ............................................................................. 100
AppendixV:Map of project area ................................................................................................. 102
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1 Conceptual framework.………………………………………….………………………29
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: WRUAs in Tharaka Nithi county and their membership…………………………….33
Table 3.2: Name of the WRUA, WRUA membership and sample size ………………………...35
Table 3.3: Operational definition of variables…………………………………………………...38
Table 4.1: Gender of the respondents……………………………………………………………44
Table 4.2: Analysis of ages of respondents……………………………………………………...45
Table 4.3: Mean WRUA performance …………………………………………………………..46
Table 4.4: Education background of the respondents …………………………………………...47
Table 4.5: Relationship between percentage of executive committee members education
and performance of WRUAs…………………………………………………………48
Table 4.6: Training attended per WRUA………………………………………………………..49
Table 4.7: Types of trainings and their correlation coefficients…………………………………50
Table 4.8: Relationship between the mean of people who attend trainings and the performance
of the WRUAs ………………………..………………………………………..……51
Table 4.9: Applicability of trainings offered to the WRUA in WRUA management …………..52
Table 4.10: Information storage in respective WRUAs………………………………………….53
Table 4.11: Correlation coefficients of various form of information storage in relation to
performance of the WRUA………………………………………………………….54
Table 4.12: Name of the WRUA against various communication channels…………………….55
Table 4.13: Percentages of various factors that motivates community to be WRUA members…56
xii
Table 4.14: Name of WRUA against motivation factors …………………………………...…...56
Table 4.15: Relationship between WRUA performance and benefits accrued from WRUA…...57
Table 4.16: Relationship between WRUA performance and volunteerism……………………...58
Table 4.17: WRUA collaboration with stakeholders ……………………………………………59
Table 4.18: Coordination and management result in percentages…………………………….....60
Table 4.19: WRUAs and various collaboration support given in percentages…………………..61
Table 4.20: Cross tabulation between consistent implementation of SCMP and WRUA
performance……………………..………………………………………………...62
Table 4.21: Cross tabulation between WRUA performance and WRUA holding meetings
according to by-laws……………………………………………………………..63
Table 4.22: Financial resources from different stakeholders…………………………………….64
Table 4.23: Cross tabulation of WRUAs and different sources of finance……………………...65
Table 4.24: WRUAs and the expenditure requirements…………………...…………………….66
Table 4.25: Correlation coefficient of various resources………………………………………...66
Table 4.26:WRUAs and consistent availability of resources……………………………………67
Table 4.27: Relationship between WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds……..68
Table 4.28: Number of WRUAs and financial monitoring systems used….…………………….69
Table 4.29: WRUAs and other records kept……………………………………………………..69
Table 4.30: Other aspects of resource management………………………….………………… 70
xiii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CBO : Community Based Organizations
CDF : Community Development Fund
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization
FGD : Focus Groups Discussions
GOK : Government of Kenya
IDI’s : In-Depth Interviews
IFAD : International Fund for Agricultural Development
IO : Intergovernmental Organization
JMP : Joint Monitoring Programme
MKEPP : Mt. Kenya East Pilot Project
NGO : Non Government Organization
SPSS : Statistical Package for Social sciences
UNDP : United Nation Development Programme
UNEP : United Nation Environmental Programme
WCO : World Customs Organization
WDC : Water Development Cycle
WHO : World Health Organizations
WRMA : Water Resource Management Authority
WRUA : Water Resource Users Association
WSP : Water Service Provider
xiv
WSTF : Water Services Trust Fund
xv
ABSTRACT
This study was set to assess the aspects of capacity building that influence the performance of Water Resource Users Associations in Tharaka-Nithi County. Previous studies carried out in Kenya on management of community projects show that the condition of many of these projects was between poor and pathetic. Poor management and coordination, partnerships, institutional funding, poor project leadership, lack of transparency and accountability, lack of participation and ownership of the WRUA and high illiteracy rate leading to low technology adoption were cited as possible factors that influence performance of community based projects. The purpose of the study was to access how community capacity building influences the performance of water resource users association in water catchment management in Tharaka Nithi County. The objectives of the study were:-to access whether improved education and training of members of Water Resource Users Associations, community coordination and management, and availability and accessibility to resources are related to improved WRUA performance in water catchment management. Descriptive and correlation research method were used in this research. Descriptive design was used to collect data in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the water resources users association. Since this study aimed at clarifying relationships, correlation research was used. The instruments used included the use of structured questionnaires and interviews. Interviews were conducted to give in–depth information which was omitted by the questionnaire. The survey was administered to 115 respondents out of 693 members of the nine WRUAs in Tharaka Nithi County. The data collected was analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) and Excel spread sheet. The data output is presented in form of tables and description. The researcher also used the Karl Pearson`s product moment correlation analysis to access the relationship between the variables. The study found out that there were very strong relationships in various aspects of education and training, coordination and management, availability and accessibility of resources with performance of WRUAs in water catchment management. The key ones being high positive relationship between the numbers of executive committees with education levels of at least secondary level and number of WRUA community members trained with the performance of the WRUA. The study also found out that various types of trainings offered to the WRUA have varying influence on performance. There is also a strong positive correlation between accrued WRUA benefits and performances of the WRUA. It was also found out that WRUAs that have high number of volunteers working for them were performing poorly. The study also found out that WRUAs required diversified consistent support e.g. technical, infrastructure and equipments to improve their performance. The study recommends that there is need for WRUAs to be capacity built not only in training but on skills on networking, information and knowledge management. The WRUAs also requires support in technical, infrastructure, equipment and human in the early stages of WRUA operation in order to make them self sustaining.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Among the planet’s renewable resources, fresh water may be the most depleted resource. It is
difficult to purify, expensive to transport and impossible to substitute. Fresh water is essential for
food production, economic development and life itself (Ki-moon, 2012). Its importance to
human health and well-being was underlined in mid 1993 when the United Nations’ new
commission on sustainable Development made improvement on the water quantity and quality as
one of the first priorities for technology transfers from wealthy countries to poorer ones.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, it is estimated that about 1.1
billion people in the world do not have access to safe water (WHO&UNISEF, 2010). The United
Nations' states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute
water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions (UN,
2009).
According to the 1992 National Water Master-plan, the annual renewable fresh water resources
in Kenya is 20.2 billion cubic meters, comprising of surface water of 19.59 billion cubic meters
and ground water of 0.62 billion cubic meters. Assuming that amount of water is still available to
the current population of 40 million people; this translates to 505 cubic meters per capita per
year. In global standards therefore, Kenya is a water scarce country (Government of Kenya,
1992).
Most international development agencies and water managers, such as United Nations (UN)-
Water, Global Water Partnership - an World Water Council now agree that better governance of
water resources, more so than availability, is the key to solving the growing water crisis in
developing countries (WHO&UNISEF, 2010).
Many studies have been carried out on management of water projects by communities; Khwaja’s
(2001) study on projects managed by communities in Kenya suggests that projects managed by
communities are more sustainable than projects managed by local government.
2
This is supported by a study carried out by Belgium Administration for Development
Cooperation, (1999) on assessment of Water Users Associations in Kajiado and concluded that
communities had ability to take over and manage their water projects. Communities were also
willing to pay for their water use. This is further supported by the Kenya water policy review and
strategy formulation (1999) which produced Water Act 2001 and recognized the role of
communities in managing water either has Community Water Service Providers (WSPs) or
Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) (GOK,1999). To guide the implementation of the
Act, National Water Services Strategy (NWSS) for the years 2007-2015 was formulated in June
2007. Its mission is to “realize the goals of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
declaration and the vision 2030 of the Kenya government concerning access to safe and
affordable water and basic sanitation (GOK, 2007).
JICA’s (2003) study on sustainable community based irrigation and drainage schemes in Kenya
identified several constraints to development of community managed irrigation and drainage
projects: weak and ineffective water user’s organizations, lack of adequate skills and knowledge
by the irrigation farmers, lack of skill and knowledge on irrigation by irrigation personnel and
low funding of small scale irrigation development. This study is supported by Kleemter (2000)
who studied Malawi rural water supplies and found out that half of water projects were
performing poorly. The researcher argues that this stems largely from lack of institutional
support from external agencies after project implementation.
It is in above context that the government of Kenya with assistance of International Fund for
Agricultural Development formulated a pilot project called Mt. Kenya East pilot project for
Natural resource management based in the eastern side of Mt. Kenya catchment to ensure that
the communities participate effectively in natural resources management for poverty reduction
and food security.
The design of MKEPP is based on a conceptual framework in which, poverty is clearly
identified as the core driving force to environmental degradation, which ultimately generates
more poverty. The project approach is through river basin approach where Water Resource Users
Associations were formed, capacity built and supported so that they can perform their role of
water catchment management.
3
As of June 2011, the total numbers of WRUAs formed in Kenya were 440; Tana water
catchment has 130 WRUAs (WRMA, 2011). So far fifteen WRUAs have been formed in the
MKEPP project area. In Tharaka –Nithi County 9 WRUAs have been formed (MKEPP, 2010).
1.2 Statement of the problem
The Water Act 2002 mandated public participation in the management and utilization of water
resource (Water Act 2002). Before that, management and utilization of water resources fell
solely on the Government and communities were not involved in the management of the water
resources in any way. Therefore communities had no ownership of the water resource which lead
to over abstraction, degradation of water catchment and water pollution.
Community participation is institutionalized through formation of Water Users Associations
(WUAs) for water resource management and Water Service Providers for water utilization. This
is supported by studies carried out on management of water projects in Kenya; Khwaja’s (2001)
study on projects managed by communities in Kenya suggests that projects managed by
communities are more sustainable than projects managed by local government. However, studies
carried out on these water institutions and projects concluded that they were not performing to
their expectations due multiple challenges and constraints they experience.
Studies carried out by Belgium Administration for Development Cooperation (1999), on
assessment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in Kajiado District concluded the general
condition of the WUAs managed projects was between poor and pathetic. Out of the WUAs
studied, 60% were poorly managed, 63% of the WUAs projects required major rehabilitation,
88% of the WUAs had no skills and expertise to handle financial issues and 90% of the WUAs
did not consistently contribute to water user fees. This is supported by a study carried out by
Water Services Board in Kisumu, Nairobi and Mombasa on Water Service Providers which
concluded that only 9 out of 55 Water Service Providers (WSPs) provide continuous water
supply to their clients. Consumers complained of underperformance of their service providers in
terms of inaccurate billing and metering, pipe bursts, illegal connections, poor workmanship on
installations, Vandalism, over changing and corruption (WASREB, 2009).
4
Studies carried out by JICA (2003) on sustainable community based irrigation and drainage
schemes in 11 Districts in three Provinces of Kenya namely; Rift-valley, Central and Eastern
also agree with the above findings in that they indicated that community based irrigation
schemes were not performing as expected due to varies challenges which included; management
and coordination conflicts of WUAs, poor project leadership, lack of transparency and
accountability, poor extension services, lack of participation and ownership of the WUA, weak
commitment and low morale of Ministerial staff, lack of adequate credit and access to credit
facilities and high illiteracy rate leading to low technology adoption.
Studies also carried out by World Bank (2004) on River Water Users Association (RWUAs) in
arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya found out that the associations faced constraints such as; lack
of resources including technical capacity, no clear relationship with Water Resources
Management Authority(WRMA) and no capacity building programmes in place. This is
supported by studies done by Nele F. (2008) on Integrated Water Resources Management- a case
study of Bwathonaro Water Resource Users Association in Meru North which found out that
although indicators reflect a positive impact of its work, the WRUA faced several operational
challenges including lack of enabling environment that facilitates not only establishment but also
the operationalization of the WRUA, external support with regard to capacity building and
guidance by WRMA, Membership commitment to WRUA and WRUA representativeness.
However there have been little studies on how the above challenges and constraints influence the
performance of WRUAs and specifically on how capacity building factors influence WRUA
performance. To strengthen community participation and involvement in the management of
natural resources and especially water resources this study was carried out to critically assess the
capacity building factors that influence the performance of WRUAs..
1.3. Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to critically assess how community capacity building influences
the performance of Water Resource Users Associations in water catchment management in
Tharaka-Nithi country.
1.4 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study were:
5
i. To assess whether improved education and training of members of water resource
users associations (WRUA) is related to the improved performance of Water
Resource Users Associations in water catchment management.
ii. To assess whether improved community Coordination and management of
WRUA’s is related to improved performance of Water Resource Users Associations
in water catchment management.
iii. To investigate whether improved availability and accessibility to resources for
WRUA’s is related to their improved performance in water catchment management.
1.5 Research questions
i. Is improved education and training of members of Water Resource Users
Associations related to improved performance of Water Resources Users
Associations in water catchment management?
ii. To what extent is improved community coordination and management of
WRUAs related to performance of Water Resources Users Associations in
water catchment management?
iii. How does improved accessibility and availability of resources relate to
performance of Water Resources Users Associations in water catchment
management?
1.6 Assumptions of the study
The researcher made the assumption that the respondents answered the questions to their best of
knowledge and correctly. It is also assumed that the sample selected represents the general
population. The data collection instruments are valid. The researcher also assumes that the
procedures for data analysis will be appropriate. The researcher also assumes that the results of
this study will provide a guide to both the community, government and other stakeholders in the
management of water catchment areas.
6
1.7 Significance of the study
Studies done by other researchers agree that community participation in Community
development project is the key to sustainability of these projects. ( Khwaja’s, 2001 and Belgium
Administration for Development Co-operation, 1999). Other studies also agree that capacity
building of communities influences their performance (UNDP, 2004). Studies done by other
researchers also contradict these findings and states communities have adequate, complete and
reliable information to undertake their own development (Mwangi, 2006).
This study is significant since it will add knowledge to the earlier studies carried out on capacity
building. It will give an in-depth analysis on the capacity building factors that influence
performance of community –based projects. This might prompt further researches.
The study is of significance to the communities in that they will benefit by having prior
knowledge on how capacity building influences the performance of their Water Resource Users
Associations and hence the need for capacity building. This study will also give policy makers a
base on the relevant issues affecting performance of Water Resource Users Associations and will
serve as a scientific guide on community involvement in management of natural resource
especially water. The study will be of significance to the developing partners in preparing and
funding community based natural resource management projects especially water resource.
Indeed most of the practitioners of community development might adopt capacity building,
community participation and involvement on their development projects on experimental basis.
1.8 Delimitations of the study
The study was delimited to the Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) based in Tharaka
–Nithi County which is made of the following Districts; Meru South, Maara, Tharaka South and
Tharaka North. It is important to note here that many WRUAs do not follow the administrative
boundaries and might cut across two or more Districts or counties. The population was sampled
to get a representative sample. The study was also delimited to three specific areas of study.
These areas were:- education and training, coordination and management, availability and
accessibility of resources and how they influence the performance of WRUAs in water
catchment management.
7
1.9 Limitation of the study
This study used descriptive and correlation design. As a result, the study shows relationships and
not the causes. The study design also used questionnaires and focused group interviews to collect
data. Literacy levels of the sample population were not uniform in the area of study and some
had difficulties in filling the questionnaire. This was overcome by use of the local language and
the researcher interpreting every question when requested. The interviews also took time to be
done.
Time and resources constraint could not allow an extensive coverage of all the factors. Three
factors only were considered; education and training, coordination and management and resource
availability and accessibility.
