Producing Women:Producing Women:Femininity on the LineFemininity on the Line

Article by: Leslie SalzingerArticle by: Leslie Salzinger

Presented by: Erica CreswellPresented by: Erica Creswell

Goals of ArticleGoals of Article

To investigate the role of To investigate the role of gendered meanings in gendered meanings in constituting subjects in global constituting subjects in global factoriesfactories

To explore the ramifications of To explore the ramifications of that process for transnational that process for transnational productionproduction

Components of GlobalizationComponents of Globalization

Capital’s increased capacity to move Capital’s increased capacity to move in search of better, cheaper, more in search of better, cheaper, more malleable, more highly skilled malleable, more highly skilled workers.workers.

If these decisions are made based If these decisions are made based on gender, it becomes a central on gender, it becomes a central feature of the processfeature of the process

The connection between hiring and The connection between hiring and labor control mean that the criteria labor control mean that the criteria used to deem someone “hirable” used to deem someone “hirable” continue to be used on the shop floorcontinue to be used on the shop floor

Gender Operates Throughout Gender Operates Throughout Global ProductionGlobal Production

It frames decisions aboutIt frames decisions about TechnologyTechnology HiringHiring Labor ControlLabor Control

Gender SignificanceGender Significance

In transnational managerial In transnational managerial frameworks:frameworks: ““Femininity” has become associated Femininity” has become associated

with productivitywith productivity ““Masculinity” has become associated Masculinity” has become associated

with sloth and disruptionwith sloth and disruption Thus, the image of the “docile and Thus, the image of the “docile and

dexterous” woman has become the dexterous” woman has become the standard to which all other potential standard to which all other potential workers are measuredworkers are measured

Accurate Description or Accurate Description or Fantasy?Fantasy?

These views do not accurately describe These views do not accurately describe shop-floor realitiesshop-floor realities

Anyone who has spent time observing Anyone who has spent time observing capitalist production knows how impossible capitalist production knows how impossible it is to simply hire shop-floor compliance-it is to simply hire shop-floor compliance-feminine or otherwisefeminine or otherwise

Docility is produced on the shop floor, not Docility is produced on the shop floor, not acquired ready-madeacquired ready-made

This image of a docile, dexterous, cheap This image of a docile, dexterous, cheap woman whose productive femininity woman whose productive femininity requires not creation but recognition is a requires not creation but recognition is a transnationally produced fantasytransnationally produced fantasy

Fantasy With ConsequencesFantasy With Consequences

Regardless of the truth behind Regardless of the truth behind this image, it is precisely within this image, it is precisely within these gendered discourses that these gendered discourses that decisions about production are decisions about production are mademade

Maquiadora IndustryMaquiadora Industry

Located on Mexico’s northern Located on Mexico’s northern borderborder

Export-processing plants first Export-processing plants first established in the 1960sestablished in the 1960s

This development model made a This development model made a reserve army of docile and dexterous reserve army of docile and dexterous young women it’s centerpieceyoung women it’s centerpiece

From the onset this led to young From the onset this led to young women’s wide-spread recruitment by women’s wide-spread recruitment by management and their male peers’ management and their male peers’ equally generalized depreciationequally generalized depreciation

Maquiadoras Cont.Maquiadoras Cont.

Ironically, this led management Ironically, this led management to have to deal with unruly to have to deal with unruly women and young men as the women and young men as the supply of women willing to work supply of women willing to work for low wages fell dramatically in for low wages fell dramatically in the boom of the 1980sthe boom of the 1980s

Managers’ Response:Managers’ Response:

Some hired from outside border Some hired from outside border citiescities

Some moved their production Some moved their production further southfurther south

Some hired men into the Some hired men into the industry’s feminized job industry’s feminized job descriptionsdescriptions

