PROGRESSIVE ABOLITION of CHILD LABOUR _ Laasya Priya Ponnada __ Legal India _ Law Information Portal of India

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PROGRESSIVE ABOLITION OF CHILD

LABOUR

“What I am today is because of education and I want every Indian child to be so touched by the light of

education”

-Prime Minister Dr.Manmohan Singh.

Children are the future custodians of all the present philosophies including sovereignty, rule of law, justice,

liberty, fraternity and international peace and security. The human rights jurisprudence categorically recognized the

rights of the child. The Declaration of Geneva in 1924 gave a clarion call that “ Mankind owes to the child the

best it has to give”. The Universal Declaration of Human rights rightly obliges family, as a fundamental unit of

society, to focus on children so as to afford them necessary pre-conditions to growth. Article 24 of the UN

declaration Provides: “ Every Child shall have the right to such measures of protection as are required by his

status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State”. It is now universally recognized that for a

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comprehensive development of its personality, the child should grow in a family environment and in an atmosphere

conducive to care, affection and understanding.

The Industrial revolution, which led to urbanization, has been responsible for changes in family structure.

The concept of child labour is also directly attributable to the developments in the industrial production process

following the industrial revolution. Labour and human dignity can be considered as purchasable at cheapest

possible price. Poverty of parents led to children offering themselves for work in highly exploitative conditions.These children of lesser god witness the forfeiture of their childhood without fully knowing themselves the trauma

of work life and its impact on their mental and moral development.

Reasons for Development of Child Labour:

Chronic Poverty is the most important factor for the prevalence and perpetuation of child labour. Nearly

half of the India’s total population subsists below the poverty line. India stands 2nd position in the employment of

child labour while Africa stands in the first position. In this situation, the child, since its very appearance in theworld, is endowed with an economic mission. Economic compulsions weigh so heavily on poor parents that they do

not mind colluding with the child’s employer in violating the laws and placing the child under risks of inhuman

employment situation. Poverty and child labour always beget each other and tend to reinforce each other. Other

reasons are disenchantment with and a lack of faith in the educational system as schooling does not guarantee a

job. There is also a deeply ingrained Indian tradition that a girl child is to work in the house with the mother and the

boy is to learn the father’s trade. Though in the organized and the unorganized sectors there is no dearth of adult

labour, employees prefer hiring children as they are more amenable to discipline, too young to organize themselves

and fight for their rights, can be paid less and bullied to obedience. The lack of concern within the community

indifference among the middle class adults to their social surroundings and the existence of exploitative elements

result in the erosion of the natural rights of the poor children. The fact that the children cannot speak for

themselves makes them easy targets for exploitative working conditions and wages.

Still another reason for the ever increasing child labour is said to be, the accelerated pace of mechanization

of agriculture which pushes the surplus farm labour to the cities in search of livelihood. A survey conducted by the

commission of child labour in Kolkata revealed that socio-economic conditions of the families compelled children to

come in search of employment.

Analyzing the reasons which prompt the children to work, it was shown by experts that as many as 47.5

percent of child workers did so, not so much because of poverty but because of the fathers force them to leave

school and join work while they themselves either sit idle, or want the extra money to satisfy their various

addictions. In some cases, it is reported that the children themselves compare the advantages of continuing

education with joining the labour force and decide in favour of the latter because of the dignity, freedom and

responsibility which they get as a contributing member of the family. On the other hand, some children admitted





that they pushed into this, and left to themselves they would like to pursue their education. The increasing number

of child labourers also indicates the failure of family planning, especially in the poverty belts.

In a case of employment of children below 14 years of age in carpet industries in the State of Uttar Pradesh

Supreme Court held that state is under obligation to provide socio-economic justice to the children and render

facilities and opportunities for development of their personalities. In Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of India,

1997 Lab IC, 2107 the Supreme Court held that basic cause of child labour is poverty instead of total abolition shallhave adverse affect and should be banned progressively in a planned manner.