The time and financial resources available also means that the study covered a small
geographical area and the duplication of the findings to other areas may require piloting before
full scale implementation.
1.10 Definition of significant terms
Capacity building - Capacity building is the approach to community development that raises
people’s knowledge, awareness and skills to use their own capacity and
that from available support systems to resolve the more underlying causes
of mal –development.
In this study education and training, coordination and management and
accessibility and availability of resources are the capacity building factors
which were considered.
Community - Members of a Water Resource Users Association.
Coordination - The act of organizing and collaborating with stakeholders in river basin to
achieve the WRUA objectives in water catchment management.
Education - It refers to various levels of formal schooling to acquire knowledge.
Management - The act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and
objectives using the available resources efficiently and effectively.
8
Performance - In this study performance is the accomplishment of water catchment
management which will lead to reduced water related conflicts as per the
water resource management guidelines.
Training - This is the method of acquiring skills to perform specific tasks
Water Users Association –A group of people who have come together for the purpose of
abstracting and utilizing a water resource.
Water Resource Users Associations - In this study, Water resource users association
(WRUA) is an association of water users, riparian
land owners, non-consumptive users, or other
stakeholders who have formally and voluntarily
associated for the purpose of cooperatively sharing,
managing and conserving a common water resource
Resources - These are materials, assets, finances and human
who are transformed by the WRUA to produce the
desired benefits.
1.11 Organization of the study
The study is organized into five chapters, each chapter containing specific information. Chapter
one contains the introduction of the study. It gives background of the study , statement of the
problem, objectives of the study both the purpose and specific objectives of the study, research
questions, significance of the study, limitations of the study, delimitations of the study, basic
assumption of the study and definition of key terms. Chapter two reviews the literature based on
the objectives of the study. It further looked at the conceptual framework and describes the
research gaps. Chapter three covers the research methodology, describes the research design,
target population, sampling procedure, instruments and techniques of data collection, pre-testing,
operational definition of variables, methods of data analysis and ethical considerations. Chapter
four this gives the results of the data analysis, the presentation in tables and the interpretation.
The variables considered were education and training, coordination and management and
accessibility and availability of resources. Chapter five gives the summary of the research
9
findings, discussion on the findings, conclusions made and recommendations on each the three
variables namely; education and training, coordination and management and accessibility and
availability of resources.
10
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter includes a desk review of similar studies done by other scholars on factors that
affect the performance of community –based groups with a focus on global and local trends. This
includes: - the process of water sector reforms in Kenya, formation and functions of water users
associations and performance of Water Resource Users Associations. Other areas covered in the
literature review include capacity building issues, staff quality involvement, organizational
adaptability, collaboration challenges and knowledge management as documented by other
scholars other researchers. This chapter also contains the conceptual framework and research
gaps.
2.1.1 Water resource issues
Of all the planet’s renewable resources, fresh water may be the most critically depleted resource.
Difficult to purify, expensive to transport and impossible to substitute, fresh water is essential to
food production, to economic development and to life itself (Ki-moon 2012). Its importance to
human health and well-being was underlined in mid 1993 when the United Nations’ new
commission on sustainable Development made improvement of the water quality as one of the
first priorities for technology transfers from wealthy countries to poorer ones.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, it is estimated that about 1.1
billion people in the world do not have access to safe water (WHO, 2010). The United Nations'
states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water
scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions (UN, 2009).
According to the 1992 National Water Master-plan, the annual renewable fresh water resources
in Kenya is 20.2 billion cubic meters, comprising of surface water of 19.59 billion cubic meters
and ground water of 0.62 billion cubic meters. Assuming that amount of water is still available to
the current population of 40 million people; this translates to 505 cubic meters per capita per
11
year. In global standards therefore, Kenya is a water scarce country (Government of Kenya,
1992).
The concept of a “water stress index” was pioneered based on an approximate minimum level of
water required per capita to maintain an adequate quality of life in a moderately developed
country in an arid zone. Falkenmark began with the calculation that 100 litres per day (36.5 cubic
metres per year) is a rough minimum per capita requirement for basic household needs to
maintain good health. The experience even of water-efficient countries shows that roughly five
to 20 times this amount tends to be needed to satisfy the requirements of agriculture, industry
and energy production. Based upon these findings, Falkenmark suggested the specific thresholds
of water stress and water scarce countries, (Falkenmark and Lindh, 1976).
A country whose renewable fresh water availability, on an annual per capita basis, exceeds about
1700 cubic meters will suffer only occasional or local water problems. Below this threshold
countries begin to experience periodic or regular water stress. When fresh water availability falls
below 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, countries will experience chronic water scarcity,
in which the lack of water begins to hamper economic development and human health and well-
being. When a country renewable fresh water supplies fall below 500 cubic meters per person,
countries began to experience absolute scarcity. The 1,000 cubic meter benchmark has been
accepted as a general indicator of water scarcity by the World Bank and other analysts (UN,
2009).
According to the 1992 National Water Master-plan, the annual renewable fresh water resources
in Kenya was 20.2 billion cubic meters, comprising of surface water of 19.59 billion cubic
meters and ground water of 0.62 billion cubic meters. Assuming that amount of water is still
available to the current population of 40 million people; this translates to 505 cubic meters per
capita per year. In global standards therefore, Kenya is a water scarce country (Government of
Kenya, 1992).
12
2.2 Water Sector Reforms in Kenya
Kenya being a water scarce country it faces serious challenges with regard to protection of
resources, provision of water supply and sanitation services. The country having a population of
about 40 million (2010 population census), it faces an enormous challenge of providing water
and sewerage services to the increasing population. Studies on water services in Kenya from the
Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) show that in 2008, 59% of
Kenyans (83% in urban areas and 52% in rural areas) had access to improved drinking water
sources. According to JMP, 19% of Kenyans (44% in urban areas and 12% in rural areas) are
reported as having access to piped water through a house or yard connection. According to the
JMP estimates, access to improved water sources in urban areas decreased from 91% in 1990 to
83% in 2008. In rural areas, however, access increased from 32% to 52% during the same period.
Estimates from the Water Impact Report (2009) approximates that in 2006-2007 only 37% of
Kenyans had access to sufficient and safe drinking water close to their homes at an affordable
price ((WHO/UNISEF,2008) .
The water sector is now under radical transformation driven by the national policy on separating
water resources management and development from water services delivery. This conforms to
the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, the Economic Strategy for Wealth and Employment
Creation and backed up by the Water Act 2002 in an attempt to meet the Millennium
Development Goals. The main thrust of the reforms was to separate water resources management
and development from water services delivery and focusing the Ministry’s role on policy ( GOK
2002).
In 2002, the present Water Act (“the Act”) was enacted “to provide for the Management,
conservation, use and control of water resources and for the acquisition and regulation of the
rights to use water”. In September 2007 the long-awaited Water Resources Management Rules
(“the Rules”) were promulgated, helping to fill some of the gaps in the Act. The Act is notable in
general terms for devolving the management (not supply) of Kenya’s water resources to the
Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA). This in turn is mandated by S (15) to
formulate a catchment management strategy for the management, use, development,
conservation, protection and control of water resources within each catchment area”. Kenya is
13
divided into six Catchment areas namely: Tana catchment area, Athi catchment area, Rift valley
catchment area, Lake Victoria North Catchment area, Lake Victoria South Catchment area and
Ewaso Nyiro catchment area (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, 2007).
One of the statutory ways to promote an effective catchment management strategy is for WRMA
to “provide mechanisms and facilities for enabling the public and communities to participate in
managing the water resources within each catchment area” (Water Act 2002 (S 15(3) (e))).
(S 15(5)) of the Water Act 2002 and then goes on to say that “… the catchment management
strategy shall encourage and facilitate the establishment and operation of Water Resource Users
Associations (WRUAs) as fora for conflict resolution and co-operative management of water
resources in catchment areas.”
Most importantly, the Water Act (2002) enacts on the principle of local users taking
responsibility for the guardianship of their own resource. This represents a complete change in
water resource management strategy, which in turn will require a major reassessment in thinking
on the part of both consumers and managers. It is now widely understood that community
participation in local resource management is desirable, and indeed the only way to solve social,
as opposed to technical problems. This is supported by Khwaja`s (2001) study on project
managed by communities in Kenya which suggest that projects managed by communities are
more sustainable than projects managed by local government. Although formation and
registration of WRUAs is well detailed in the WRMA rules, the need for capacity building is not
well defined.
2.3 Organization of Water Resource Users Associations
According to Cole (1995), an organization exists when two or more persons agree to collaborate
over a period of time in order to achieve certain common goals. He further notes that a work
organization consists of a group or groups of people who collaborate in a structured and
permanent relatively way in order to achieve one or more goals which they share in common,
and which they could not achieve by acting on their own.
Mintzberg (1979) defines an organizational structure as an intangible web of relationships
between people, their shared purposes and the tasks they set themselves in order to achieve those
purposes. The prime purpose of structure is to achieve an effective balance between the division
14
of labour tasks and responsibilities on the other hand, and the need coordinate individuals efforts
and roles on the other. He further continues to say that ‘ The understanding that members of an
organization acquire about their own ‘structure’ may be as much based on unwritten evidence
and informal arrangements as any formal statement of rules, procedures and role descriptions’.
According to Cole (1995), there are many organizations that go to great lengths to prescribe their
organization structures and there are countless others that have informal arrangements, where the
sense of structure is tacit and flexible. Most organizations embrace a range of structures within
their boundaries.
The water Act 2002 is silent as to how WRUAs should be structured. This leaves them to be set
up outside it, probably deliberately, thereby enabling WRUAs to act as checks on the
performance of WRMA. It effectively encourages ownership of the association by its members,
who are united in their interest of conserving a natural resource; and it also renders WRUA
management free from official interference and control, at least by the water authorities.
The Water Resources Management Authority rules define a WRUA as “An association of water
users, riparian land owners, non-consumptive users or other stakeholders who have formally and
voluntarily associated for the purposes of cooperatively sharing, managing and conserving a
common water resource”. Rule 10 of WRMA covers the registration of WRUAs with WRMA
and certainly clarifies some of the uncertainties existing as a result of the scanty reference to
them in the Water Act(Ministry of Water and Irrigation,2007).
However it says little more about the preferred entity of a WRUA other than to prescribe that
“for a WRUA to be considered for registration by the Authority, it should be legally registered,
have a constitution” “Legally registered entity” is itself defined in the Rules as “an organization,
corporate body or person that has legal status”.
2.4 Formation of Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs)
WRUAs are not easy to set up due combination of the need for a lengthy constitution and
bureaucratic paranoia in the Registry of Societies. According to WRUA development cycle
(WDC) developed by WRMA, WRUAs often start life as Self-Help Groups or Community
Based Organizations (CBO) registered with the Department of Social Services. CBOs are easily
established and very little documentation needs submitting before a registration certificate is
15
issued, which itself is enough to facilitate opening a bank account. WRMA Sub-region office in
Meru accepts CBOs as WRUAs and indeed some WRUAs seem reluctant to tackle the next step
of association formation.
The upper reaches of many of the rivers round the northern slopes of Mt Kenya are tapped by
large commercial flower farms. With relative wealth, an office infrastructure, transport and some
worldliness, one of these often drives both the formation of a WRUA, and its continuing
administration. This is generally a benefit, although cultural differences may mean the pre-
formation sensitization process is unduly hastened, and the association is born with insufficient
consultation of those who will ultimately be expected to join, manage and contribute to it.
Similarly, cultural differences may manifest themselves in the conduct of meetings and other
association activities. These differences might certainly be less apparent if WRUA management
was in the hands of indigenous Kenyans, but generally they are far outweighed by the advantages
of different cultural groups each bringing contrasting strengths to the table. At the outset, a
prospective WRUA may comprise no more than a few interested individuals determined to band
together for the better management of their resource. Even if the group gets no further than this,
failing to achieve formal recognition or registration, many of its objectives may still have been
achieved. Arguably, the process of establishing a WRUA is just as important as the end result,
and going though this will give users the opportunity to meet and respect the views of each other,
and hopefully unite them in a common goal (WRMA, 2011).
According to MKEPP annual report, (2010), the enthusiasm with which users embrace the idea
of a WRUA varies enormously from those who have experienced no real water shortages so far
and have dispute over the resource’s allocation and those who have not experienced any water
shortages. There is also no doubt that attendance at WRUA meetings is far higher when water is
scarce.
2.5 Adequate Funding WRUA’s
Adequate funding is a factor of performance. Mancini cites that planning for future needs should
be in place early and needs to be continually developed during the life of the project. Late release
of funds, insufficient amounts, poor timelines in releasing the funds, are some of the challenges
faced by community based projects as noted by Mancini (2003).
16
Two basic issues dominate the funding of any WRUA; how much does it need – which depends
generally on its ambitions - and how is going to raise this. All WRUAs levy a joining fee, and
then an annual membership fee, which varies according to membership category. In practice,
many large farms already make additional contributions in cash or kind (e.g. provision of office
infrastructure or transport to meetings), in order to help the WRUA function effectively,
community consumers may contribute time and labour.
If the majority of the funds to run a WRUA are provided by one or two members of the WRUA,
there is inevitably a risk of these starting to wield a disproportionate degree of power and
influence in the WRUA’s affairs. More democratic contributions are therefore preferable, but
this may not always be practical (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, 2004).
Some WRUAs have received Donor funding for one-off projects such as weir construction or the
installation of reticulation systems. However, core office support is dependent on subscriptions
and such other income as the WRUA can rise. Water sales to road builders, and visitor fees to
see how WRUA’s work, have brought in additional income. Several WRUAs are contemplating
stocking their waters with fish to attract sport fishermen, who may even stay in WRUA facilities
or use its appointed guides. Others are hoping additional revenue will come from commercial
tree nurseries or bee-keeping projects. Sales of borehole water may bring in future revenue for
WRUAs, either for agriculture or even in bottles for personal consumption ( Ministry of Water
and Irrigation,2004).
Being mandated through the catchment management strategy to “encourage and facilitate the
establishment and operation of WRUAs” (water act 2002) ,WRMA could easily divert some of
any money it ultimately raises from water charges back to help the formation of new WRUAs or
to fund existing ones. It would certainly be good for consumers who pay for water to see some of
their money being recycled back into the system. This is supported by a study done by Nele
(2008) on Bwathonaro Water Resources Users Association in Imenti North, which found out that
to guarantee a certain level of financial and logistic independence, WRMA has to support the
WRUAs in finding sources of funding and development of a realistic financial backing. One
such source would be The Water Services Trust Fund which was established under S 83 of the
Water Act 2002 to “assist in financing the provision of water services to areas in Kenya which
17
are without adequate water services”. Initially confined to funding water supply, it is now
permitted to fund water resource management and WRUAs could also apply to it for financing.
These sources of funding are supported by Adhikari, (2005), and GEF, (2003) who say that
organization can enhance funding of the activities through raising local funds and the
diversification of funding sources. It is further supported by Mulwa (2008) studies on
communities in Kenya which found out that fundraising strategies for community based
organizations in Kenya varies from Merry-go-round, micro-credit, consultancy services ,fanfare,
and small special events, harambees to endowment fund. Other sources are public-private sector
partnerships, the corporate social responsibility, and Government funding and donor support.