Early 1990sEarly 1990s

By the early 1990s the image of By the early 1990s the image of the Young Woman Worker was the Young Woman Worker was as present as ever in the as present as ever in the Maquilla industry, but was Maquilla industry, but was operating in a highly diverse set operating in a highly diverse set of shop floors populated by a of shop floors populated by a wide variety of workerswide variety of workers

Maquilla Industry Ideal for Maquilla Industry Ideal for Study of GenderStudy of Gender Maquilla jobs are indeed “feminized” but Maquilla jobs are indeed “feminized” but

this does not mean they are occupied this does not mean they are occupied solely by womensolely by women

Feminization here emerges as a discursive Feminization here emerges as a discursive process affecting both male and female process affecting both male and female bodies, producing a pool of “maquilla-bodies, producing a pool of “maquilla-grade” laborgrade” labor

These factory-level discourses interact with These factory-level discourses interact with but do not necessarily reproduce the larger but do not necessarily reproduce the larger narrative of worker femininitynarrative of worker femininity

Thus, the shop floor is an important site in Thus, the shop floor is an important site in the feminization of transnational productionthe feminization of transnational production

Discussion of the Discussion of the PhenomenonPhenomenon

As young women increasingly As young women increasingly emerged as the workers of choice in emerged as the workers of choice in global industries in the 70s and 80s, global industries in the 70s and 80s, discussion of the phenomenon discussion of the phenomenon flourishedflourished

Even theorist who did not directly Even theorist who did not directly focus on gender acknowledged the focus on gender acknowledged the distinct impact of the new distinct impact of the new organization of production on women organization of production on women and menand men

Discussion Cont.Discussion Cont.

More importantly, the image of third-More importantly, the image of third-world girls snatching jobs from first-world girls snatching jobs from first-world male breadwinners became a world male breadwinners became a set piece in political rhetoric and a set piece in political rhetoric and a magnet for first-world public anxiety. magnet for first-world public anxiety.

Feminist social-scientists and Feminist social-scientists and activists began to analyze the activists began to analyze the gendering of global production more gendering of global production more systematically, arguing that the systematically, arguing that the process was as problematic for process was as problematic for those being drawn into production as those being drawn into production as for those being expelledfor those being expelled

AnalysesAnalyses

One of the earliest analyses was a One of the earliest analyses was a body of writings by leftists and social body of writings by leftists and social feminists which became known as feminists which became known as the “new international division of the “new international division of labor” literaturelabor” literature

In 1983 Annette Fuentes and In 1983 Annette Fuentes and Barbara Ehrenreich published a Barbara Ehrenreich published a pamphlet, pamphlet, Women in the Global Women in the Global Factory, Factory, which focused directly on which focused directly on the reasons for this predominancethe reasons for this predominance

Arguments of these writingsArguments of these writings

Transnational’s ability to extract high levels Transnational’s ability to extract high levels of surplus value was contingent upon its of surplus value was contingent upon its access to cheap, docile, and dexterous access to cheap, docile, and dexterous women workers. women workers.

Young women were not merely useful to Young women were not merely useful to global production, they were intrinsic to its global production, they were intrinsic to its operationoperation

It was in filling production lines with It was in filling production lines with exploitable workers that transnational exploitable workers that transnational factories guaranteed the high profit factories guaranteed the high profit margins required by late capitalismmargins required by late capitalism

Arguments Cont.Arguments Cont.

Capitalism was seen as having a Capitalism was seen as having a parasitic relationship to a preexisting parasitic relationship to a preexisting and entrenched household and entrenched household patriarchypatriarchy

By piggybacking on family structures By piggybacking on family structures which enabled women’s cheapness, which enabled women’s cheapness, enforced their docility and trained enforced their docility and trained their nimble fingers, capitalists made their nimble fingers, capitalists made shop-floor management shop-floor management unnecessaryunnecessary

Arguments Cont.Arguments Cont.

