Problems of Thermophysics and Thermal Engineering for the New Technologies of the Twenty-First Century

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I. Z. KoppInterbranch Institute for Advanced Studies,

St. Petersburg State Technical University,St. Petersburg, Russia

e-mail: [email protected]

Problems of Thermophysics andThermal Engineering for the NewTechnologies of the Twenty-FirstCenturyThis review article gives an overview of some topics related to classical and moproblems in the theory of heat, its meaning for various branches, and thermal manment of equipment. The specific requirements for new technologies involved in the thoperation of miniaturized instruments, components of equipment, devices, units opein fast-response regimes, improvement of heat resistance, reliability, and endurancconsidered. Special requirements have been put forward for nanotechnologies,engineering parts, elements of devices, and technological equipment have microand submicroscopic dimensions. Also, the stringent requirements of thermal modmodern large-scale technologies in such branches of industry as nuclear power enging and rocket-space engineering have become more important and determiningthermal modes of these technologies call for new approaches to the design of themodynamic state of micro- and macrosystems, high-temperature plasma, and cryotemperatures. New results of the study of the mechanism of heat transfer in phasesitions, principally in new approaches to the problem of enhancement of heat transone- and two-phase flows are presented. The importance of studies of thermal proproviding reliable thermal modes of new power plants, microsystems, and nanotechgies is shown. The significance of advances in the study of thermal processes foroping the theory of heat is discussed. Especially considered are achievementstheory of heat for its role in the decisions of actual problems of biology, medicine,environment. This review article cites 105 references, most of them in Rus@DOI: 10.1115/1.1896369#

Keywords: Heat, Temperature, Thermal Modes, Heat Exchange, Thermophysics, PSystems, Thermodynamics, Statistical Physics, Heat Transfer, Cooling, NanotechnoThermal Life Conditions, Thermal Management of Equipment

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1 IntroductionReliability of elements, circuits, loops, instruments, units, a

devices that make up the basis of modern high technologielargely determined by the admissible thermal mode regimAmong these quickly developing new technologies are, on thehand, technologies of microsystems, nanotechnologies, and imation technologies, and, on the other hand, technologies of mrosystems where both high and cryogenic temperatures aretained. Stringent limitation of the range of allowed temperatuand of the dynamics of their change are raised by nanotechngies, biotechnologies, and space and nuclear engineering.

In the development of new technologies and engineeringtems, researchers and designers face earlier unknown problemthe thermal regimes. Despite the fact that these problemsdifferent terms~cooling systems, superheating, thermal explosiventilation, coolers, etc.!, all of them, in order to function properly, are eventually reduced to the necessity of providing reliaallowable operating thermal conditions within the limits of paraeters required in order that a technological system can funcproperly.

At the ASME-ZSITS International Thermal Science Seminheld in Slovenia in 2000, the introductory plenary paper ‘‘Do WDouble Too Little? Examples from the Thermal Sciences’’ wpresented by Professor R. Nelson@1#. In full conformity with thetitle, the content of the report invites scientists in the fieldsthermophysics and thermal engineering to discuss possible tr

Transmitted by Associate Editor W. Begell.

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in the development of the theory of heat on the basis of advanin theoretical and experimental physics. This invitation has bscientific and currently central practical significance, since mproblems of reliability of new technologies are essentially relato provision of their operating thermal regimes. No less than ohalf of serious failures of microsystems and breakdowns in smodern technologies as rocket-space and nuclear power havecaused by problems related to their thermal modes of opera@2–4#.

Many original papers and reviews have answers to most ofspecific problems of providing the required thermal modesmacro- and microsystems as has shown in@2,3,5–8#. However,dynamic development of nanotechnologies, electronic induscontrol systems, and macrotechnologies sets forth new requments for scientific-engineering programs to ensure the requthermal modes.