Mulwa (2008) further notes that different sources of funds will influence directly or indirectly,
the implementation of community based water projects due to the conditions that go with them
as well as the volume each strategy is likely to earn.
Studies also carried out by World Bank (2004) on River Water Users Association (RWUAs) in
arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya found out that the associations faced constraints such; lack of
resources including technical capacity, no clear relationship with Water Resources Management
Authority(WRMA) and no capacity building programmes in place.
According to studies carried out by Nyoroka (2009) on challenges facing the sustainability of
community based projects in Meru concluded that other factors not studied in the researcher`s
study like funding and community participation may account to some of the challenges
influencing sustainability and performance of community based projects.
2.6 Management of WRUAs
Membership and management of WRUAs is detailed in their constitution, the contents of which
are largely governed by their legal status. The constitution of an Association, registered under the
Societies Act, is often based upon the specimen provided by the Registrar, as modified to suit
individual requirements. More detailed management provisions may be contained in bye-laws
made subsidiary to the constitution.
The potentially complex issue of WRUA membership seems efficiently managed by the creation
of different categories of membership, this ensuring that all water users are represented, either
directly or indirectly, on the Association. Riparian landowners are all usually entitled to
18
membership, while community water projects with their own off-take either elect one or more
representatives to membership of the Association or automatically nominate one or two of their
office-bearers. The responsibilities of membership of the WRUA often take time to absorb, and
project representatives may be lax in reporting back decisions made at meetings, as well as the
rationale behind them, to their project members (WRMA, 2008). Large-scale users like large
irrigation schemes or Chuka Water & Sewage Co Ltd are represented on their Association as
individual or commercial members, and pay a higher Membership fee.
To ease administration some associations also divide their river into geophysical sections,
perhaps three; upper, middle and lower, or in the case of the Mutonga in to five sections; and
each of these sections may have the right to elect an area Member. Finally, to help distinguish
between primary and secondary stakeholders, there may be an observer Member category for
those who are not water users but have an interest in the activities of the WRUA and the
conservation of the resource it (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, 2004).
Management of the WRUA devolves upon an executive committee, usually made up of the
Association’s office bearers, and also perhaps of others either from different sections of the river,
or varying interest groups. The frequency of both committee and general members’ meetings
varies, but members seem to meet on average about once a quarter, with the committee meetings
being called in response to specific problems. One of the members’ meetings will be the Annual
General Meeting. Meetings of the Tungu WRUA are hosted by different members in rotation,
enabling members to experience a different part of the river, and the problems associated with it,
each time they meet (MKEPP Report, 2011). Studies done by Nele (2008) on Bwathonaro
WRUA suggest that representativeness is crucial in determining the community’s respect of and
support for any WRUA.
2.7 Relationship with Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA)
While the fact of WRUAs being set up outside the Water Act 2002 makes them fully
autonomous, operating beyond any influence of WRMA can make for an awkward relationship
between the two. While WRMA suggests that its duty is to provide an enabling environment for
the establishment of WRUAs, it may use the eventual autonomy of a WRUA as an excuse to
deny it assistance.
19
Once established, a WRUA can be registered with WRMA. Rule 10(6) of WRMA rules provides
the procedure for registration by completion and submission of Form 18, and Rule 10(5) requires
WRMA to maintain a register of all WRUAs. There are also provisions enabling WRMA to
cancel registration, although not of course to disband the WRUA (Ministry of Water and
Irrigation, 2007).
The WRUA also supplies WRMA with details of its river, catchment area, legal registration,
bank account and other relevant information. In furtherance of a two-way relationship WRMA
agrees in the Memorandum to send representatives to WRUA meetings, conduct abstraction
surveys, monitor water quality and generally assist the WRUA in revenue collection, proposal
writing, project management and water resource Management (WRMA rules, 2007). The
devolutionary process may be taking some time to absorb, both for users and administrators.
WRMA staffs also worked in the old centralized system and are taking time to adapt.
2.8 Capacity building issues
According to Wikipedia, Capacity building also referred to as capacity development is a
conceptual approach to development that focuses on understanding the obstacles that inhibit
people, governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations from
realizing their developmental goals while enhancing the abilities that will allow them to achieve
measurable and sustainable results.
‘Capacity building can also be characterized as the approach to community development that
raises people’s knowledge, awareness and skills to use their own capacity and that from available
support systems to resolve the more underlying causes of mal –development. Capacity building
helps us better understand the decision-making process; to communicate more effectively at
different levels; and make more decisions, eventually instilling in them a sense of confidence to
manage their own destinies. Capacity building strengthens the assessment of analysis –action
process in the community and, therefore leads to higher performance (Wikipedia).
The UNDP (2004) defines capacity building as a long-term continual process of development
that involves all stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities, non-governmental
organizations, professionals, community members, academics and more. Capacity building uses
20
a country’s human, scientific, technological, organizational, and institutional and resource
capabilities. The goal of capacity building is to tackle problems related to policy and methods of
development, while considering the potential, limits and needs of the people of the country
concerned. The UNDP outlines that capacity building takes place on an individual level, an
institutional level and the societal level.
The World Customs Organization-an intergovernmental organization (IO) that develops
standards for governing the movement of people and commodities, defines capacity building as
"activities which strengthen the knowledge, abilities, skills and behaviour of individuals and
improve institutional structures and processes such that the organization can efficiently meet its
mission and goals in a sustainable way."
Capacity building for development, therefore not only meets concrete needs for skills or
resources, but responds to the feelings that come from people’s experiences of poverty or
oppression. It is necessarily concerned with along investment in people (Deborah, 1997).
Capacity building should go behold training and bring wider issues into the picture; applied
research and demonstration, technology transfer, community participation ,effective governance
,technical assistance and institutional development ( World bank 2003).It continues to say that
water sector reforms is a process which requires investment of time, political capital and
financial resources (for studies, capacity building and institutional development).
Alaerts, (1996) reminds that never to forget that vision and innovations are ultimately the most
important ingredient of capacity building and empowerment.
The UNDP (2004) assessments found out that institutions are inefficient because of bad or weak
policies, procedures, resource management, organization, leadership, frameworks, and
communication.
The UNDP (2004) believes knowledge is the foundation of capacity. They believe greater
investments should be made in establishing strong education systems and opportunities for
continued learning and the development of professional skills. They support the engagement in
post-secondary education reforms, continued learning and domestic knowledge services.
21
The implementation of accountability measures facilitates better performance and efficiency.
Lack of accountability measures in institutions allows for the proliferation of corruption. The
UNDP promotes the strengthening of accountability frameworks that monitor and evaluate
institutions. They also promote independent organizations that oversee, monitor and evaluate
institutions. They promote the development of capacities such as literacy and language skills in
civil societies that will allow for increased engagement in monitoring institutions (UNDP, 2004).
In Ministry of water and irrigation strategic plan 2009-2012 (Ministry of Water and irrigation,
2008) key emphasis is laid on the need to capacity build WRUAs to collect records and monitor
data acquisition instrument. Water Resources Management authority (2009) in preparing its Tana
water catchment area management strategy plans to support Water Resource Users Associations
–to facilitate formation and capacity build them to undertake water resource management, and
support the development and implementation of sub catchment management plans for those
WRUAs.
The above is supported by World Bank (2004), who states that community water organization
can be capacity build in support to hydrological services for long term (planning) and short term
operational purposes in the following areas: Infrastructure to measure hydrological data, Local
institutional capacity to analyze hydrological data, Facilities to disseminate information to
planners, managers and operators.
Studies carried out by World Bank (2004) on River Water Users Association (RWUAs) in arid
and semi-arid areas of Kenya found out that the associations faced constraints such; lack of
resources including technical capacity, no clear relationship with Water Resources Management
Authority(WRMA) and no capacity building programmes in place. This is supported by studies
done by Nele (2008) on Integrated Water Resources Management- a case study of Bwathonaro
Water Resources Users Associations in Meru North which found out that although indicators
reflect a positive impact of its work, the WRUA faced several operational challenges including
enabling environment that facilitates not only establishment but also the operationalization of the
WRUA, external support with regard to capacity building and guidance by WRMA, Membership
commitment to WRUA and WRUA representativeness.
22
2.9 Community participation challenges
Community participation is the taking part in formation, implementation and management of
initiatives (Mwangi, 2007). Community Participation is the process by which community
member’s opinions and views affects decision making at community level (Grishvilli, 2003).
Participation approaches have been popularized by Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approaches to community development and research which
Chambers (1994) refers to as family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to
share/enhance and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and act.
Decision making by project implementing communities is reported to be a challenge resulting
from inadequate skills and knowledge, Grishvilli, (2003), Mwangi, (2006) noted that
communities have adequate, complete reliable information to support objective rational
decisions. He noted that such decisions once made have to be acceptable. World Bank, (2003)
indicated that the focus for decision making lies in how community projects are identified,
selected and implemented. Mwangi, (2007) noted that low community participation leads to
reduced to low project performance. The project implementation team plays an important role in
the participation process, bridging the gap between the communities and project team (UNEP
2006).
Activities to enhance performance include creating a reserve fund, registration, federations and
saving and credit funds. Active participation of communities improves the march between
community needs and what it obtains. Through participation, the community develops
ownership and skills for collective action (Adhikari and Risal, (2006).
Studies carried out by Belgium administration for development cooperation (1999) on
assessment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in Kajiado District concluded the general
condition of the WUAs managed projects was between poor and pathetic. Out of the WUAs
studied, 60% were poorly managed, 63% of the WUAs projects required major rehabilitation,
88% of the WUAs had no the skills and expertise to handle financial issues and 90% of the
WUAs did not consistently contribute to water user fees.
23
This is supported by MKirigia`s ( 2010) study on factors affecting the performance private water
firms in delivery of water services and found out that there was inadequate community
involvement in making decisions in terms of how best to run their projects.
2.10 Staff quality and involvement
Having adequate competent staff is an important factor for implementing and performance of
sustaining community –based projects (Mancini, 2003). A major factor to community
organization success is centered on lack or inadequate staff that is well trained and educated
(Mancini, 2003).
A shortage of skilled and experienced managers, technicians, supervisors and field monitoring
staff is significantly hindering reaching and assisting local communities (Michael, 2004) and
continues to cite that mobility and effectiveness of various government partners is also
inadequate to meet the demands for assistance. A shortage of essential field equipment for
monitoring /extension activities (vehicles, radios, GPS, water levels/quality measurement
equipment) along with a lack of funds for fuel ,vehicle maintenance and travel allowances places
further constraints on carrying out essential capacity building activities, (Michael, 2004)
Community projects which are insufficiently coordinated may lead to confusion of different
approaches; communities could lose focus of long term development goals and duplication of
institutional efforts (The 4C`s working group, 2003); World Bank (2003); in its studies noted
that the recognized advantage of greater inter-agency collaboration/coordination unfortunately is
often overshadowed by the reality of competition for resources and operational rivalry. This
according to World Bank (2003) can be reduced by working under the government which can
facilitate inter-agency coordination and enhanced communication.
Studies carried out by JICA’s (2003) on sustainable community based irrigation and drainage
schemes in 11 Districts in three Provinces of Kenya namely; Rift-valley, Central and Eastern
also agree with the above findings in that they indicated that community based irrigation
schemes were not performing as expected due to varies challenges which included: management
and coordination of conflicts of WUAs and low morale of Ministerial staff. This is also
supported by studies done by Nyoroka (2009) on community –based groups in Meru which
found out that community based projects required a lot of external support to sustain themselves
24
in terms of external supervision, monitoring and evaluation, infrastructure development, market
linkages, management of sales and capacity building support services.
2.11 Organization adaptability challenges
An organization ability to adapt to community needs/members needs and contextual changes
strongly influences its ability to continuously provide services that make a difference in quality
of life (Mancini, 2003). Many researchers have found maintaining flexibility and adaptability
strongly influence performance, Holder & Moore, (2000): LaFond, 1995: Lefevre, 1990:
Shediac-Rizkallah & Boni, (1998) cites Mancini, (2003). Typically, change is the hallmark of
community life and consequently, of necessity organization must respond to change to remain
viable. Adaptations may range from changes in goal, to reduction in programming, to increasing
and deceasing sites, participants, collaboration.
World Bank (2003) observed that organization can adjust for its future. This flexible
management can be hampered by antiquated internal administrative structure. An effective
feedback system allows an organization to identify adjustment needs early and specify the
appropriate responses.
Project adaptability challenges may result from constraints imposed by failure to respond to
inherent challenges, redundancy and duplication of services, poor timeliness, irrelevance and
failure to assess and account for changes in the community project (Mancini, 2003).
Studies carried out by JICA (2003) on sustainable community based irrigation and drainage
schemes in 11 Districts in three Provinces of Kenya namely; Rift-valley, Central and Eastern
also agree with the above findings in that they indicated that community based irrigation
schemes were not performing as expected due to varies challenges including high illiteracy rate
in the WUA leading to low technology adoption.
2.12 Collaboration challenges
Effective collaboration is essential for long term survival and performance of community based
projects (Mancini el al, 2003). According to (Mancini el al., 2003) many researchers (Bamberger
and Cheema, 1990); (LaFord, 1995); (Glaser, 1982), have found that out that an atmosphere that
values collaboration contributes to projects success and sustainability.
25
Collaboration and partnership are more effective when they include all relevant community
leaders, key agencies, organization in a community project are critical elements in success and
performance. Ineffective and inadequate networks, reduce projects effectiveness, reduce
resources contributed and brought to the project, reduces breadth and depth of their involvement
.Partnership relationship must be about supportive behavior to success and sustainability
(Mulwa, 2007). Good collaboration is founded on relationships of trust and familiarity. Sound
relationships require time to develop. Frequent changes of managers, local staff and community
leaders may lead to discontinues in agency support for community based efforts according to
4C`s working group, (2003).
World Bank, (2003) noted that the community projects effectiveness can be improved through
sharing, cooperating in the same planning processes, conducting joint assessment and using
incentives to support collaborative project design and supporting inter-agency interacting at all
stages of the projects cycle. But this usually limited by differences in funding, project cycles
differences, economic benefits and incentives , changes in local situation policy changes,
methodological differences and the continued contention over the lead agency issue.
According to Mwangi, (2006) having regular contact with other institutions, projects and groups
with strategic importance to the project can result to healthy exchange of approaches and
resources (knowledge, expertise). The culture of staff embedded in traditional construction and
procurement, often is unprepared to respond innovatively and positively to partnerships
arrangements and requirements. Delays in process may stall or discourage local collaboration
while rules and policies may not be designed for many partnerships (4C`s working group, 2003).
Nele, (2008) in his study on Bwathonaro WRUA found out that for the WRUA to facilitate
change it must be supported by the majority stakeholders.
A study carried out by Nyoroka (2009) concluded that coordination was quite poor in community
based projects in Meru and these projects may seek alternative ways for coordinating their
projects well even if it means hiring competent people.
26
2.13 Knowledge management and sharing
Communities believe that good information supply and public awareness is the foremost
prerequisite for the active community performance in programmes. Lack of or inaccessibility to
information regarding the project, their application in practice on ground, options for applying
them under variable circumstance, barriers to their use and other information as it pertains to the
purpose and support activities of the projects initiative is primary challenge to the initiatives,
implementation and performance of the projects ( The 4C`s working group, 2003).