In Hindustan Times dated 1st August, 1984: Statement made by the Minister of State for labour in the

Rajya Sabha, on 30th July, 1984 is published it was stated that there is a concentration of child labour in certain

industries such as match works in Tamil Nadu, Carpet industry in Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, State

quarries in Madhya Pradesh , diamond cutting in Gujarat, glass and bangle in Uttar Pradesh, tea Plantation in West

Bengal and brassware in Uttar Pradesh.

Samithu Kothari made a study into facet of child labour, the working conditions of children engaged in the

match works at Sivakasi in Tamilnadu. He rightly captioned the work: “There is blood on those match sticks”.

Blood stains are there, not only on the match-sticks but also on other materials, the carpets in your drawing room,

the slabs of slates used in your house, the diamonds adding glow and glory to a well cared figure, the glass and

bangles than given glitters to the dress and the body, the brass-ware in your house, and even in the tea you sip”.

VARIOUS ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY CHILD LABOUR:

Child Labour in the Agricultural Sector: According to a recent ILO report about 80% child labourers in India

are employed in the agriculture sector. The children are generally sold to the rich moneylenders to whom borrowed

money cannot be returned.

Street Children : Children on the streets work as beggars, they sell flowers and other items, instead of being sent

to school. They go hungry for days to gather. In fact, they are starved so that people feel sorry for them and give

them alms.

Bonded Child Labour : This is also known as slave labour and is one of the worst types of labour for children

and adults, alike. In fact, in 1976 the Indian Parliament enacted the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act; herein

declaring bonded illegal. However, the fact remains is that this system of working still continues. According to

certain experts approximately 10 million bonded children labourers are working as domestic servants in India.

Beyond this there are almost 55 million bonded child labourers hired across various other industries.

Children Employed At Glass Factories : According to recent estimates almost 60,000 children are employed in

the glass and bangle industry and are made to work under extreme conditions of excessive heat.





Child Labour in Matchbox Factories : Of the 2,00,000 labour force in the matchbox industry, experts claim tha

35% are children below the age of 14. They are made to work over twelve hours a day, beginning work at around 4

am, everyday.

Carpet Industry Child Labour : According to a recent report by the ILO almost 4,20,000 children are employed

in the carpet industry of India.

The Other Industries : According to researchers there are about 50,000 children employed in the brass industry

of India and around the same amount in the lock industry.

The children of poor parents are more an economic asset than a liability. When child labour recruiting

agents go about in the flood or drought hit areas offering loans, it is not uncommon that poor parents surrender their

children to them, by availing of the loan facilities to ensure the survival of the family. The failure to implement

strictly child labour prohibition laws is the non-universalisation of compulsory primary education but with the

implementation the Right to Education Act, 2009 this drawback of the proper non implementation of child labour

laws shall hope to be overcome in India.

While Child labour is the product of poverty and unemployment, it further contributes to underdevelopment

and unemployment. It contributes to unemployment, because the existence of child labour, results in the increase o

adult unemployment; and to under development, because a child labourer by the time he becomes as adult, is fully

burnt out. The encouragement of child labourers to work and contribute towards the family income, prompts

parents to have more children. Thus child labour defeats the goal of family planning. Child labour also hinders the

prospect of implementing the policy of compulsory primary education which is now made important by the

implementation of the Right to Education Act, 2009 .

Position in Developed Countries and in India:-

In the developed countries in the west, child labour could be checked through effective enforcement of

‘Prohibition of Child labour’ laws, and compulsory primary education. In most developing countries, however,

millions of children still work in factories, workshops, agriculture, mines, quarries and service enterprises. It is

estimated that child labour makes up “more than 10% of labour force in some countries of middle east and from 2

to 10% in much of Latin America and some parts of Asia. The world considers the issue of child labour to be a

rather serious one in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there are a set of experts in Africa who do not consider it to

be serious and prefer to sweep it under their carpet in order to look into more ‘serious’ issues. There are still others

who prefer to wear a blindfold and believe that child labour issues are far more serious in other nations, whereas it

is as good as non-existent in their own nation. However, ILO statistics provide a more serious picture. It states that

over 40% of the children of Africa are working. They are mainly working as slaves in private households, apart

from other industries. So the African people do not believe it as a serious issue. While the picture, as we see is





grim, yet nothing can really be done as there is no consistent or factual empirical evidence where child labour in

Africa is concerned.