Generalizing the results of basic studies of the theory of therprocesses, the present paper discusses ways of scientific subtiation of some general problems in thermophysics and therengineering aimed at providing reliable thermal modes in ntechnological developments. In particular, the requirementsmicro- and macrotechnologies generate new possibilities forscribing the thermal state, specific features of thermodynamicsmall systems, and phase transitions, high and cryogenic temptures, and enhancement of heat transfer processesconsidered—the problems that govern the practical applicatiothe results gained in many studies.

5 by ASME Transactions of the ASME

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2 New Approaches to the Description of the ThermalState of Devices, Instruments, and Units

In modern engineering practice, at all stages of design andploitation, and in the solution of problems of reliability the dscription of the thermal state of devices, instruments, and unitsis made of thermodynamics and statistical methods@9–14#.

Thermodynamics methods are based on the system of inpostulates~principles! that are formulated without resorting to annotion about the object structure, i.e., in essence, thermodynamethods are phenomenological. They describe and determinterrelations only between observed parameters of state. It isparent that thermodynamics methods cannot substantiate theerties or determine the directions of changes in the parametea thermodynamic system caused by its properties or structure

Statistical methods present a physical consideration of therameters of state of real macroscopic objects on the basis odata on their structure. These methods, which follow an atommolecular mechanism of processes, allow one to solve probland give physical substantiation of solutions obtained by therdynamics methods, thus determining the limits of their applicaity. Hence, it follows that solutions obtained by thermodynammethods are universal only for the cases of correct descriptiothe boundaries of a thermodynamics system, and results obtaby statistical methods are valid only for objects possessingsame structure.

The new direction of the theory of heat, named statistical thmodynamics, was generated on the basis of use of both thedynamics and statistical methods, and theoretical physics@15–17#.The methods of statistical thermodynamics made it possibleadvance toward extension of use of main characteristics desing a thermal state—temperature, heat capacity, and theconductivity—as applied to modern technologies.

But most significant pioneering discoveries in describingthermal state, in particular of macroscopic systems and nanotnologies, are related to the use of quantum-mechanical equatwhich form the basis of modern theoretical physics. Here, onethe most important achievements is the experimental confirmaof the quantum nature of heat conduction. Using the quantmechanical description of electric conductivity and theoreticalculations that indicate that a similar equation is also typicaheat conduction, in 2000 scientists at the California InstituteTechnology were the first ones to demonstrate this fact experimtally. Within the framework of the model of heat transfer by dcrete quasiparticles—phonons—this effect becomes especiallyticeable in the case where the de Broglie wavelength ofelectron is commensurable with the size of the conductor. Inexperiments, as has been shown@18#, the heat flux between twomicroscopic bodies—‘‘phonon cavities’’ connected by a heconduction wire of a diameter of about 500 atoms~by the authors’estimate!—was measured. Temperature of phonon cavities wmeasured by squids, measuring devices whose action is basthe Josephson effect in superconductors. The experimentfirmed the fact that heat flux along the wire changed in discrportions equal to a quantum unit of the heat flux. Results ofand other similar experiments are the principal achievement ininterpretation of heat as one of the forms of energy of the elecmagnetic radiation spectrum and its correlation with other typeenergy.

The description of heat conduction and heat capacityquantum-mechanical equations is the basis of modern theorephysics, and it opens up new possibilities in the study of therprocesses. It is especially important for advances in technolorelated to macrosystems; in particular, in nanotechnologies.

3 Development of Thermal Physics of Small Systemand Phase Transitions

Prominent among the most important scientific achievementphysics of the beginning of the twentieth century are the works

Applied Mechanics Reviews


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Gibbs @19,20#, who determined the fundamental laws of phaequilibrium, allowing for the real boundaries of thermodynamsystems. These notions were developed by Hill@21# and Rusanov@22#. Based on their works, the ideas on the determination ofeffect of properties and structure of the surface on the mechanand efficiency of heat transfer from a solid surface to a liquid afrom a liquid to a surface—most widely spread mechanismsheat transfer processes in heat exchangers—govern the devment of the modern concepts of heat and mass transfer@23–25#.