Bridging of barriers to maximize access to needed information benefits through avoiding costly
duplication. Aim of media and communication development in projects is to increase awareness
and knowledge of local communities (UNEP, 2005 and Mulwa, 2007). Exchange of information
(vertical and horizontal) contributes towards the resolution of problem in a community project.
In community development the kind of useful communication is not the traditional linear
communication flowing from high levels to lower ones with passive audience. It has to be
dynamic and in favour of two or more parties. Nele (2008) in his study on Bwathonaro WRUA
found out that there is a strong relationship between awareness creation and level of resistance to
change. The researcher notes that resentment is created by the lack of information and
misinformation in Bwathonaro WRUA.
2.14 Review of Water Users Associations performance Challenges
Studies carried out by Belgium administration for development cooperation, (1999) on
assessment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in Kajiado District concluded the general
condition of the WUAs managed projects was between poor and pathetic. Out of the WUAs
studied, 60% were poorly managed, 63% of the WUAs projects required major rehabilitation,
88% of the WUAs had no skills and expertise to manage financial resources.
Studies carried out by JICA (2003) on sustainable community based irrigation and drainage
schemes in 11 Districts in three Provinces of Kenya namely; Rift-valley, Central and Eastern
also agree with the above findings in that they indicated that community based irrigation
schemes were not performing as expected due to varies challenges which included; management
and coordination of conflicts of WUAs, poor project leadership, lack of transparency and
accountability, poor extension services, lack of participation and ownership of the WUA, weak
27
commitment and low morale of Ministerial staff, lack of adequate credit and access to credit
facilities and high illiteracy rate leading to low technology adoption.
Studies also carried out by World Bank (2004) on River Water Users Associations (RWUAs) in
arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya found out that the associations faced constraints such; lack of
resources including technical capacity, no clear relationship with Water Resources Management
Authority(WRMA) and no capacity building programmes in place. This is supported by studies
done by Nele (2008) on Integrated Water Resources Management- a case study of Bwathonaro
Water Resources Users Associations in Meru North which found out that although indicators
reflect a positive impact of its work, the WRUA faced several operational challenges including;
lack of enabling environment that facilitates not only establishment but also the
operationalization of the WRUA, external support with regard to capacity building and guidance
by WRMA, Membership commitment to WRUA and WRUA representativeness.
A study carried out by Nyoroka (2009) concluded that coordination was quite poor in community
based projects in Meru and these projects may seek alternative ways for coordinating their
projects well even if it means hiring competent people. She further found out that projects also
required a lot of external support to improve their performance.
According MKEPP Annual Report, (2011) and WRMA annual report, (2010), of the nine
WRUAs formed in Tharaka –Nithi County only one has been able to assess funding with WSTF
to start the implementation of their respective Sub –Catchment Management Plan (SCMP). Only
two WRUAs of the fifteen formed by WRMA with assistance of MKEPP in the last eight years
have so far been able to write proposals to development partners for funding. In the Tana
catchment area, out of the 130 WRUAs formed only 12 have developed the capacity to write
proposals to WSTF and received funding. Only one WRUA out of the nine formed in Tharaka –
Nithi County has internal mechanism of generating revenue.
There is a general feeling that WRMA should make more use of WRUAs than it does. Being so
newly created WRMA has little experience of dealing direct with water users, and if sensitively
used, WRUAs could be a huge help in bridging the gap between WRMA and the public,
(WRMA, 2009).
Research from other community projects, the reviewed literature indicated the following project
performance challenges ; inadequate funding to help in sustaining the project, Human resource
28
inadequacy in terms of inadequate numbers and inadequate relevant trainings , poor team spirit,
low motivation, limited knowledge management and sharing skills required , staff mindset, high
staff turnover/low continuity, lack of community involvement in decision making, inadequate
collaboration support, which benefits the project implementation and performance through
brought in resources, (in kind or expertise ) and participation. Inadequate adaptability /flexibility
which occurs when projects are late in changing as community needs change; Leadership in
competencies leading to inadequacies in continuous planning for improved performance,
accountability, poor involvement of community institutions, lack of clear project mission and
vision ; poor coordination and inadequate information and communication .
2.15 Summary
From the above discussions the following are the possible performance challenge areas;
community coordination and management, institution inadequate accessibility and availability of
resources, quantity and quality of human resource, inadequate information and communication
channels and inadequate collaboration support.
29
2.16 Conceptual framework
Moderating variable
Independent variables
Dependent variable
Fig 1 Conceptual framework
Improved Education and training of community members
- Academic qualification - Type of training - Number of people trained - Relevance of the training
Improved coordination and management
- Information - Communication - Coordination - Engagement of volunteers - Collaborators - Regular meeting - Members concerns - Regular planning - Supervision - Monitoring evaluation - Infrastructure development - Technical support
Improved WRUAs performance in water catchment management
- Proper record keeping
- Fair implementation of the constitution/by-laws
- Consistency in implementation of sub-catchment management plans
- Reduced water use conflict.
Government policies and weather conditions
Improved accessibility and availability of resources
- Sources of resources
- Quantity of resources - Consistency of resources - Management of resources
30
The frame work shows three independent variables in the study. The researcher will assess the
expected performance of the water resources users associations in water catchment management
as the dependent variable through independent variable of the Education and training,
coordination and management and accessibility and availability of resources. Government
policies and weather conditions were some of the moderating variables of varying magnitudes.
The study will assess the education and training challenges through responses in level of
education, types of trainings impacted, frequency of trainings, number of trainings and the
relevance of those trainings to performance of WRUAs.
Coordination and management will be assessed through responses to WRUAs information
management, communication, co-ordination, engagement of volunteers, regular meetings are
held, presence of mechanisms to capture members concerns and holding of regular planning
sessions. The study will try to assess the collaboration support through responses from what the
members felt were their major needs which they were unlikely to meet on their own. The support
will be in form of supervision, monitoring and evaluation, infrastructure development, and
technical support services. The study will also assess how the WRUAs leadership manages its
resources to achieve its objectives.
These are some of the factors outside the WRUA control which may have influenced
performance. Under the WRUAs the major ones may include Government policies and weather
conditions.
Government policies may have influenced the environment in which the WRUAs are working
e.g. the new constitution places a lot of weight on the county Governments which might affect
the performance of WRUAs. Weather conditions may have influenced the river base flows and
which would have further affect the performance of WRUAs.
The performance process means continued benefits to the project beneficiaries’ for a long time
.The major objective of WRUAs according to water Act 2002 is to act as a fora for conflict
resolution and co-operative management of water resources in catchment areas through
implementation of sub-catchment management plans. Performance entailed doing all
tasks/activities to ensure that the water related conflicts are minimized in the WRUA’s
31
jurisdiction area. Performance therefore will be assessed through; proper record keeping, Fair
implementation of the constitution/bye-laws, consistency in implementation of the sub-
catchment management plans and reduction in water related conflicts.
2.17 Research gaps
Before the water Act 2002, a water resource was managed centrally by the government without
the involvement of the local users. In the development of Water Act 2002, the Government
recognized the need for public and communities participation in managing the resource, (Water
Act, 2002). The water Act 2002 does not spell out clearly on how the public and communities
will participate in managing the water resource in their catchment areas. It leaves to the
interpretation of the implementers of the act. A research gap exists to study on the ways in which
the public and communities can best be involved in the management of natural resources
especially water.
Since the enactment of the water Act 2002 and its subsequent implementation, 440 WRUAs have
been formed and strengthened in Kenya, but there has been no assessment so far been done on
the performance of these WRUAs, although the activity has consumed a substantial about of
resources.
The management of WRUAs devolves upon an executive committee which is elected from the
WRUAs members. This committee is supposed to work on voluntary basis (balancing household
needs and community engagement). According to studies carried out by Nyoroka, (2009) on
challenges facing sustainability of community based in Meru found out that volunteerism did not
seem to work in community based projects and the management of these projects were doing
nothing about it. The researcher recommends a further research on volunteerism as it relates to
performance of community based projects.
Grishvilli, (2003), notes that decision making by communities is a challenge resulting from
inadequate skills and knowledge, but Mwangi, (2006), notes that communities have adequate,
complete reliable information to implement their activities in order to meet their objectives.The
two findings contract each other and it is important to have an in-depth analysis of the capacity
building factors that influence WRUAs performance.
32
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the research methodology. The methodology include: research design, the
target population, sampling procedures, data collection procedures, tools and techniques of data
collection, pre-testing, validity, reliability, data analysis and ethical considerations.
3.2 Research Design
Descriptive and Correlation research methods were used in this study. Descriptive design was
used to collect data in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of
study. It is the most appropriate in collecting data about characteristics of a large population of
this study in terms of cost effectiveness and time constraints. Descriptive design’s findings can
also be generalized which this study was aimed to achieve. Techniques of correlational design
research are particularly useful in social and behavioural investigations. Since this study aimed at
clarifying relationships correlational research was used. The tools used included the use of
structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were self administered to ensure a high return rate.
Interviews were also conducted to give in-depth information which might have been omitted by
the questionnaire. A quantitative method of data analysis was used in order to establish and
describe the degree of relationship between the independent variables and dependent variables.
The researcher determined how the following variables influenced the performance of WRUAs
in water catchment management; Education and training, coordination and management, and
availability and accessibility of resources. The survey was administered to 115 members out of
693 members of the 9 WRUAs in Tharaka – Nithi County.
3.3 Target population
The target population was the 693 members of the 9 WRUAs in Tharaka-County. The WRUAs
are geographically well spread within the study area. Purposive sampling was used to select four
employees of Water Resources Management Authority, five Mt. Kenya East Pilot Project for
Natural resources, two CDF Officers and four Ministry of water officers in the region and four
other staff of any other stakeholder working in the region were also be interviewed.
33
Table 3.1 WRUAs in Tharaka – Nithi County and their membership
WRUA NAME MEMBERSHIP
Gaki 40
Imema 78
Kagaka 45
Kamatha 30
Kiamuga 60
Kithino 170
Mutonga K.K. 55
Thaimeka 80
Tungu 135
TOTAL 693
Source: WRMA sub regional office Meru
3.4 Sampling procedure and sampling size.
This section covers sampling procedures and how sampling size was arrived at.
3.4.1 Sampling procedures
Sampling is the process of choosing the research units of target population which are to be
included in the study. Sampling was done because a complete coverage of the population is not
practically possible.
In this study, the researcher used both probability and non-probability sampling methods. The
non-probability techniques which were used were purposive. The researcher used purposive
sampling to deliberately select government and other stakeholder staff to be interviewed.
34
The researcher used stratified sampling method to make sure that all the 9 WRUAs are included
in the study then systematic random sampling procedure was used. This was achieved through
listing all the registered WRUAs committee members to get sampling frame which was later
subjected to sampling.
3.4.2 Sample size
The study used the Fischer`s formula in calculating the sample size which is based on the sample
for proportions, where by:
Z2*P*Q
n =
E2
Where:
n=the desired sample size
Z=the value corresponding to the level of confidence required (in this case 1.96
Corresponding to 95% Level of confidence)
P=Estimated level of an attribute that is present in the population (0.1 variability)
Q%= estimated level of the attribute that is not present in the population.
E%=desired level of precision (in this case 5%)
The adjusted minimum sample size was collaborated by use of the following formula for
correction for finite population
n0
n1 =
1+ (n0/N)
Where:
n1=adjusted minimum sample size
n0=minimum sample size as arrived at using the previous formula
35
N=the total known population.
The minimum sample size from the groups will be 115. A list of all 693 WRUA members will
be prepared. A systematic random sampling technique was used to identify the respondents.
Table 3.2 shows the name of the WRUA, membership and sample size. Sampling frame derived
from listing the WRUA members was done and then the members were allocated corresponding
numbers which was used to get respondents. The researcher used purposive sampling to select
five WRMA staff members, five Ministry of Water staff, five MKEPP staff, four CDF staff and
four other staff to represent other water stakeholders in the area for interviews.
Table 3.2 showing the name of the WRUA, WRUA membership and sample size
WRUA NAME MEMBERSHIP SAMPLE SIZE
Gaki 40 7
Imema 78 13
Kagaka 45 8
Kamatha 30 5
Kiamuga 60 10
Kithino 170 28
Mutonga K.K. 55 9
Thaimeka 80 13
Tungu 135 22
TOTAL 693 115
3.5 Instruments and Techniques of Data collection
The following are the tools and techniques which were used for data collection.
36
3.5.1 Focused –group interviews.
Focused –group interviews were used to explore and understand people's beliefs, experiences,
attitudes, behavior and interactions. It generated both non- numerical data and numerical data,
e.g. a beneficiary’s description, rather than a measure of their feeling and thereafter interpreted
accordingly for the purpose of assessing WRUAs performance. The discussions were
unstructured and free flowing and thus yield in-depth information. The approach was to bring
out target groups’ valuable insights being gained regarding people’s subjective perceptions; their
deep rooted beliefs and feelings. This targeted other stakeholders other rather than WRMA. One
group discussion was conducted for each of the following stakeholders MKEPP Staff, Ministry
of Water and Irrigation (MOW&I)staff, nine WRUA management committee members in all the
river basins; other stakeholder prominent group in each of the WRUA area of jurisdiction.
3.5.2 Interviews
These were conducted on one on one individual interview to explore their perspective on specific
topics. Interviews were done with five WRMA Staff through a guiding questionnaire.
3.5.3: Questionnaire
Questionnaires were administered to the 115 respondents selected randomly from the 693
members of the WRUA.
3.6 Pre-Testing
Before the research instruments were finally administered to participants, pre –testing for clarity
and flow using mock interviews were conducted. A pilot study was undertaken to further test
whether or not the questionnaire adequately captured all the information required in the study.
12 sample sizes were used for pre-testing representing about 10% of the sample size.
3.7 Validity
Validity as noted by Robinson, (2002) is the degree to which result obtained from analysis of the
data actually represents the phenomenon under study. Care was taken in constructing the
questionnaire and the pre-testing was done to identify and change any ambiguous, awkward, or
offensive questions as emphasized by Cooper and Schindler (2003). Expert opinion was
37
requested to comment on the representativeness and suitability of questions and give suggestions
on the structure of the tools. This helped in the improvement of the content validity of the data
that was collected.
3.8 Reliability
Reliability on the other hand refers to a measure of the degree to which research instruments
yield consistent results (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). The pre-testing aims at determining the
reliability of the research tools including the wording, structure and sequence of the questions.
The purpose of the pre-testing was to refine the research tools so that respondents in the major
study did not have problem in answering the questions. After pre-testing, the responses were
scored. The two parts of the instrument were treated as parts of the instruments. The scores of the
two parts were then mathematically correlated through the use of the spearman’s correlation
coefficient. It was found to be 0.85 for the questionnaire for the WRUA members, 0.9 for the
questionnaire for WRUA stakeholders and 0.93 or the questionnaire for WRMA staff, hence the
instruments used were reliable.