The problem of child labour in India is very acute. The National Sample survey in 1983 estimated that there

were 17.8 million child workers in India in the age group of 5 to 15 years. Operation research Group placed the

figure at 44 million in 1983. It has been estimated by the Planning commission that by the year 2000, India has 20

million child workers (UNICEF 1994). Recent Survey on Child Labour shows that 10% of the total population in

India is child labour and from all the States in India, Andhra Pradesh occupies 1st position with constituting 16% of

total child labour is in it. Mostly working children were belonging to the families of extremely poor. They work in

highly exploitative and stressful conditions including bonding situations.

China accounts for the third largest number where child labour is concerned. In fact, many think it to be a

phenomenon that has just begun to surface. However, the fact is that child labour in China has been there for

years. This is so despite that there have been strict official regulations that ban employment of minors. And

according to the laws of China, a minor is an individual below the age of sixteen-years. Due to poverty, teenagers

and younger children have been migrating to the southern and coastal regions of China. This is because these

regions have been developing and provide a lot of opportunities to earn.

Definition of Child Labour:-

The actual number of child labour vary according to different concepts and definition as to what exactly child

labour means. The National Sample Survey defined “Child Worker as a Person below the age of 14 years, who is

wage earner”. The concern for working children, a Bangalore based Organization, described a child Labourer as a

person who has not completed fifteen years of age and is working with or without wage on a part time or full time

basis. It estimated that a number of working children in India is close to 100 million. Most of the work done by

children whether with or without wage does contribute to the economic activity of the household to them.

Often school going children also will be working as part time workers in some factories. This also may not

be taken into account by the census. Even child labour is banned in certain industries by enacting specific legal

provisions for the abolition of child labour the employers may not reveal to the census enumerators, facts and

figures regarding the number of child workers. Most often parents also collude with the employer lest the child

loses the job. Domestic work such as cleaning, cooking, which is unpaid and is considered unproductive, other

domestic works such as grazing cattle sowing, weeding, threshing or assisting the parents in house hold crafts, etc

may not be taken into account by the census enumerators. Other facts such as pledging the labour of the children

against a loan, working in road side cafes, automobile workshops, construction sites, etc., also may not come under

the purview o f the census. It may also ignore self-employed children who are working in the areas of shoe-

shining, rag–packing, newspaper selling, peanut or fruit vending. However the estimated data shows that 10% of

the total population of India is child labour. Many steps are being taken by the Indian Government from the pre-





Independence period for the eradication of this drastic problem but still now the problem remains unsolved and the

number of child labour were growing day-by-day due to poverty.

Legal Steps for the Prevention of Child Labour:-

To discuss about the child labour prevention laws in a vide way one must go through those laws by dividing

the laws from its origin in pre-independence or post-independence periods. Most of the pre-independence laws

prescribed punishment for the child labour to the parents of the child and also employer but the post- independence

laws exempted the parents from punishment.

A.Pre-Independence Laws:-

The origin of statutory protection of child labour in India can be traced back to the Indian Factories Act,

1881. This law is mainly regulated working hours, rest intervals, minimum wages and nature of work of child

labour but it does not prevented the employment of children.

Later on the Children Act, 1933 was enacted to prohibit the pledging of labour of children below 14 years

by parents. It prescribes Punishment for parents and employer of the child labour. It imposes minimum fine of Rs.

200 to the employer for employing child labour and also Rs.50 for the parents who pledged their children for the

labour.

In the Year 1938 the Employment of Children Act was enacted to prohibit the employment of children

below the age of 14 years in specified hazardous occupations. This Act specifically prohibits the employment of

children below 14 years of age in the railway and other means of transport.

B. Constitutional Provisions:-

Article 15(3) of the Indian constitution enables the state to make special provisions for women and children.

It contains an exception to prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, etc as contained in

Article 15(1). Article 23 prohibits traffic in human beings and other forms of forced labour. It is provided in Article

24 that “no child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or

engaged in any other hazardous employment”.