Gender subordination lay at the Gender subordination lay at the heart of global production’s heart of global production’s skyrocketing third-world profitsskyrocketing third-world profits

Two implications:Two implications: Labor control processes are Labor control processes are

fundamentally shaped around the fundamentally shaped around the gender of those hiredgender of those hired

Genders importance increases as the Genders importance increases as the search for cheap labor accelerates in search for cheap labor accelerates in response to technological advancesresponse to technological advances

Criticisms of these argumentsCriticisms of these arguments

Took category of “Woman” for grantedTook category of “Woman” for granted Failed to question the notion that woman Failed to question the notion that woman

workers necessarily would exhibit a predictable workers necessarily would exhibit a predictable and consistent constellation of “feminine” traitsand consistent constellation of “feminine” traits

While denying femininity’s biological roots, they While denying femininity’s biological roots, they accepted its inevitable and static natureaccepted its inevitable and static nature

In arguing that capital is dependent on its In arguing that capital is dependent on its access to women, they confused cause with access to women, they confused cause with consequenceconsequence

Docile and dexterous women are produced in Docile and dexterous women are produced in production relations, they do not autonomously production relations, they do not autonomously enable themenable them

This Author’s ArgumentsThis Author’s Arguments

Gender is indeed a fundamental Gender is indeed a fundamental element of global production but element of global production but not in the way that these authors not in the way that these authors claimclaim

Femininity is a tropeFemininity is a trope A structure of meaning through A structure of meaning through

which workers, potential and which workers, potential and actual, are addressed and actual, are addressed and understood, and around which understood, and around which production itself is designedproduction itself is designed

““Productive Femininity”Productive Femininity”

““The notion of productive The notion of productive femininity thus crystallizes femininity thus crystallizes through a process of repetitive through a process of repetitive citation by transnational citation by transnational managers and the imperative to managers and the imperative to hire such workers operates as a hire such workers operates as a creative force shaping both creative force shaping both workers and the technical workers and the technical structure in which they work”structure in which they work”

In this context…In this context…

Hiring and labor control processes emerge as Hiring and labor control processes emerge as messages which address potential workers within messages which address potential workers within specific understandings of who they are and what specific understandings of who they are and what their work requirestheir work requires If these rhetorics and practices resonate with those If these rhetorics and practices resonate with those

hired, they shape shop-floor subjectiveshired, they shape shop-floor subjectives If they fail they shape shop-floor chaosIf they fail they shape shop-floor chaos Thus, gendered subjectivity intervenes in all levels of Thus, gendered subjectivity intervenes in all levels of

the process, from managerial decision making to the process, from managerial decision making to worker compliance or resistance, but it is never fixedworker compliance or resistance, but it is never fixed

Docile labor cannot simply be bought; it is produced, Docile labor cannot simply be bought; it is produced, or not, in the meaningful practices and rhetorics of or not, in the meaningful practices and rhetorics of shop-floor lifeshop-floor life

It is in the daily routines of the shop floor that gender It is in the daily routines of the shop floor that gender shapes possibilities, profits, and transnational shapes possibilities, profits, and transnational productionproduction

Transformed view of GenderTransformed view of Gender

Throughout the 1980s Throughout the 1980s mainstream feminist theory was mainstream feminist theory was primarily concerned with primarily concerned with challenging the primacy of sex challenging the primacy of sex as a biological category and as a biological category and subsequently with analyzing the subsequently with analyzing the causes of male dominationcauses of male domination

ResultsResults

Gender’s fundamental inconsistency, Gender’s fundamental inconsistency, malleability, and fragmentation malleability, and fragmentation disappeared from viewdisappeared from view

Wide differences in gendered meanings Wide differences in gendered meanings received little empirical attention or analysisreceived little empirical attention or analysis

Commonalities between women of differing Commonalities between women of differing class, race, and other social locations were class, race, and other social locations were exaggerated as well as the level of exaggerated as well as the level of consistency in individual women’s consistency in individual women’s experience of gender over the course of a experience of gender over the course of a lifetime or across social arenaslifetime or across social arenas

Results Cont.Results Cont.