38
Table 3.3: Operationalization of variables
Research objectives Type of variable
Indicator Measuring of indicator
Data collection method
Level of scale
Tools of analysis
Type of analysis
1.Improved Education and training
- Academic qualification
- Types of training
- people trained
- Relevance of the training
Performance of WRUAs
Independent
Dependent
Level of education
Trainings conducted
people trained in each type of training
relevant trainings
Effectiveness of the WRUAs to achieve their objectives
No in each level
Categories of trainings
No trained
Level of relevance of trainings
Frequency of water resource conflicts
No of conflicts resolved
No of activities in the Sub-
Questionnaire
interview
documentary analysis
Ordinal
Ratio
Mean
percentage
Descriptive
Content
correlation
3.9 Operational definition of variables
39
catchment management plan implemented
-No of WRUA record keeping books well kept
2.Improved Coordination and management
- Information
- Communication
- Regular meeting
- Members concerns
Independent
Types of information
Channels of communication
Members meetings
concerns resolved
No
No
No
Level of satisfaction of
Ordinal
Ratio
Mean
percentage
Descriptive
Content
correlation
40
members
- Supervision
- Monitoring and evaluation
- Infrastructure development
- Technical
Performance of WRUAs
Dependent
Supervision visits
Visits
Infrastructures developed
Technical trainings
Effectiveness of the WRUAs to achieve their objectives
Frequency
Frequency
No
No trained
Frequency of water resource conflicts
No of conflicts resolved
No of activities in the Sub-
Questionnaire
interview
documentary analysis
Ordinal
Ratio
Mean
percentage
Descriptive
Content
correlation
41
catchment management plan implemented
-No of WRUA record keeping books well kept
3.improved accessibility and availability of Resources
- Sources of resources
- Quantity of resources
- Consistency of resources
- Management of resources
Independent
resources
resources
resources
management tools
Types and amounts
Types and amounts
Type and frequency
Types of records
No and types financial management trainings conducted
No
No
Level of consistence
No
Frequency
Questionnaire
interview
documentary analysis
Ordinal
Ratio
Mean
percentage
Descriptive
Content
Correlation
42
Performance of WRUAs
Dependent
Effectiveness of the WRUAs to achieve their objectives
Frequency of water resource conflicts
No of conflicts resolved
No of activities in the Sub-catchment management plan implemented
No of WRUA record keeping books well kept
Questionnaire
Interview
Documentary analysis
Ordinal
ratio
Mean
percentage
Descriptive
Content correlation
43
3. 10 Methods of data analysis
Data analysis is the critical examination of the coded data and making inferences. The collected
data was edited, coded and analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The
analysis output was presented in terms of tables. The qualitative data took an
exploratory/conceptual content analysis process. The researcher also used the Karl Pearson’s
product moment correlation analysis to assess the relationships between the independent and the
dependent variables.
3.11 Ethical Consideration
Ethical considerations in research can be defined as ensuring that the researcher conforms to the
standards of conduct of the authorities in the area of research. Examples of ethical issues that
may arise are voluntary participation of respondents, deception to participants, anonymity and
confidentiality of information given, analysis and reporting, harm or danger to participants and
any other professional code of ethics expected. To ensure that the research is done in an ethical
manner according to the expectations of all authorities, a letter from the university was obtained.
The researcher informed the respondents that the instruments being administered were for
research purpose only and the respondent’s identity was kept confidential. The researcher also
obtained an introductory letter from the university to collect data from the organization. Also,
due to sensitivity of some information collected, the researcher holds a moral obligation to treat
the information with utmost propriety. Further, since the respondents might be reluctant to
disclose some information, the researcher reassured the respondents of use of the information
and the confidentiality of identity of the informants.
44
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers analysis of data and presentation of results on an assessment of how capacity
building factors influence the performance of water resource users associations in the
management of water catchment in Tharaka –Nithi County. The focus was on education and
training of community members, coordination and management and accessibility and availability
of resources. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis results are presented.
4.2 Analysis
The survey fieldwork was conducted in the months of June and July 2012.The questionnaire was
administered by the researcher on 115 respondents and 115 respondents replied and therefore the
return rate was 100%. The researcher read and interpreted to the respondents each of the
questionnaire items when requested. The questionnaire provided a list of potential areas of
challenges facing the performance of water resource users associations which the respondent
rated.
4.2.1 General characteristics of the respondents
The general characteristics accessed in this section are gender and age of the respondents and the mean performance of the WRUAs under study.
4.2.1.1 Gender of the respondents
The results of the gender representation are shown on the table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Gender of the respondents
Gender Frequency Percentage
______________________________________________________________________________
Male 62 53.9
Female 53 46.1
Total 115 100.0
45
Table 4.1 shows that out of total of one hundred and fifteen (115) respondents who were
interviewed, sixty two (62) representing 53.9% were males and fifty three (53) representing
46.1% were females. This shows that both genders were active in the Water Resource Users
Association and in the management of the water catchment.
4.2.1.2 Age of the respondents
This section shows the age distribution of the respondents.
Table 4.2 Analysis of the ages of the respondents
Age Frequency Percentage _____________________________________________________________________________
26-30 22 19.1
31-45 39 33.9
46-55 32 27.8
56-Above 22 19.1
Total 115 100.0
______________________________________________________________________________
The table 4.2 shows most o the respondents are in the ages of 31-55 which is the most productive
ages in any society. There is little presentation of the youth (only 19.1%) who are 30 years and
below which could be interpreted to mean that the youth are in schools or colleges or working
elsewhere. The presentation of the population follows a normal distribution curve in a rural
setting in Kenya and specifically in the project area.
4.2.1.3 WRUA performance
The performance of the WRUAs was based on the questionnaire where the respondents were
asked to gauge the performance of their WRUA on a five grade scale:-very good, good, fairly
good, poor and very poor. The grades were then assigned numbers as follows: - very good-5,
good-4, fairly good-3, poor -2 and very poor -1.The marks were then used to get the mean
46
performance of each WRUA. The results obtained were then compared with the documentation
analysis in the WRMA office in Meru town. The documentary data analysis from WRMA
offices agreed with the primary data analysis of the WRUA performance.
Table 4.3 shows the mean performance of respective WRUAs.
Table 4.3 Mean WRUA Performance ________________________________________________________ Name of the WRUA Mean performance Tungu 3.74
Kagaka 4.25
Kamatha 3.40
Mutonga KK 4.11
Kiamuga 4.00
Imema 3.92
Kithino 3.91
Gaki 4.14
Thaimeka 4.15
Table 4.3 shows the Kagaka WRUA is the highest performing WRUA with mean performance
of 4.25 ,followed by Thaimeka with mean performance of 4.15 and the lowest performing
WRUA is Kamatha with a mean performance of 3.40. All the WRUAs lie between 3.4 and 4.25
which between the performance rating of between very good to fairly good.
47
4.2.2 Education and Training
This section covers the data analysis on education and training.
4.2.2.1 Education
Table 4.4 shows the education background of the respondents
Table 4.4 Education Background
Level of Education Frequency Percentage
______________________________________________________________________________ Primary 34 29.6
Secondary 59 51.3
Above secondary 22 19.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
Total 115 100
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.4 reveals that the majority of the WRUA members were primary school or secondary
school leavers. These were 34 and 59 respondents respectively representing a total of 29.6 and
51.3 % respectively. Only 19.1% had college or university education. The interpretation was that
those who had advanced education were not WRUA members since they were engaged
elsewhere. This would impact negatively on the performance of WRUAs.
48
Table 4.5 shows the relationship between the percentage of executive committee members who
have at least secondary education and performance of WRUAs.
Table 4.5 Relationship between the percentage of executive committee members with at
least secondary education and performance of WRUAs
_____________________________________________________________________________WRUA Name Mean %
performance Executive committee
with at least sec.
education
(X) ( Y) (X2 ) (Y2 ) ( XY)
Tungu 3.74 57.2 14.0 3271.8 213.9
Kagaka 4.25 62.5 18.1 3906.3 265.6
Kamatha 3.40 53.2 11.56 2830.2 180.9
Mutonga K.K 4.11 57.5 16.9 3306.3 236.3
Kiamuga 4.00 56.0 16.0 3136.0 224
Imema 3.92 55.4 15.3 3069.16 217.2
Kithino 3.91 54.5 15.2 2970.3 213.1
Gaki 4.14 58.2 17.1 3387.24 240.9
Thaimeka 4.15 62.2 17.2 3868.84 258
Totals 35.62 516.7 141.5 29746.1 2050.1
Correlation coefficient (r) = (NΣXY - (ΣX)(ΣY) ) / Sqrt([NΣX2 - (ΣX)2][NΣY2 - (ΣY)2]).
Table 4.5 has the details of the figures used in the formula and (r) the correlation coefficient is
0.768 showing that there is a strong positive relationship between the percentage of the executive
committee of the WRUA with education levels of at least secondary level and performance of
the WRUA. The higher the percentage of people with secondary education and above in the
49
executive committee the higher is the performance of the WRUA. The calculation of the
coefficient of determination (r2) and multiplying by 100 enables us to clearly interpret the linear
relationship between variables. The r2 in this case became (0.768*0.768= 0.59 or 59% after
multiplying by 100.
The results indicate that there is a moderately high positive linear (correlation coefficient of
0.768 and a coefficient of determination of 59%) relationship between the percentage of the
Executive of the WRUA with education levels of at least secondary education and mean
performance of the WRUA. It is in 59% of the cases where an increase in percentage of number
of executive committee with education levels of at least secondary level resulted in an increase
mean performance of the WRUA.
4.2.2.2 Training
Table 4.6 shows the types of trainings attended by the respondents in percentages per WRUA Table 4.6 Trainings attended per WRUA WRUA WDC SCMP By-laws and Group dynamics Proposal writing Training Training Constitution
Tungu 86.2 69 13.8 69 3.4
Kagaka 75 100 62.5 25 0
Kamatha 40 83 20.0 40 0
Mutonga K.K 88.9 66.7 66.7 22.2 33.3
Kiamuga 77.8 77.8 55.7 22.2 0
Imema 63.6 53 72.7 27.3 9.1
Kithino 71.4 28.6 85.7 14.3 28.6
Gaki 0 63.3 42.9 100 14.3
Thaimeka 46.2 61.5 46.2 92.3 0
__________________________________________________________________________________ Table 4.6 shows the most attended trainings in all WRUAs in descending order are WDC, SCMP and by-laws, constitution formulation and proposal writing.
50
Table 4.7 shows the correlation coefficients of the respective percentages of respondents who
attended WDC Training, SCMP training, by-laws and constitution formulation, group dynamics,
and proposal writing to the members of the WRUA and performance of the respective WRUA.
Table 4.7 Types of trainings and their correlation coefficient on performance of WRUAs
______________________________________________________________________________
Type of training Correlation coefficient(r) Coefficient of determination (r2 ) as %
WDC 0.01 0 .01
SCMP 0.03 0.09
By-laws and constitution 0.54 29
Group dynamics 0.13 1.69
Proposal writing 0.19 3.61
Table 4.7 shows that training by-laws and constitution formulation had comparatively highest
positive correlation coefficient (0.54) and coefficient of determination of 24%, followed by
proposal writing (0.19) and coefficient of determination of 3.61%, then group dynamics (0.13)
and coefficient of determination of 1.69%, then SCMP with correlation coefficient of 0 .03 and
coefficient of determination of 0.9% and lastly WDC with coefficient of determination of (.01)
and coefficient of determination of 0.01% .The interpretation was that for a WRUA to perform
properly it must have a strong bidding constitution and by-laws. This can only be achieved if all
the members of the WRUA have been trained on by-laws and constitution formulation. Proposal
writing is also a key factor of performance since for the WRUA to access external funding it
must apply for the funding through proposal writing. Training on group dynamics is also another
factor of performance since WRUAs are supposed to act as a forum for conflict resolution which
is taught in group dynamics.
51
Table 4.8 shows the relationship between the mean number of people who attend training and the performance of their respective WRUA.
Table 4.8 Relationship between the mean number of people who attend training and performance of WRUA
______________________________________________________________________________
Name of WRUA Mean
performance indicator ( X)
( X2)
Average members who attend trainings ( Y)
( Y2)
( XY)
Tungu 3.74 13.9876 32.8 1075.84 122.672
Kagaka 4.25 18.0625 51 2601 216.75
kamatha 3.4 11.56 25 625 85
Mutonga K.K 4.11 16.8921 41.23 1699.913 169.455
Kiamuga 4 16 25.6 655.36 102.4
Imema 3.92 15.3664 25 625 98
Kithino 3.91 15.2881 29 841 113.39
Gaki 4.14 17.1396 41.25 1701.563 170.775
Thaimeka 4.15 17.2225 34.6 1197.16 143.59
Totals 35.62 141.5188 305.48 11021.84 1222.032
Correlation coefficient (r) = (NΣXY - (ΣX)(ΣY) ) / Sqrt([NΣX2 - (ΣX)2][NΣY2 - (ΣY)2]).
Table 4.8 has the details of the figures used in the formula and the result is a Correlation
coefficient of 0.69 and the coefficient of determination of 47.6 % showing that there is a strong
positive relationship between the mean of the numbers of the WRUA who attend trainings and
performance of the WRUA. The higher the mean of people who attend trainings the higher is the
mean performance of the WRUA. The results imply that 47.6% of the cases, an increase in mean
52
number of WRUA members who attend trainings results in improved mean performance of the
WRUA. This can be interpreted to mean that the higher the number of people in the WRUA who
have been impacted the skills to manage the WRUA, the higher the performance of that WRUA.
Table 4.9 shows the applicability of the trainings in WRUA Management.
Table 4.9 Applicability of Training in WRUA Management
Frequency Percentage ____________________________________________________________ Very 95 82.6
important
Important 20 17.4
Total 115 100
Table 4.9 shows that 95 respondents corresponding to 82.6% felt that the trainings acquired were very important to WRUA management while 20 respondents corresponding to 17.4% felt that the trainings were important to the management of their WRUAs. The interpretation of the responses is that trainings acquired are related to performance of WRUAs.
4.2.3 Coordination and management.
This section will analyze the coordination and management factors that influence the
performance of WRUAs in water catchment management.
53
4.2.3.1 Information
Table 4.10 shows how information is stored in the respective WRUA.
Table 4.10 Information storage in the respective WRUAs
Head Folders Computers
Tungu 15.4 89.7 2.6
Kagaka 12 87.5 0
Kamatha 0 10 0
Mutonga KK 11.1 100 0
Kiamuga 14.3 100 0
Imema 0 100 0
Kithino 0 11 0
Gaki 0 100 0
Thaimeka 7.7 84.6 7.7
Table 4.10 shows that all the WRUAs used folders for the information storage. Only two
WRUAs (Tungu and Thaimeka) are using a computer for the information storage. The
interpretation of the finding is that most of the WRUAs are in the impact stage in information
technology and this might affect their performance.
54
Table 4.11 shows the correlation co-efficient of form of information storage in relation to performance of WRUAs
Table 4.11 Correlation co-efficient of form of information storage and performance of WRUAs
Correlation co-efficient Coefficient of determination
______________________________________________________________________________
Use of head -0.0776 -0.6
Use of folders 0.3 9
Use of computers 0.16 2.5
Table 4.11 shows that there is weak negative correlation between increased in uses of head as a
tool for information storage with mean performance of the WRUA. The higher the percentage
use of head as a tool for information storage the lower the performance. Uses of both folders and
computers have a positive weak correlation with performance. The use of computers has a very
low correlation with performance since most of the WRUAs had recently bought them at the
time the study was being carried out and hence little impact on performance. It is only in 2.5% of
the cases where an increase computer use resulted in an increase in performance of WRUAs.