Apart from the fundamental rights related to children, certain directive principles in the constitution direct the

state policy and action in relation to child rights, including employment and education of children. Article 39 directs

the state to so direct its policy “ that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and tender age of

children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter vocations unsuited to their

age or strength” and “ that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in

conditions of freedom and dignity and that children and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral

and material abandonment”.





In pursuance to the duty laid down in the above case some of the laws were enacted prohibiting the

employment of children below 14 years of age. However this Article does not prohibit the employment of children

in any innocent or harmless job or work.

The framers of the Constitution realizing the importance of the children and their education have imposed a

duty on the State under Article 45 as one of the directive principles of the State Policy to provide free and

compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years within the 10 years from thecommencement of the Constitution. The object was to abolish the illiteracy and child labour from the country. It

was expected that the elected government of the country would honestly implement this directive. The framers

perhaps were of the view that in view of the financial condition of a new state it included it in Chapter IV as one of

the directive principles of State Policy. But the politicians of our country belied the hope of the framers of the

constitution. It is unfortunate that it has taken 52 years from the commencement of the Constitution to initiate some

measures by amending the Constitution to start with although 40% of the population is still illiterate and 10% of the

total population is working as child labour.

In the meantime, the Supreme Court in Unnikrishnan case declared that the right to education for the

children of the age 6 to 14 years is a fundamental right. Even after this, there was no improvement. A demand

was being raised from all corners to make education a fundamental right. Consequently, the government enacted

Constitution (86th Amendment) Act 2002 which would make education a fundamental right. The Constitution (86th

Amendment) Act has added a new Article 21A after Article 21 and has made education for all children of the age

of 6 to 14 years a fundamental right. It provides that “the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all

children of the age of 6 to 14 years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine”.

C. Pos t-Constitutional Laws:-

After attaining the Independence India enacted the Factories Act in the year 1948, under section 19 of this

Act Children below the age of 14 years are prohibited from employment in the factories and the employers who are

employed such children are liable to be punished with imprisonment or fine or with both.

Later on Some of the provisions in the enacted laws like the Plantation Labour Act, 1951; the Mines Act

and the Indian Factories Act, 1952; the Motor Transport Act and the Apprentice Act,1961; the MinimumWages Act, 1948; the Atomic Energy Act; The Shops and Establishment Act; The Beedies and Cigar

Workers (Condition and Employment) Act, 1966 prohibits the employment of children below a certain age.

In 1986 the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 (CLA) was enacted with a view to

rationalizing earlier legislation on child labour, progressive elimination of child labour in hazardous employments, and

regulating conditions of child labour in non-hazardous industries.

In nutshell, the Child Labour Act bans the employment of children below 14 years of age only in certain







employed in this work.

A Child is a national asset; it is the duty of the State to look after the child with a view to ensuring full

development of his personality. Emphasizing the significance of the dignity of youth, and childhood in a civilized

society, Bhagawati, C.J. observed in Sheela Barse and others vs Union of India and others (1986) 3 SCJ 423

that some years ago our country came out with a National Policy for the welfare of Children which contained the

following perambulatory declaration: “The Nation’s children a supremely important asset. Their nurture and

solicitude are our responsibility. Children’s programme should find a prominent part in our national plans for the

development of human resources, so that our children grow up to become robust citizens, physically fit, mentally

alert and morally healthy, endowed with the skill and motivations needed by society. Equal opportunities for

development to all children during the period of growth should be our aim, for this would serve our large purpose of

reducing inequality and ensuring social justice”.

Main features of the Supreme Court in their Judgment dated 10.12.96

On 10th December 1996 in Writ Petition (Civil) No.465/1986 the Supreme Court of India, gave certain directions on

the issue of elimination of child labour. The main features of judgment are as under:

- Survey for identification of working children;

- Withdrawal of children working in hazardous industry and ensuring their education in appropriate institutions;

- Contribution @ Rs.20,000/- per child to be paid by the offending employers of children to a welfare fund to

be established for this purpose;

- Employment to one adult member of the family of the child so withdrawn from work and it that is not possible

a contribution of Rs.5,000/- to the welfare fund to be made by the State Government;

- Financial assistance to the families of the children so withdrawn to be paid -out of the interest earnings on the

corpus of Rs.20,000/25,000 deposited in the welfare fund as long as the child is actually sent to the schools;

- Regulating hours of work for children working in non-hazardous occupations so that their working hours do no

exceed six hours per day and education for at least two hours is ensured. The entire expenditure on education is to be borne by the concerned employer.