Shift in focus from gendered Shift in focus from gendered subjects to gendered meaningssubjects to gendered meanings Looked at the symbolic logics and Looked at the symbolic logics and

internal patterns through which a internal patterns through which a particular discourse successfully particular discourse successfully “made sense” of sexed bodies“made sense” of sexed bodies

New questionsNew questions

This move made it possible to This move made it possible to ask new kinds of questionsask new kinds of questions What is the hegemonic discourse What is the hegemonic discourse

within which managers within which managers understand “women workers”? understand “women workers”?

Consequences Consequences

The move to the arena of meanings shift The move to the arena of meanings shift focus away from practicesfocus away from practices

As a result, much of the social world was As a result, much of the social world was left out of analytical focus, with symbolic left out of analytical focus, with symbolic systems disconnected from those who systems disconnected from those who articulate them and from the practices articulate them and from the practices through which they are enactedthrough which they are enacted

Theorists fell into recounting gendered Theorists fell into recounting gendered categories’ history in isolation as if it they categories’ history in isolation as if it they existed in a universe filled only by languageexisted in a universe filled only by language

This analytical focus misses the question of This analytical focus misses the question of how such categories are built and practiced how such categories are built and practiced in daily interactionin daily interaction

Consequences Cont.Consequences Cont.

Despite their commitment to Despite their commitment to developing a language capable developing a language capable of describing gender in all its of describing gender in all its palpable heterogeneity and palpable heterogeneity and fluctuating significance, these fluctuating significance, these theorists were more likely to cite theorists were more likely to cite than to explore gender’s than to explore gender’s unpredictability and unpredictability and inconsistencyinconsistency

Gendered CategoriesGendered Categories

Remarkably rigid and tenacious thus Remarkably rigid and tenacious thus playing a fundamental role in the playing a fundamental role in the experience of selfexperience of self

The content of these categories, however, The content of these categories, however, is highly variable and their importance is highly variable and their importance fluctuates widely across social situationsfluctuates widely across social situations

Too often the characteristics of these Too often the characteristics of these categories are confused with their content categories are confused with their content and operationsand operations

Gendered meanings are fluid, changing Gendered meanings are fluid, changing with social structure, intention and strugglewith social structure, intention and struggle

Conceptualizing GenderConceptualizing Gender

When we conceptualize gender we must When we conceptualize gender we must start with the intractable and unequal start with the intractable and unequal categories through which sense is made of categories through which sense is made of human bodies and social actionshuman bodies and social actions

The particular traits that come to fill those The particular traits that come to fill those categories are analytically secondarycategories are analytically secondary

It is the combination of omnipresent but It is the combination of omnipresent but mobile categories and variable content mobile categories and variable content which gives gender its tremendous which gives gender its tremendous capacity to interpellate subjects across a capacity to interpellate subjects across a wide variety of social arenas and in the wide variety of social arenas and in the service of a multitude of interests and service of a multitude of interests and strategiesstrategies

Variation in ContentVariation in Content

This variation in content is both a This variation in content is both a response to local specificities and a response to local specificities and a structural element of how gender structural element of how gender works as a social process overallworks as a social process overall

Femininity and Masculinity are Femininity and Masculinity are relational categories which operate relational categories which operate fundamentally through contrast with fundamentally through contrast with each other whether or not that each other whether or not that process is made explicit in any process is made explicit in any particular caseparticular case

Feminine on one level, Feminine on one level, Masculine on the nextMasculine on the next Sewing leather gloves in a factorySewing leather gloves in a factory

Masculine: in contrast to working in the Masculine: in contrast to working in the homehome

Feminine: in the category of paid work in Feminine: in the category of paid work in contrast to construction workcontrast to construction work

Masculine: in the category of garment Masculine: in the category of garment production in contrast to sewing lingerieproduction in contrast to sewing lingerie