55
4.2.3.2 Communication
Table 4.12 shows the percentages of communication channels used by various WRUAs.
Table 4.12 Name of WRUA Vs percentage of various communication channels
Communication channel
Name of WRUA Word of mouth Letters Telephone Email ______________________________________________________________________
Tungu 28.2 61.5 79.5 0
Kagaka 50 11.25 50 0
Kamatha 0 40 60 0
Mutonga KK 37.5 87.5 62.5 12.5
Kiamuga 0 22.2 100 0
Imema 16.7 25 83.3 0
Kithino 9.1 45.5 90.1 0
Gaki 0 42.9 57.1 0
Thaimeka 0 23.1 76.9 0
Table 4.12 shows that only one WRUA (Mutonga K.K) use email as a communication channel.
All the WRUAs used letters and telephone as a means of communication with varying
percentages. The interpretation of table 14 is that the low usage of internet as a channel for
communication might have a negative effect on performance of the WRUAs since most
development partners presently use internet as the preferred means of communication.
56
4.2.3.3 Motivation factors
Table 4.13 shows the percentages of various factors that motivate community to be WRUA
members.
Table 4.13 percentages of various factors that motivate community members to be WRUA
members
What motivates WRUA Legality of the Benefit from the WRUA Volunteerism
Members WRUA
Percentage 0.8 45.4 53.8
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.13 shows that most of the community members were motivated by volunteerism
(53.8%), benefit accrued from the WRUA (45.4%) and legality of the WRUA (0.8%). Most of
the community members therefore voluntarily joined the WRUA.
Table 4.14 shows motivation factors cross tabulated against respective WRUAs.
Table 4.14 Name of the WRUA against motivation factors
WRUA Name WRUA legality WRUA benefit Volunteerism
Tungu 0 30.3 75.8
Kagaka 0 87.5 50
Kamatha 0 25 75
Mutonga KK 11.1 66.7 55.6
Kiamuga 0 25 75
Imema 0 75 66.7
Kithino 0 40 60
Gaki 0 100 0
Thaimeka 0 61.5 53.8
57
Table 4.14 shows that only one WRUA whose members are motivated by its legality to join the
WRUA. The other WRUAs their members were motivated by the benefits of the WRUA and
volunteerism.
Table 4.15 shows the relationship between WRUA performance and benefits accrued from the WRUA
Table 4.15 Relationship between WRUA performance and benefits accrued from the WRUA.
WRUA name Mean Benefit accrued
Performance from WRUA
______________________________________________________________________________
(X) (Y) (X2) (Y2) (XY)
Tungu 3.74 30.3 14 918.1 113.3
Kagaka 4.25 87.5 18.1 7656.3 371.9
Kamatha 3.4 25 11 625 85
Mutonga KK 4.11 66.7 16.9 4448.9 274.1
Kiamuga 4 25 16 625 100
Imema 3.9 75 15.4 5626 294
Kithino 3.9 40 15.3 1600 156.4
Gaki 3.14 100 17.1 10000 414
Thaimeka 4.15 61.5 17.2 3782.25 255.2
______________________________________________________________________________
Totals 35.60 511 141.52 35280.48 2064.0
58
Correlation coefficient (r) = (NΣXY - (ΣX)(ΣY) ) / Sqrt([NΣX2 - (ΣX)2][NΣY2 - (ΣY)2]).
Table 4.15 has the details of the figures used in the formula and the result is a Correlation
coefficient of 0.712 with a coefficient of determination of 51%. This shows there is a strong
positive correlation between mean of WRUA performance and the benefit accrued from the
WRUA. The results mean that in 51% of the cases an increase benefit accrued from the WRUA
results in improved mean performance of the WRUA.
Table 4.16 shows the relationship between WRUA performance and volunteerism. Table 4.16 Relationship between WRUA performance and volunteerism
WRUA name Mean Volunteerism
Performance
(X) (Y) (X2) (Y2) (XY)
Tungu 3.74 75.8 14 5745.6 283.5
Kagaka 4.25 50 18.1 2500 212.5
Kamatha 3.4 75 11. 5 625 255
Mutonga KK 4.11 55.6 16.9 3091.4 228.5
Kiamuga 4 75 16 5625 300
Imema 3.9 66.7 15.4 4448.9 261.5
Kithino 3.9 60 15.3 3600 234.6
Gaki 3.14 0 17.1 0 0
Thaimeka 4.15 53.8 17.2 2894.44 223.3
______________________________________________________________________________
Total 35.60 511.9 141.52 33530.33 1998.8
______________________________________________________________________________
59
Correlation coefficient (r) = (NΣXY - (ΣX) (ΣY) / Sqrt([NΣX2 - (ΣX)2][NΣY2 - (ΣY)2]).
Table 4.16 has the details of the figures used in the formula and the result is a Correlation
coefficient of -0.554 with a coefficient of determination of 30.8%. This shows there is a negative
correlation between mean of WRUA performance and increase in the members of the WRUA
who joined the WRUA voluntarily. The results mean that in 30.8% of the cases an increase in
members of the WRUA who volunteered to join results in a decrease in mean performance of the
WRUA.
4.2.3.4 Collaboration of the WRUAs
Table 4.17 shows how WRUAs collaborate with stakeholders.
Table 4.17 WRUA collaboration with stakeholders
WRUA Name WRMA WSTF MKEPP CDF
______________________________________________________________________________
Tungu 89.5 46.2 87.2 0
Kagaka 75 12.5 100 0
Kamatha 20 0 100 0
Mutonga KK 100 0 100 0
Kiamuga 80 0 90 0
Imema 54.9 0 93.3 0
Kithino 90.1 0 100 0
Gaki 14.3 0 100 0
Thaimeka 46.2 15.4 100 7.7
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.17 shows that only two stakeholders (WRMA and MKEPP) are active in all the
WRUAs. WSTF is active in three WRUAs although it has low impact. CDF is only active in one
WRUA (Thaimeka) out of the nine studied WRUAs. The above table shows that there are very
few collaborators in WRUA activities. This may affect negatively the performance of the
60
WRUAs since they have at initial stages of implementing the activities and they require external
assistance noting that MKEPP which is highly felt in the study area is ending in September 2012.
4.2.3.5 Other coordination and management issues
The respondents rated other aspects of coordination and management as raised in the questionnaire and the results based on the frequency distribution on each item are shown in table 4.18.
Table 4.18 Other Coordination and management results in percentage
No. Question Agree not Dis- highly Cum %
decided agree disagree
1. WRUA holds meeting 97.4 2.6 0 0 100 100
According to –by laws
2. Coordination ensures 97.6 2.6 0 0 100
Collaboration is part of
Joint planning sections.
3. WRUAs need infrastructure 99.1 0.9 0 0 100
development support
4. Currently WRUA needs 98.3 1.7 0 0 100
equipment to function optimally
5. WRUA needs technical support 98.3 1,7 0 0 100
6. Training slots are fairly shared 95.6 2.6 1.7 0 100
7. The WRUA members have 95.6 2.6 1.8 0 100
Mechanism to capture member
concerns
8. Consistent implementation 94.7 3.5 1.8 0 100
Of SCMP
61
Coordination was assessed through:- holding of regular meeting according to by-laws where
97.4% agreed, collaboration where 97.6% agreed, training distributed uniformly where 95.6%
agreed , WRUA members have a mechanism to capture members concerns where 95.6 % agreed
and whether WRUA is implementing SCMP with 94.7 agreeing. The presented results indicated
good coordination and management. All the above points towards good coordination and
management which may be a possible source of good mean performance of the WRUAs which
were rated in the range of 3-5 which was between fairly good and very good.
On the questions on whether the WRUA required any external support to function optimally the
assessment found out that 99.1% agreed on infrastructure development, 98.3% agreed on
equipment support and 98.3 % agreed on technical support. The interpretation of these results is
that the WRUAs are not yet self –sustaining and that collaboration with external development
partners is a factor of WRUA performance.
Table 4.19 shows various collaboration support given to different WRUAs
Table 4.19 WRUAs and various collaboration support given in percentage.
WRUA Name Supervision Monitoring Evaluation Infrastructure Technical support
Development
Tungu 48.7 51.3 2.6 41 56.4
Tagaka 25 62.5 25 0 62.5
Kamatha 0 0 0 0 100
Mutonga KK 11.1 56.6 0 0 88.9
Kiamuga 0 0 0 0 100
Imema 0 63.6 0 0 45.5
Kithino 0 0 0 0 100
Gaki 0 0 0 0 100
Thaimeka 0 0 0 0 92.3
62
Table 4.19 shows that all the WRUAs get technical support, four WRUAs get monitoring support, three WRUAs get supervision support, two WRUAs get evaluation support and one WRUA gets infrastructure development support. This table supports table 4.18 where majority of the respondents agreed that WRUAs required an external support to function optimally.
Table 4.20 shows the cross tabulation between consistent implementation of SCMP and WRUA performance.
Table 4.20 Cross tabulation between consistent implementation of SCMP and WRUA performance
Consistent implementation of WRUA performance
SCMP Very good Good Fairly good Cumulative
______________________________________________________________________________
1 highly agree 0 83.3 16.7 100
Agree 8 75 14 100
Not decided 0 75 25 100
Disagree 0 50 50 100
______________________________________________________________________________
The table 4.20 shows that of those who highly agreed that their WRUA was implementing
SCMP consistently, 83.3% also rated their WRUA as good, of those who agreed that their
WRUA was implementing SCMP consistently 83% rated their WRUA as good, of those not
decided on whether their WRUA is implementing SCMP consistently, 75% rated their WRUA as
good and those who disagreed that their WRUA was implementing their SCMP consistently 50%
agreed their WRUA was performance was good.
Table 4.20 shows that that the higher the respondents agreed that the WRUA was implementing
the SCMP consistently the higher they also agreed that the performance of their WRUA was
good. This shows that there is a positive relationship between consistent implementation of
SCMP and performance of WRUAs.
63
Table 4.21 shows the cross tabulation between WRUA Performance and WRUA holding
meetings according to the by-laws.
Table 4.21 Cross tabulation between WRUA performance and WRUA holding meetings
according to by-laws
WRUA Performance WRUA holding meetings according to by-laws
Highly agree Agree
Very good 33.3 66.7
Good 24.1 74.7
Fairly good 16.1 77.8
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.21 shows that of the respondents who rated their WRUA as very good 33.3% highly
agreed that their WRUA holds meetings according to by-laws, respondents who rated their
WRUA has good 24.1% highly agreed that their WRUA held meetings according to their by-
laws, of the respondents who rated their WRUA fairly good, 16.1% highly agreed that the
WRUA was holding meetings according to their by-laws.
Table 4.21 therefore shows that the higher the rating of performance of the WRUA higher the
respondents highly agreed that the WRUA was holding meetings according to their by-laws. This
shows that there is a high positive relationship between WRUA performance and WRUA
holding meetings according to their by-laws.
64
4.2.4 Accessibility and reliability of resources.
This section accesses the accessibility and reliability factors that influence performance of WRUAs.
4.2.4.1 Sources of funds
Table 4.22 shows financial resources from different stakeholders.
Table 4.22 Financial resources from different stakeholders.
Source Percentage
_____________________________________________________________________________
Members subscription fee 70
Income generating activities 22
Others stakeholders (external sources) 8
Total 100
Table 4.22 shows that most of the funding of the WRUA activities comes from members
subscription fees (70%), followed by income generating activities (22%) and the external sources
of funding accounts for only 8%. This low external funding might affect the performance
WRUAs negatively since most of their WRUA activities require higher heavy funding which is
beyond the reach of WRUA members.
65
Table 4.23 shows the cross tabulation of various WRUAs and sources of finance.
Table 4.23 Cross tabulation of various WRUAs and Their sources of finances
WRUA Name Source of finance
Members subscription fee Income generating activities Others
Tungu 100 56.4 25.6
Kagaka 37.5 87.5 0
Kamatha 100 0 0
Mutonga KK 100 33.3 11.1
Kiamuga 100 11.1 0
Imema 100 0 0
Kithino 100 0 0
Gaki 85.7 0 14.3
Thaimeka 100 0 0
Table 4.23 shows that all of the WRUAs fund their income generating activities from members
subscription, whereas 0nly four WRUAs get funding from income generating activities and only
3 of the WRUAs said they get external funding. This agrees with table 20 which indicated that
only 8% of the funding comes from external sources. Table for 4.22 and 4.23 therefore points to
the fact that the WRUAs get little funding from external sources which might mean that
implementation of WRUA activities might take longer than planned and hence affect the
performance of the WRUA.
66
4.2.4.2 Quantity and types of resources
Table 4.24 shows the assessment of whether WRUAs has adequate resources to meet the expenditure needs.
Table 4.24 WRUAS and their expenditure requirements
Adequate resources to meet WRUA expenditure needs
WRUA Name Yes No
______________________________________________________________________________
Tungu 0 100
Kagaka 0 100
Kamatha 0 100
Mutonga KK 0 100
Kiamuga 10 90
Imema 7.7 92.3
Kithino 0 100
Gaki 0 100
Thaimeka 0 100
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.24 shows that only two WRUAs (Kiamuga and Imema) said that they have adequate resources to meet WRUA expenditure needs; otherwise all other WRUAs require extra funding. This shows that inadequate funding of WRUAs affects their performance.
Table 4.25 shows the various correlation coefficient and coefficient of determination for various types of resources received by the WRUAs and WRUA Performance.
67
Table 4.25 Correlation coefficient and Coefficient of determination for various types of resources received by the WRUA and WRUA performance.
Source of resources Correlation co-efficient Coefficient of determination as %
Materials 0.81 66
Funds 0.7 49
Human resource 0.33 11
Table 4.25 shows that material resource has the highest positive correlation coefficient (0.81)
comparatively with coefficient of determination of 66% followed by funds resource (0.7) with
coefficient of determination of 49% and lastly human resource (0.33) with coefficient of
determination of 11%. The interpretation of this table is that stakeholders prefer to assist
WRUAs in material form and hence the high positive correlation coefficient of material resource
to performance of WRUAs.
4.2.4.3 Consistency of funds and resources.
Table 4.26 shows the cross tabulation of WRUAs and consistency in receipt of resources.
Table 4.26 WRUAs and consistency of resources
Very consistency Average consistency not consistency
Tungu 23.1 71.8 5.1
Kagaka 37.5 50 12.5
Kamatha 0 80 20
Mutonga KK 0 100 0
Kiamuga 0 30 50
Imema 0 61.5 30.8
Kithino 0 27.3 72.7
Gaki 0 85.7 14.3
Thaimeka 0 84.6 15.4
68
Table 4.27 only two WRUA have indicated that they have very consistency flow of funds.