Comprehensive analysis and extended generalizations oftransfer studies, with direct or indirect consideration of the surfeffect, conducted in many laboratories in different countriformed the basis of a rigorous description of the mechanismthis effect for both one-phase flows and heat transfer in vageneration, where the effects of structure and properties ofheat transfer surface manifest themselves most prominentlychanging the heat transfer coefficient by several orders of matude has been shown@26–28#.

Figure 1 shows possible versions of the origination of a vabubble nuclei in asperities of the microstructure of a real htransfer surface. In the first case, when a nucleus appears ainterface between the liquid and the surface, the workadhesion—separation of liquid from the surface—is neededthe second case, when a nucleus originates in the bulk ofliquid, the work of cohesion—separation within liquid—ineeded. In the third case, a mixed variant, the work neededistributed between the cohesion and adhesion forces—paseparation of liquid from the surface. An analysis and calculatishow that the third variant is most profitable for the majoritywetting liquids. This has been shown fully confirmed by theoand experiments@29–44#.

Thermodynamics consideration of the conditions of existeof a spherical nucleus in a liquid, which was first found bLaplace and then developed by Gibbs@20#, Volmer @45#, andFrenkel@46#, determines the dimensions of nuclei by the equat

s~1/R111/R2!2~pv2pl!50

where 1/R1 and 1/R2 are the principal radii of curvature of thspheroid surface, which provide the equilibrium of phases at psurespv and pl . According to Gibbs, the condition of the existence of a spherical vapor nucleus in liquid at 1/R151/R2 takes onthe form

2s/R5~pv2pl!

thus determining the dimensions of stable spherical nuclei onew phaseR, as a function ofs and (pv2pl).

For the combined solution of this equation with the conditiof molecular-kinetic equilibrium of two phases, an approximasolution of which is

pv /pl5exp@22sv/~RnkTnl!#

which unambiguously determines the dimensions of a stanucleus capable of ‘‘survival and development’’ in the form

Rn5Ks2svTs /@~Tw2Ts!r e#

Fig. 1 Types of the origination of nuclei of the vapor phase ona real surface of heat exchange: „a…—adhesive; „b…—cohesive;„c…—mixed

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Correct determination of the resultant coefficient of the surfeffect Ks for given values of the temperature difference and thmophysical properties of the boiling liquid and of the surfagives satisfactory agreement between calculated values of thmensions of nuclei obtained by this equation and experimeresults for water, organic liquids, and metals.

3.1 Development of the Origination of Nuclei of the VaporPhase on a Real Surface Model. In the general case, at thsurface of the solid body, through which heat of liquid is tranferred, three versions of origination of nuclei are possible~sche-matically shown in Fig. 1!. According to Fig. 1, we distinguishhomogeneous, heterogeneous, and catalytic formation of vnuclei in liquid on a real surface of heat exchange:~a! adhesive,~b! cohesive, and~c! mixed. The first two cases refer to a puhomogeneous liquid, and the third allows for the presence of nuniformities, which play the role of catalysts.

Homogeneous formation of nuclei of the vapor phase taplace in uniform superheating of the whole volume of liquid witout account of the effects of impurity, volume boundaries, aother factors.

Heterogeneous or heterophase origination of nuclei of the vaphase in the volume of a homogeneous uniformly heated liqoccurs due to the heterophase fluctuations of structural particlethe liquid.

All known analytical approaches to the determination of sizof stable nuclei can be conventionally divided into three groubased on the use of the classical, atomistic, or kinetic approacIn both classical and atomistic theory, a certain concentrationnuclei, by variation of which a rate of nucleation, i.e., a rateorigination of a critical nucleus, serves as an initial characterisIn these cases, in order to obtain quantitative solutions, one mtake into account a large number of parameters, which shouldetermined independently. In the kinetic approach, a numbesuch parameters can be reduced to a minimum.