None of these are inherently masculine None of these are inherently masculine or feminine but the process whereby or feminine but the process whereby they become gendered is an inherent they become gendered is an inherent aspect of how gender functionsaspect of how gender functions

What the author is demonstratingWhat the author is demonstrating

Of course gender varies Of course gender varies throughout history and across throughout history and across the globe, the author wishes to the globe, the author wishes to demonstrate that it varies across demonstrate that it varies across much smaller expanses of much smaller expanses of space, time, and culture as well, space, time, and culture as well, as it is reconfigured in the as it is reconfigured in the strategies, common sense, and strategies, common sense, and power struggles of actorspower struggles of actors

Author’s Demonstration Cont.Author’s Demonstration Cont.

Local rhetorics and practices make Local rhetorics and practices make reference to larger frameworks but they do reference to larger frameworks but they do not necessarily reproduce themnot necessarily reproduce them

Gendered meaning structures vary, not Gendered meaning structures vary, not only in extension, but in their longevity and only in extension, but in their longevity and durability as welldurability as well

Some versions of femininity and Some versions of femininity and masculinity span centuries or linguistic masculinity span centuries or linguistic groups, others are hammered out in an groups, others are hammered out in an individual workplace or family dissolving individual workplace or family dissolving and reconfiguring with a strike or divorceand reconfiguring with a strike or divorce

Cont.Cont.

The dispersed origins and logics of the gendered The dispersed origins and logics of the gendered meaning structures which meet in a given social meaning structures which meet in a given social space have crucial implications for how femininity space have crucial implications for how femininity and masculinity are lived by individuals on a daily and masculinity are lived by individuals on a daily basisbasis

A given locale can be home to a variety of gendered A given locale can be home to a variety of gendered meanings, some of which coincide and others which meanings, some of which coincide and others which clash, and which vary in both local importance and clash, and which vary in both local importance and overall fixityoverall fixity

Thus although we usually remain “female” or “male” Thus although we usually remain “female” or “male” as we move across social space, our experience as we move across social space, our experience and enactment of these categories can shift as we and enactment of these categories can shift as we move across a landscape or through a daymove across a landscape or through a day

This View Seen in the This View Seen in the MaquilasMaquilas

The explicitly and emphatically feminized nature of the The explicitly and emphatically feminized nature of the industry as a whole means that factories within it are industry as a whole means that factories within it are necessarily marked as either feminine or masculine, as necessarily marked as either feminine or masculine, as they are categorized either in terms of, or in contrast to they are categorized either in terms of, or in contrast to this gendered backgroundthis gendered background

The meanings of work and appropriateness of worker The meanings of work and appropriateness of worker behavior are established on each shop-floor in gendered behavior are established on each shop-floor in gendered termsterms

Thus, although workers belong to a single geographic, Thus, although workers belong to a single geographic, cultural and industrial demographic, the subjects that cultural and industrial demographic, the subjects that emerge in different maquilas express and incarnate emerge in different maquilas express and incarnate distinct shop-floor femininities and masculinitiesdistinct shop-floor femininities and masculinities

In a given maquilla the relatively durable discource of In a given maquilla the relatively durable discource of productive femininity that circulates among transnational productive femininity that circulates among transnational managers coexists not only with a distinct discourse about managers coexists not only with a distinct discourse about women workers’ promiscuity generated among local women workers’ promiscuity generated among local elites, but also with the more circumscribed, and therefore elites, but also with the more circumscribed, and therefore less stable, gendered production system of a particular less stable, gendered production system of a particular shop floorshop floor

Complexity of Gender at WorkComplexity of Gender at Work

Grasping the productive and Grasping the productive and personal consequences of gender in personal consequences of gender in the industry requires delineating the the industry requires delineating the transnational trope of femininity as it transnational trope of femininity as it emerges in the city, its idiosyncratic emerges in the city, its idiosyncratic incarnations on individual shop floors incarnations on individual shop floors and its consequences for the daily and its consequences for the daily work lives of the shop floor work lives of the shop floor inhabitantsinhabitants

Only in this way can we capture the Only in this way can we capture the fundamental complexity of gender at fundamental complexity of gender at workwork

Blinded by Gendered Blinded by Gendered Categories?Categories?