Table 4.27 shows the relationship between WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds
WRUA name Mean Flow of funds
Performance
(X) (Y) (X2) (Y2) (XY)
______________________________________________________________________________
Tungu 3.74 87.5 14 7656.25 327.25
Kagaka 4.25 94.9 18.1 9006.01 403.33
Kamatha 3.4 60 11 3600 204
Mutonga KK 4.11 83 16.9 6889 341.13
Kiamuga 4 64 16 4096 256
Imema 3.9 69.2 15.4 4788.64 271.26
Kithino 3.9 67.3 15.3 4489 261.97
Gaki 3.14 85.7 17.1 7344.49 354.80
Thaimeka 4.15 84.6 17.2 7157.16 351.09
______________________________________________________________________________
Total 35.60 695.9 141.52 55026.55 2770.83
______________________________________________________________________________Correlation coefficient (r) = (NΣXY - (ΣX)(ΣY) ) / Sqrt([NΣX2 - (ΣX)2][NΣY2 - (ΣY)2]).
Table 4.27 has the details of the figures used in the formula and the result is a Correlation
coefficient of 0.65 with coefficient of determination of 42% showing a strong positive
correlation between mean WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds. The results
69
mean that in 42% of the cases, an increase in consistency of flow of funds result in increase
mean performance of the WRUA.
4.2.4.4 Management of resource
4.2.4.4.1 Record keeping
Table 4.28 shows cross tabulation of the WRUA and financial monitoring system used.
Table 4.28 Number of WRUA and financial monitoring system used
Financial monitoring
Systems used No of WRUAs Percentages
______________________________________________________________________________
Receipts 9 100
Cash books 6 67
Ledger books 7 78
Bank statement 7 78
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.28 shows that all the 9 WRUAs representing 100% use receipts,7 WRUAs (78%) use
ledger books, then 7 use bank statement and 6 (67) use cash books. This shows some of the
WRUAs have not yet opened bank accounts which might affect the WRUA performance.
Table 4.29 shows the cross tabulation between WRUAs and other records kept.
Table 4.29 No of WRUAs and other records kept. ______________________________________________________________________________ Other records No of WRUAs Percentages ___________________________________________________________________________ Attendance register 8 89
Minute book 9 100
Asset register 7 78
70
Table 4.29 shows that 100% of the WRUAs use minute book, 89% of the WRUAs use
attendance register and 78% of the WRUAs use asset register. This shows that most of the
WRUAs have the required necessary financial records to manage the WRUA.
The respondents rated other aspects of resource management as raised in the questionnaire and
the results based on the frequency distribution on each item are shown in table 4.31
Table 4.30 shows other aspects of resource management
Question Agree Not Dis- Highly cumulative %
decided agree Disagree
1. WRUA keeps
Records properly 93 6.9 0 0 100
2. Minimal complain 90 6 2.6 1.7 100
From WRUA Members
On management of
Resources
3. WRUA members 99.1 0.9 0 0 100
needs external support e.g. financial
Management and book keeping
Table 4.30 shows that proper record keeping was indicated by 93% of the respondents, 90%
indicated there was minimal complain on WRUA management of the resources. This indicates
that the WRUA members had confidence on the way their financial resources are managed.
Good management of resources is therefore positively related to good performance of the
WRUAs since the WRUAs performance was rated between fairly good and very good. There is
therefore good indication that improvement in resource management leads to improved
performance of WRUAs. However 99.1% said that they still require external support in
management of their financial resource.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS, CONLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter contains summary of findings in three areas namely education and training,
coordination and management and availability and accessibility of resources, discussions,
conclusions and recommendations derived from the resource.
5.2 Summary
Below are the summary of the findings on education and training, coordination and management
and availability and accessibility of resources.
5.2.1 Education and training
This section gives the summary of findings on education and training
5.2.1.1 Education Descriptive statistics revealed that the majority of the WRUA members (80.9%) were in primary
school or secondary school leavers. Only 19.1% had college and university educations.
There is a moderately high positive linear (correlation coefficient of 0.768 and a coefficient of
determination of 0.59) relationship between the percentage of the Executive committee of the
WRUA with education levels of at least secondary education and mean performance of the
WRUA. It is in 60% of the cases where an increase in percentage of number of executive
committee with education levels of at least secondary level resulted in an increase mean
performance of the WRUA. This means that the higher the number of the executive committee
with at least secondary education resulted in an increase in mean performance of the WRUA.
5.2.1.2 Training
Assessment of various types of trainings of offered showed that training by-laws and constitution
formulation had comparatively highest positive correlation coefficient of (0.54) and coefficient
of determination of 24%, followed by proposal writing (0.19) and coefficient of determination of
3.61%, then group dynamics (0.13) and coefficient of determination of 1.69%, then SCMP with
correlation coefficient of (0 .03) and coefficient of determination of 0.09% and lastly WDC with
72
coefficient of determination of (0.01) and coefficient of determination of 0.01%. This means that
different types of trainings have varying impact on performance of the WRUA.
There is a positive correlation between the mean numbers of the WRUA members who attendant
training and WRUA performance with correlation coefficient of 0.69 and the coefficient of
determination of 47.6 %. The higher the mean of people who attend trainings the higher is the
mean performance of the WRUA. The results mean that in 47.6% of the cases an increase in
mean number of WRUA members who attend trainings results in improved mean performance of
the WRUA. This means the higher the number of people who attend trainings in a given WRUA
the higher the performance.
5.2.2 Coordination and management
Descriptive statistics on information flow indicated that 100% of the respondent from seven
WRUAs representing 78% agreed or highly agreed that information flow upwards and
downwards was good.
On information storage it was found out that there is weak negative correlation between
increases in the use of head as a tool for information storage with mean performance of the
WRUA. The higher the percentage use of head as a tool for information storage the lower the
performance. The analysis shows that use of head as a information storage is not reliable and can
easily be lost hence leading to poor performance. Use of both folders and computers has a
positive weak correlation with performance. It is only in 2.5% of the cases where an increase
computer use resulted in an increase in performance of WRUAs.
On communication channels used by the WRUAs it was found out that only one WRUA used
email as a communication channel representing 11% of the WRUAs. All the WRUAs used
letters and telephone as a means of communication with varying percentages. This shows that
WRUA are not up to date with the recent communication technologies.
On motivation it was found that most of the community members were motivated by
volunteerism (53.8%), benefit accrued from the WRUA (45.4%) and legality of the WRUA
(0.8%). Most of the community members therefore voluntarily joined the WRUA.
73
A correlation between WRUA mean performance and volunteerism and benefits accrued from
the WRUA was done and the result revealed that there is a strong positive correlation between
mean of WRUA performance and the benefit accrued from the WRUA with a correlation
coefficient of 0.712 and a coefficient of determination of 51%. The results mean that in 51% of
the cases an increase benefit accrued from the WRUA results in improved mean performance of
the WRUA. On other hand correlation between WRUA performance and volunteerism showed a
negative correlation of -0.554 with a coefficient of determination of 30.8%. This shows there is
a negative correlation between mean of WRUA performance and increase in the members of the
WRUA who joined the WRUA voluntarily. The results mean that in 30.8% of the cases an
increase in members of the WRUA who volunteered to join results in a decrease in mean
performance of the WRUA.
On WRUA collaboration with stakeholders it was discovered that only two stakeholders
(WRMA and MKEPP) are active in all the WRUAs. This implies that there are few stakeholders
in the study area who have shown interest in supporting WRUA activities. WSTF is active in
three WRUAs although it has low impact. CDF is only active in one WRUA out of the nine
studied WRUAs representing 11%of all the WRUAs.
Coordination and management was also assessed through various aspects and descriptive
statistics indicated that:-holding of regular meeting according to by-laws where 97.4% agreed,
collaboration where 97.6% agreed, training distributed uniformly where 95.6% agreed, WRUA
members have a mechanism to capture members concerns where 95.6 % agreed and whether
WRUA is implementing SCMP with 94.7 agreeing. The presented results indicated good
coordination and management. All the above indicators points towards good coordination and
management which may be a possible source of good mean performance of the WRUAs which
were rated between fairly good to very good.
On whether the WRUA required any external support to function optimally the assessment found
out that 99.1% agreed on infrastructure development, 98.3% agreed on equipment support and
98.3 % agreed on technical support. This shows that there is a strong positive relationship
between external support and performance of the WRUA.
74
Descriptive statistics found out that those who highly agreed that their WRUA was implementing
SCMP consistently, 83.3% also rated their WRUA as good, those not decided on their WRUA
implementing SCMP consistently 75% rated their WRUA as good and those who disagreed that
their WRUA was implementing their SCMP consistently 50% agreed their WRUA was
performance was good. This shows that there is a positive relationship between consistent
implementation of SCMP and performance of WRUAs.
Descriptive statistics also revealed that of the respondents who rated their WRUA as very good
33.3% highly agreed that their WRUA was holding meetings according to their by-laws,
respondents who rated their WRUA has good 24.1% highly agreed that their WRUA held
meetings according to their by-laws, respondents who rated their WRUA fairly good 16.1%
highly agreed that the WRUA was holding meetings according to their by-laws. This shows that
the higher the rating of performance of the WRUA higher the respondents highly agreed that the
WRUA was holding meetings according to their by-laws. This shows that there is a high positive
relationship between WRUA performance and WRUA holding meetings according to their by-
laws.
5.2.3 Accessibility and reliability of resources.
Descriptive statistics revealed that most of the funding of the WRUA activities comes from
members subscription fees (70%), followed by income generating activities (22%). External
sources of funding accounts for only 8%. This low external funding of WRUAs might affect the
performance WRUAs negatively since most of their WRUA activities require higher heavy
funding which is beyond the reach of WRUA members presently.
Descriptive statistics also revealed that only two WRUAs (12%) whose members (10% for
Kiamuga and 7.7% for Imema) said that they have adequate resources to meet WRUA
expenditure needs, otherwise all other WRUAs require external funding. This shows that
inadequate funding of WRUAs affects their performance.
When different types of resources which the WRUAs get was correlated it was found out that
material resource has the highest positive correlation coefficient (0.81) comparatively with
coefficient of determination of 66%, followed by funds resource (0.7) with coefficient of
determination of 49% and lastly human resource (0.33) with coefficient of determination of 11%.
75
This can be interpreted to mean that WRUAs get more material support than other types of
support.
The correlation coefficient between mean WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds
by the WRUAs is 0.65 with coefficient of determination of 42% showing a strong positive
correlation between mean WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds. The results
mean that in 42% of the cases, an increase in consistency of flow of funds result in increase
mean performance of the WRUA.
Descriptive statistics revealed that 100% of the WRUA used receipts, 77% of the WRUAs use
ledger books, then 77% use bank statement and 66% use cash flow. This shows some of the
WRUAs have not yet opened bank accounts which might affect the WRUA performance.
Descriptive statistics also revealed that proper record keeping was indicated by 93% of the
respondents,90% indicated there was minimal complain on WRUA management of the
resources. This indicates that the WRUA members had confidence in the management of their
financial resource. Good management of resources is therefore positively related to good
performance of the WRUAs since the WRUAs performance was rated between fairly good and
very good. There is therefore good indication that improvement on resource management leads
to improved performance of WRUAs. However 99.1% said that they still require external
support in financial resource management.
5.3 Discussion
The results of the study have clearly answered the research objectives and research questions
since the effects of education and training, coordination and management, availability and
accessibility to resources on performance of WRUAs in water catchment management have been
quantified by descriptive statistics and the coefficients of determination.
The results on the effect of education on management of community groups especially WRUAs
is contrary to the popular belief that education is not a factor of leadership and once elected any
leader can lead successfully. The study found out that in 60% of the cases where an increase in
percentage of number of executive committee with education levels of at least secondary level
resulted in an increase mean performance of the WRUA. The findings agrees with JICA (2003)
76
studies on sustainable community water projects in 11 Districts in three provinces of Kenya
namely; rift-valley, Central and Eastern which indicated that community based water projects
were not performing as expected due to varies challenges including high illiteracy rate in the
WUA leading to low technology adoption. This is also supported by studies done by UNDP
(2004) on empowerment and poverty reduction in Kathmandu, Nepal which found out there is a
strong positive relationship between knowledge and capacity building. UNDP concluded that
greater investments should be made in establishing greater education systems and opportunities
for continued learning and greater support post –secondary education reforms, continued
learning and domestic knowledge services.
There is a positive correlation between the mean numbers of the WRUA members who attendant
training and WRUA performance. The results indicate that in 47.6% of the cases increase in
mean number of WRUA members who attend trainings results in improved mean performance of
the WRUA. This is supported by Grishvilli (2003) studies on situation analysis of community
based organization in Georgia, USA which found out that inadequate skills and knowledge were
the challenges which affect decision making by project implementing communities. Having
adequate and competent community leaders is an important factor of performance of community
based projects (Mancini, 2003). Adequate trained community leaders are important for effective
performance: Mancini, 2003 quotes Glazer (1981), Marek, Mancini and Brock, 1999. Mancini,
(2003) on studies done on sustaining community based programmes in Virginia, USA indicated
that good performance is related to continuity issues of community leaders in influencing
performance which include education qualification and adequate training.
Assessment of various types of trainings offered to the WRUA showed training on by-laws and
constitution formulation had comparatively highest positive impact on performance followed by
proposal writing, then group dynamics, then SCMP and lastly WDC. This is supported by Water
Act 2002 and WRMA rules (2007). According to WRMA rules (2007) management of WRUAs
is enshrined in their constitution and a more detailed management provisions are contained in by-
laws made subsidiary to the constitution. For a WRUA to be registered as a legal entity it must
be able to formulate a constitution and by-laws which are submitted to Attorney General’s
Chamber for approval. The water Act 2002 recognized the formation of WRUAs as a fora
conflict resolution and co-operative management of water resources in the catchment areas. The
77
WRUAs can only be effective in conflict resolution if is trained on group dynamics which
includes conflict resolution.
On information storage it was found out that there is weak negative correlation between
increased in uses of head as a tool for information storage with mean performance of the WRUA.
On communication channels used by the WRUAs it was found out that only one WRUA used
email as a communication channel representing 11% of the WRUAs. The higher the percentage
use of head as a tool for information storage and low use of technology lowers the performance
of WRUAs. This is supported by studies carried out by Nele (2008) on Bwathonaro WRUA in
Meru North on integrated water resources management – a case study of Bwathonaro Water
Resource Users Association which found out that there is a strong relationship between
knowledge management and sharing and level of resistance to change.
On motivation it was found that most of the community members were motivated by
volunteerism (53.8%), benefit accrued from the WRUA (45.4%) and legality of the WRUA
(0.8%). Most of the community members therefore voluntarily joined the WRUA.
A correlation between WRUA mean performance and volunteerism and benefits accrued from
the WRUA was done and the result revealed that there is a strong positive correlation between
mean of WRUA performance and benefit accrued by the members. The results found out that in
51% of the cases an increase benefit accrued from the WRUA results in improved mean
performance of the WRUA. On other hand correlation between WRUA performance and
volunteerism showed there is a negative correlation between mean of WRUA performance and
increase in the members of the WRUA who joined the WRUA voluntarily. The results mean that
in 30.8% of the cases increase in members of the WRUA who volunteered to join results in a
decrease in mean performance of the WRUA. This is supported Mancini (2003) studies on
sustaining community based programmes for families program development in Virginia, USA
which found out that an organization ability to adapt to community needs/members needs
strongly influence its ability to continuously provide services that make a difference in quality of
life. On the other hand studies carried out by Belgium administration cooperation (1999) on
assessment of Water Users Associations in Kajiando, Kenya found that WUAs managed projects
78
was between poor and pathetic because they were electing their leaders on voluntary basis. The
study found out that the elected volunteers had no skills or expertise to handle financial issues.