- The implementation of the direction of the Honourable Supreme Court is being monitored by the Ministry

of Labour and compliance of the directions have been reported in the form of Affidavits on 05.12.97, 21.12.1999,

04.12.2000, 04.07.2001 and 04-12-2003 to the Honourable Court on the basis of the information received from the

State/UT Governments.





The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act:

After the enactment of the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act 2002 the State Provided protection to the

Children from the age 6 to 14 years from the child labour by providing compulsory education but it has taken

another 8 years for the passage of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to

Education Act (RTE), which was passes by the Indian Parliament on 4th August 2009, describes the modalities of

the provision of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 years in India under Article 21-A of

the Indian Constitution. With the enactment of this legislation India became one of 135 countries to make education

a fundamental right of every child when the Act came into force on 1st April 2010.

The first time in the history of India a law was brought into force by a speech by the Prime Minister. In his

speech, Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India stated that, “We are committed to ensuring that all children, irrespective of gender and social category, have access to education. An education that enables

them to acquire the sk ills, knowledge, values and attitudes necessary to become responsible and active

citizens of India”.

The RTE Act if implemented properly will be much effective than any other previous laws which were

enacted specifically to prohibit the child labour. It its common sense the Right to Education Act main objective is to

provide the free and compulsory education to all the children in India between the aged of 6 and 14 years but it

indirectly imposes a duty on the State by the term COMPULSORY that all the children between the age of 6 to 14years must be surely educated. So it in an indirect way throw light on the eradication of the child labour by making

education compulsory to all the children between the ages of 6 to 14 years.

COMPULSORY EDUCATION:-

The Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 and the Right to Education Act, 2009 specifically provides

that it is the mandatory and primary duty of the State to provide free and compulsory education to the children

below the age of 6 to 14 years. It is indirectly restricts the children from doing any other activity when they were in

the age between 6 to 14 years. Also it provides for free education where it makes the education to be available to

the poor people. Mostly the child labour were belong the children of the poor people. Due to their economically

backward condition parents were unable to feed the children and the work of the child will also become useful to

make their both ends meet in a difficult way.

The Act clarifies that “Compulsory Education” means obligation of the appropriate government to provide

free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to









The coverage of the NCLP Scheme has increased from 12 districts in 1988 to 100 districts in the 9th Plan to 250

districts during the 10th Plan.

Strategy for the elimination of child labour under the 10 th Plan:

An evaluation of the Scheme was carried out by independent agencies in coordination with V. V. Giri

National Labour Institute in 2001. Based on the recommendations of the evaluation and experience of implementing

the scheme since 1988, the strategy for implementing the scheme during the 10th Plan was devised. It aimed at

greater convergence with the other developmental schemes and bringing qualitative changes in the Scheme. Some

of the salient points of the 10th Plan Strategy are as follows:

Focused and reinforced action to eliminate child labour in the hazardous occupations by the end of the Plan

period.

Expansion of National Child Labour Projects to additional 150 districts.

Linking the child labour elimination efforts with the Scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan of Ministry of Human

Resource Development to ensure that children in the age group of 5-8 years get directly admitted to regular

schools and that the older working children are mainstreamed to the formal education system through specia

schools functioning under the NCLP Scheme.

Convergence with other Schemes of the Departments of Education, Rural Development, Health and Women

and Child Development for the ultimate attainment of the objective in a time bound manner.

The Government and the Ministry of Labour & Employment in particular, are rather serious in their efforts to fight

and succeed in this direction. The number of districts covered under the NCLP Scheme has been increased from

100 to 250, as mentioned above in this note. In addition, 21 districts have been covered under INDUS, a similar

Scheme for rehabilitation of child labour in cooperation with US Department of Labour. Implementation of this

Project was recently reviewed during the visit of Mr. Steven Law, Deputy Secretary of State, from the USA. For

the Districts not covered under these two Schemes, Government is also providing funds directly to the NGOs under

the Ministry’s Grants-in-aid Scheme for running Special Schools for rehabilitation of child labour, thereby providing

for a greater role and cooperation of the civil society in combating this menace.