Gendered categories are indeed Gendered categories are indeed persistent, rigid, intractable and persistent, rigid, intractable and productiveproductive

However, these characteristics However, these characteristics should not blind us to the should not blind us to the categories’ emptiness and thus categories’ emptiness and thus to their extreme contextual to their extreme contextual variation in content and functionvariation in content and function

How Femininity and How Femininity and Masculinity are defined…Masculinity are defined… Femininity and Masculinity are Femininity and Masculinity are

defined through multiple and defined through multiple and simultaneous struggles over power simultaneous struggles over power and desire, often occurring at varying and desire, often occurring at varying speedsspeeds In some social arenas they are explicit In some social arenas they are explicit

areas of contestareas of contest In others, goals and intentions are In others, goals and intentions are

focused elsewhere, but gendered focused elsewhere, but gendered meanings emerge as byproductsmeanings emerge as byproducts

In either case, subjectivities and In either case, subjectivities and structures of power are constituted structures of power are constituted through their invocationthrough their invocation

Gendered categories versus Gendered categories versus gendered meaningsgendered meanings

It is precisely this duality-the It is precisely this duality-the rigidity of gendered categories rigidity of gendered categories versus the malleability and versus the malleability and variation of gendered meanings-variation of gendered meanings-that accounts for the centrality that accounts for the centrality and weight of gender in and weight of gender in productionproduction

Author’s Conclusions about Author’s Conclusions about theorytheory In thinking of "women" as fixed production inputs, comparable in

function to tempered steel or precut cloth, analysts of global production fundamentally misunderstood both the process of labor control and the nature of gendered selfhood.

The content of "womanhood" or "manhood" does not inhere in the individual but rather emerges in a changeable, multi-leveled set of enacted meaning structures which cite a particular notion of gender and evoke individual femininities and masculinities in that time and space.

A given individual, operating in a given social arena, will practice a particular version of femininity or masculinity that will have something in common with what that person practices elsewhere, but it will be fundamentally restructured within the meaningful practices of the current locale.

Since gendered enactments are always simultaneously similar and different across time and space, the extent to which one chooses to focus on one of these characteristics is a theoretical and political rather than an empirically motivated decision

Author’s Conclusions Cont.Author’s Conclusions Cont.

“In my judgment, the "essential similarities" between women working throughout transnational production has been overemphasized, increasing gender's visibility at the cost of undermining our capacity to recognize how gender functions in this context. Hence, I have chosen to foreground the crucial differences in gendered meanings and subjectivities that emerge even in closely situated arenas. This strategy allows us to shift our questions. Rather than asking how women's patriarchally produced femininity is made profitable, we ask instead how gendered meanings emerge and are practiced, and how profitable, gendered subjects are evoked within them.”

Author’s Conclusions about Author’s Conclusions about transnational productiontransnational production The current structure of transnational

production may well be gendered in the aggregate, but a sociological understanding of how this gendering process works, and to what ends, requires immersion in the specific.

On global shop floors managers access what is possible and acceptable in gendered terms, measuring efficiency and productivity in regards to the global icon of productive femininity

Author’s Conclusions Cont.Author’s Conclusions Cont.

“I am struck by the predominance of "women in the global factory." Unlike those analysts, I see this predominance not as a function of who women are (or have been trained to be), but of the way in which gender structures production overall. Thus, rather than seeing millions of women populating global production lines, I see a production process marked as feminine-"assembly"-replacing a previous process marked as masculine-"manufacturing"-with clear consequences both for third-world workers' rights and experiences of self and for first-world profits and prices. This distinction is not merely semantic; it also makes visible important social processes.”