On WRUA collaboration with stakeholders it was discovered that only two stakeholders
(WRMA and MKEPP) are active in all the WRUAs. WSTF is active in three WRUAs although it
has low impact. CDF is only active in one WRUA out of the nine studied WRUAs representing
11%of all the WRUAs. This shows that there is low collaboration of the WRUAs with
stakeholder hence influencing negatively on the performance of WRUA. This is supported by
projects done by Nele (2008) on integrated water resource management – a case study of the
Bwathanaro Water Resource Users Association in Meru North which found out that although
indicators reflect a positive impact of its work, WRUAs faced several operational challenges
including enabling environment that facilitates not only establishment but also the
operationalization of the WRUA in terms of external support. These operational challenges
influence the performance of the WRUA. On whether the WRUA required any external support
to function optimally the assessment found out that 99.1% agreed on infrastructure development,
98.3% agreed on equipment support and 98.3 % agreed on technical support. This shows that
there is a strong positive relationship between external support and performance of the WRUA.
Mwangi (2007) on studies carried out on community organization and action with special
reference to Kenya, found out that having contact with other institutions, projects and groups
with strategic importance to the project can result healthy exchange of approaches and resources.
This is supported by studies carried out by Nyoroka (2009) on community projects in Meru
which found out that community based projects required a lot external support to sustain
themselves.
Descriptive statistics revealed that most of the funding of the WRUA activities comes from
members subscription fees (70%), followed by income generating activities (22%).External
sources of funding accounts for only 8%. This low external funding might affect the performance
WRUAs negatively since most of their WRUA activities requires higher heavy funding which is
beyond the reach of WRUA members presently.
Descriptive statistics also revealed that only two WRUAs (12%) whose members (10% for
Kiamuga and 7.7% for Imema) said that they have adequate resources to meet WRUA
79
expenditure needs, otherwise all other WRUAs require extra funding. This shows that inadequate
funding of WRUAs affects their performance.
The correlation coefficient between mean WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds
by the WRUAs is 0.65 with coefficient of determination of 42% showing a strong positive
correlation between mean WRUA performance and consistency in flow of funds. The results
mean that in 42% of the cases an increase in consistency of flow of funds result in increase mean
performance of the WRUA.
The above findings are supported by many researchers; Mancini, (2003) studies on sustaining
community based programmes for families program development implication from longitudinal
research, Virginia States University found out that adequate funding is a factor of performance.
Mulwa (2008) studies on quality impacts assessment of community projects found out that
different sources of funding will influence directly or indirectly, the implementation of
community based projects due to the conditions that go with them as well as the volume each
strategy is likely to earn.
Descriptive statistics also revealed that proper record keeping was indicated by 93% of the
respondents,90% indicated there was minimal complain on WRUA management of the
resources. This indicates that the WRUA members had confidence in the management of their
financial resource. Good management of resources is therefore positively related to good
performance of the WRUAs since the WRUAs performance was rated between fairly good and
very good. There is therefore good indication that improvement on resource management leads
to improved performance of WRUAs. This is supported by study by UNDP (2004) on
empowerment and poverty reduction, Kathmandu, Nepal which states that accountability
measures facilitate better performance and efficiency. Lack of accountability measures in
organization allows for the proliferation of corruption which lowers performance of the
organizations.
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5.4 Conclusions
From the analysis on education and training, coordination and management and accessibility and
availability the study found out that an increase in percentage of number of executive committee
with education levels of at least secondary level resulted in an increase in performance of the
WRUA. In practice education is rarely considered when electing officials of WRUAs. Once
WRUA officials are elected they undergo a lot of training in order for them to carry-out the
mandate of the WRUA. The trainings are carried out in English and Kiswahili languages. The
implications of electing officials who have never gone to school or of primary level education is
that they might not fully understand the trainings which they will undertake hence the
performance of that specific WRUA where that official comes from will reduced.
There is a high positive relationship between number of WRUA members training and WRUA
performance. In practice when WRUA trainings are being conducted only WRUA executive
committee members are trained leaving out the other WRUA members. This implies that for
WRUA to function properly, the trainers should try to cover all the WRUA members in their
trainings since the leadership of the WRUA is based on election and any member of the WRUA
can be elected a leader. It also implies that for the WRUA activities to be owned and accepted by
all the WRUA members a lot of awareness creation and training is necessary to all the WRUA
members.
The analysis found out that various types of trainings conducted have varying influence on
performance. Training on constitution and by-laws formulation and group dynamics led in the
trainings which have the highest positive impact on WRUA performance. This implies that the
constitution and by-law formulation is the cornerstone of WRUAs. Any WRUA which is not
well trained on constitutional making implies that it will form a very weak constitution. Since
constitution is a management and governance tool that WRUA with weak constitution will not
perform has expected.
There is a strong positive correlation between the benefits the WRUAs get and performance of
the WRUA. This implies that adaptability of the WRUA on members needs is an important
element of performance.
81
The analysis also found out those WRUAs that have high number of volunteers working for the
WRUA have lower performance. The relationship between volunteerism and performance is
therefore negative. This implies that the since volunteerism is affecting the performance of
WRUAs negatively then all stakeholders in water management should look the issue and design
alternatives.
Analysis also found that there are few collaborators in WRUA activities in the study area. This is
influencing the performance of the WRUA negatively since the WRUAs have not developed
internal mechanisms to sustain themselves presently. This implies that if the WRUAs are left on
their own in the current state they will not sustain themselves and might collapse in the long run.
This therefore means that the WRUAs require diversified consistent external support to improve
their performance until they reach sustainability stage. The support should be in terms of
technical, infrastructure, equipment and human resources.
5.5 Recommendations
In practice WRUA members rarely consider education as criteria for electing WRUA officials. A
new criteria of getting effective WRUA officials who apart from attaining at least secondary
education are willing to acquire knowledge and skills and willingness to serve the community
well.
It is important to carry out training needs assessment before carrying out any training on WRUA
members. Since various types of training have varying influence over performance it is always
important to rank trainings in order of influence and concentrate more on those trainings that
have the highest performance impact.
When assisting the WRUAs to develop the Sub Catchment Management Plan it is important to
carry out PRA or RRA in order to capture community needs and benefits in the Sub Catchment
Management Plan.
There is need for the WRUAs to be capacity built not only in training but on skills on networking
and information and knowledge management.WRUAs should be supported in technical support,
infrastructure , equipment and human in order to assist the WRUAs to become self sustaining.
82
5.6 Suggestions for further research
Most of the WRUAs in the study area were assisted to be formed and capacity built by MKEPP
project. After MKEPP project ends in September 2012 the WRUAs will be managed by
executive committee who are elected members of the community on voluntarily basis. A study to
establish on how executive committee members can be more effective would assist improving
the performance of the WRUA.
A study to establish how best WRUAs can reward or motivate volunteers or how best to address
human resource is necessary. Other options of motivating project volunteers need to be explored
especially for them to be able to devote more time and better commitment to project work for
enhanced output/deliverables.
A research to establish reasons as to why increase in volunteerism in the WRUA management
decreases WRUA performance must be established to assist in the improvement of WRUA
performance.
Other capacity building factors that were not considered in this study can also be researched on
to understand more deeply on issues of capacity building and how it relates to the performance of
the WRUA.
83
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Introduction letter.
Francis Koome Simon
P.O. Box 996 -60100
EMBU
17th April 2012
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: REQUEST FOR PARTICIPATION IN A RESEARCH STUDY
I am a final year Masters of art student at the University of Nairobi. My area of specialization is
Project Planning and Management. I am currently undertaking a research on “INFLUENCE OF
CAPACITY BUILDING ON PERFORMANCE OF WRUAS IN THARAKA-NITHI
COUNTY”.
I will be grateful if you could spare sometime from your busy schedule and complete the
enclosed questionnaire. All the information provided will be used purely for academic purposes
only and your identity will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Yours faithfully,
FRANCIS KOOME SIMON
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Appendix II: Questionnaire for the WRUA committee
Instructions please tick in the appropriate bracket or provided spaces
Date……………………………………
NAME OF WRUA…………………..
SECTION A GENERAL DATA
1) Gender
Male ( )
Female ( )
2) What is your age in years
26 – 35 ( ) 36-35 ( )
46-55 ( ) 56 and above ( )
3) Education background
Primary ( ) Secondary ( ) College ( )
University ( ) Post graduate ( )
4) Are you a member of a WRUA? Yes ( ) No ( )
5) If yes, how did you become a member?
a member of a WUA ( )
a riparian member ( )
a representative of an industry ( )
a representative of an institution ( )
an ex-official member ( )
Other (specify) ( )
6) Is there any other condition you must fulfill in order to become a member of WRUA
Yes ( ) No. ( )
7) If yes, is there subscription fees required to be paid by a member?
Yes ( ) No ( )
90
8) If yes, what are they?
Membership fee ( )
Monthly subscription fee ( )
Yearly subscription fee ( )
Other contribution (Describe) ( )
9) Does your WRUA have a constitution?
Yes ( ) No ( )
10) Does your WRUA have By-laws?
Yes ( ) no ( )
11) If yes, how effective are your the by-laws
very effective ( )
Effective ( )
Moderately effective ( )
Little extent ( )
Not at all ( )
12) Are you a member of the executive committee? Yes ( ) No ( )
13) If yes, how were you chosen
Election ( )
Selection ( )
Appointment ( )
Other (Specify) ( )
14) How long have you been a member of the WRUA committee
1-3yrs ( )
4-6 yrs ( )
6-8 yrs ( )
Above 8 years ( )
15. Does your WRUA have a sub-catchment management plan?
Yes ( )
No ( )
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16. If yes is the WRUA implementing the sub-catchment management plan consistently?
I highly agree
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
17) What benefits have you received from being a WRUA member
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
18) How can you gauge the performance of your WRUA?
Very good ( )
Good ( )
Fairly good ( )
Poor ( )
Very poor ( )
SECTION C: TRAINING
19) How many trainings have you attended since you became a member of this WRUA?
1-3 ( )
3-5 ( )
5-8 ( )
Above 11 ( )
20) Have you attended any training more than once yes ( ) no ( )
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21) If yes, how often since you became a committee member?
Twice ( )
Thrice ( )
Four times ( )
Five times ( )
More than five times ( )
22) What is the average number of trainees who attend those trainings? ( )
23) List the training attended?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
24) Rate the importance of training attended and their applicability in the management of the
WRUA
Very important ( )
Important ( )
Little importance ( )
No importance ( )
25. Training slots are shared fairly amongst WRUA Members
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
93
D: COORDINATION AND MANAGEMENT
26 )How does the WRUA official’s communicate with your members and other
stakeholders?
Word of mouth ( )
Letters ( )
Telephone ( )
E-mail ( )
Other (specify) ( )
27) How do you store WRUA information?
Head ( )
Folders ( )
Computers ( )
Other specify ( )
28) Do you have a physical office? yes ( ) no ( )
29) If yes, what else is in that office?
Chairs ( )
Desks ( )
Stationery ( )
Computers and accessories ( )
Other (specify) ( )
30) The flow of information downwards and the upwards is good.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
31) Are you a paid employee of WRUA? Yes ( ) No ( )
94
32) If yes, how are you paid?
Allowances ( )
Monthly payment ( )
Daily payment ( )
Others (specify) ( )
33) If no, what motivates you to work for the WRUA?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
34) WRUA holds meeting according to your by-laws.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
35) Do you have any collaborators in management of your River basin?
Yes ( ) No ( )
36) If yes, what kind of collaboration is there?
Supervision ( )
Monitoring ( )
Evaluation ( )
Infrastructure ( )
Development ( )
Technical support ( )
37. Coordination ensures collaboration is part of joint planning sections. I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
95
38) .We need infrastructure development support in our WRUA to develop our water catchment.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
39).Currently WRUA needs equipments to function optimally
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
40).WRUA needs technical support especially carrying out studies in our water catchment.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
41) We need infrastructure development support in our WRUA to develop our water catchment.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
96
42) Currently WRUA needs equipments to function optimally
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
43) WRUA needs technical support especially carrying out studies in our water catchment.
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
44) How do you gauge your collaboration with the following stakeholders
Very
collaborative
collaborative Fairly
collaborative
Not
collaborative
WRMA
WSTF
MKEPP
CDF
Other (specify)
45) Has there been any change in water related conflicts since the WRUA was formed?
Yes ( ) No ( )
46) If yes, how is the change?
Reduced ( )
Increased ( )
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E: RESOURCES
47) What are the sources of resources to finance WRUA operations?
Member’s subscription fee ( )
Income generating activities ( )
WSTF ( )
Others (specify) ( )
48) What kind of resources do you get?
Material ( )
Funds ( )
Human resource ( )
49) How is the consistency of resources received?
Very consistency ( )
Average consistency ( )
Not consistent ( )
50) What financial systems do use to monitor your expenditure?
None ( )
Ledger books ( )
Cash flow ( )
Receipts ( )
Bank statements ( )
Financial software ( )
Others (specify) ( )
51) What other records do you keep?
Attendance register ( )
Minutes book ( )
Asset register ( )
Others (specify) ( )
98
52) According to your assessment are these record kept properly?
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
53) The WRUA members have mechanism to capture members concerns/problems /suggestions for its use?
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
54) There has been minimal complain from WRUA Members on management of resources I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
55) WRUA members needs external support in technical areas like financial management and book keeping
I highly agree ( )
Agree ( )
Not decided ( )
Disagree ( )
Highly disagree ( )
56) Are the resources received enough to meet your WRUAs expenditure?
Yes ( ) No ( )
57) If No, what do you think can be done to improve your resources base?
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Appendix III: Questionnaire for WRUA stakeholders to guide in the interviews
1) How does your institution collaborate with WRUAs in your area of jurisdiction?
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2) According to your opinion what can be done to improve your institution collaboration with
WRUAs?
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3) What improvements do you think can be done to improve the performance of WRUAs?
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4) From your experience are WRUAs relevant in the management of water resources in the
river basin?
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Appendix IV: Questionnaire to WRMA staff
1) How long have you worked for WRMA?
1-5 Years ( )
5-10 years ( )
Over 10 years ( )
2) Education background?
Primary ( )
Secondary ( )
College ( )
University degree ( )
Post graduate ( )
3) Do you work directly with WRUAs?
Yes ( ) No ( )
4) If yes, how often do you meet then?
Once in a week ( )
Once in a month ( )
Quarterly ( )
Yearly ( )
Other (specify) ( )
5) How many WRUAs are you assigned to?
1-5 ( )
5-10 ( )
10-15 ( )
Above 15 ( )
6) What is your assignment to the WRUA?
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7) Since you were assigned to work with WRUAs, have you attended any training?
Yes ( ) No ( )
8) If yes, which trainings?
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9) Gauge your effectiveness in working with WRUAs.
Very effective ( )
Effective ( )
Fairly effective ( )
Not effective ( )
10) What can be done to improve your work?
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AppendixV: Map of project area (Yellow, orange and purple colour shows WRUAs along Tungu, Mutonga / Kithino and Kathita River Basin).
(Source: MKEPP-NRM)