Elimination of child labour is the single largest programme in this Ministry’s activities. Apart from a major increase

in the number of districts covered under the scheme, the priority of the Government in this direction is evident in the

quantum jump in budgetary allocation during the 10th Plan. Government has allocated Rs. 602 crores for the

Scheme during the 10th Plan, as against an expenditure of Rs. 178 crores in the 9th Plan. The resources set aside

for combating this evil in the Ministry is around 50 per cent of its total annual budget.

The implementation of NCLP and INDUS Schemes is being closely monitored through periodical reports, frequent





visits and meetings with the District and State Government officials. The Government’s commitment to achieve

tangible results in this direction in a time bound manner is also evident from the fact that in the recent Regional

Level Conferences of District Collectors held in Hyderabad, Pune, Mussoorie and Kolkata district-wise review of

the Scheme was conducted at the level of Secretary. These Conferences provided an excellent opportunity to have

one-to-one interaction with the Collectors, who play a pivotal role in the implementation of these Schemes in the

District. Besides, these Conferences also helped in a big way in early operationalisation of Scheme in the newly

selected 150 districts.

The Government is committed to eliminate child labour in all its forms and is moving in this direction in a

targeted manner. The multipronged strategy being followed by the Government to achieve this objective also found

its echo during the recent discussions held in the Parliament on the Private Member’s Bill tabled by Sri Iqbal

Ahmed Saradgi. It was unanimously recognized therein that the problem of child labour, being inextricably linked

with poverty and illiteracy, cannot be solved by legislation alone, and that a holistic, multipronged and concerted

effort to tackle this problem will bring in the desired results.

Forward Steps:-

The ideal scenario on Child Welfare would be when every child enjoys the fullness of childhood through

education, recreation and adequate health facilities. It is impossible to attain these facilities by the child labour. All

the children were able to enjoy the completeness of childhood only

when the true conscience of the nation is awakened;

when all the policy makers and the bureaucrats take the issue of child labour seriously and commit

themselves to the cause of the holistic development of every child in India;

when the employers would not even contemplate the idea of employing a child for any work which might

deny the child of a normal childhood;

when all the parents will become aware of the jeopardy of child labour and take upon themselves the duty of

caring for the physical, social and psychological and mental development of the child;

When all the Policies laid down by the Government under Various Plans and Laws were implemented

properly ;

The government and the legal persons must conduct campaigns to make the people educate about the legal provisions existing for the abolition of the child labour.

References:

1. Baland, Jean-Marie and James A. Robinson (2000) ‘Is child labor inefficient?’ Journal of Political Economy

108, 663–679

2. Basu, Kaushik, and Homa Zarghamee (2009) ‘Is product boycott a good idea for controlling child labour? A

theoretical investigation’ Journal of Development Economics 88, 217–220





3. Bhukuth, Augendra. “Defining child labour: a controversial debate” Development in Practice (2008) 18, 385–

394

4. Emerson, Patrick M., and André Portela Souza. “Is Child Labor Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in

Life on Adult Earnings” Economic Development and Cultural Change 59:345–385, January 2011 DOI:

10.1086/657125 uses data from Brazil to show very strong negative effects–boys who work before age 14

earn much less as adults

5. All India Reports 1983, 1984, 1996, 1997.

6. 10th Indian National Five Year Plan

7. Humbert, Franziska. The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law (2009)

8. Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (2010)

9. ILO, Investing in every child: An economic Study of the Costs and Benefits of Eliminating Child Labor

10. www.vvg.nli.org

11. Kirby, Peter. Child Labour in Britain, 1750-1870 (2003)

12. labour.nic.in

13. Ravallion, Martin, and Quentin Wodon (2000) ‘Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural

responses to an enrollment subsidy’ Economic Journal 110, C158-C175

January 17th, 2011 | 2,655 views | Print This Post | Email This Post | Category: Labour & Employment

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