Volmer was first to derive, in a general form, the equation tdefines the dependence ofRn as radius of a spherical nucleus ofbubble on the parameters of the liquid@45#. In the Volmer deriva-tion, the adopted model of nucleus origination did not allowthe surface effect~Fig. 2~a!!. The first attempt to consider thinterrelation between nucleation and the surface of a solid bfrom which heat is transferred to a liquid was undertaken by Frkel @46#. According to the model of Frenkel, a nucleus in the foof a hemisphere with radius Rn appears on a plane surface~Fig.2~b!!. Then, Frenkel, in cooperation with Nesis@47#, suggested amodel of the origination of a spherical nucleus in the mouth ocylindrical pore on the surface~Fig. 2~c!!. Making use of an op-

Fig. 2 Models of nucleation of vapor bubbles near the heattransfer surface: „a…, Volmer †45‡; „b…, Frenkel †46‡; „c…, Frenkeland Nesis †47‡; „d…, Westwater †48‡; „e…, Hsu †49‡; „f…, Kopp †28‡

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tical microscope and high-speed filming, Westwater@48# and co-workers found that nuclei of the vapor phase originate in the caties of the surface microstructure and assumed that equality oradius of the mouth of a conical cavity and a nucleus is the cdition of the origination of nuclei~Fig. 2~d!!. To explain the ob-served differences of the sizes of nuclei of vapor bubbles fromradius of the mouth of rough cavities on real surfaces, Hsu@49#considered the possibility of origination of a nucleus in the vume of a superheated boundary layer of liquid near a solid sur~Fig. 2~e!!.

However, this model, which allowed one to make an importstep toward comprehension and description of nucleation cotions, also did not explain some facts observed experimentallyparticular, origination or cessation of the action of vaporizatisites, etc. On the basis of the data on the real microstructurheat transfer surfaces with different technologies of their mafacture and treatment, experimental data on the presence of acrolayer of superheated liquid near the surface, and resulthigh-speed photography of the boiling process, we have cstructed a model of nucleation for bubbles with a radiusRn ~Fig.2~f!!. As seen in Fig. 2, this model inherits the properties of tearlier models of the mechanism of nucleation, which are cfirmed by practice for real conditions of boiling on rough hetransfer surfaces. An analysis and results of the experimshowed that the effect of the set of conditions on the interfbetween the boiling liquid and the heat transfer surface occurall subsequent stages of the boiling mechanism. This real modnucleation satisfies the condition of minimum work and inherthe advantages of all earlier-known nucleation models, allowsthe volumetric structure of the phase interface, and makes it psible to approach the construction of the theory of heat transfeboiling of liquids on real surfaces. The suggested model fucorresponds to statistical regularities that take place in boilingliquids on real surfaces. In accordance with the statistical disbution of cavities of a microrelief of a real phase interfacecertain range of possible values ofRn corresponds to each valuof one of the parameters determining the nucleation process.

This model allows one to take into account the influence ogreat number of various factors predetermining a wide rangepossible changes in Rn and other characteristics~affected by de-sign: all thermophysical properties are referred to the materiathe surface; and regime factors, as, for example, the shapearea of the surface, which transfers heat to the liquid, the metof heating, rate of temperature rise, change in the regime, etc.! andall other factors that directly or indirectly effect the originationstable nuclei of the vapor phase.

The effect of the impurity of solid particles in the transiesurface region manifests itself, first of all, in the formationmicrocavities that facilitate conditions of nucleation, proceedfrom the fact that interaction between the liquid and the surfacesolid particles are the same as with the heat transfer surface.study of the effect of various admixtures of solid particles~quartzsand with a particle-size of 10–300 m km, ferromagnetic pow10–20 m km, and vitrified spheres 100–300 m km, and particof soluble salts on nucleation in water boiling on real surfacwith controlled characteristics of roughness showed that incases the size of nuclei can be determined asRn . In this case, thedimensions of cavities formed, both between solid particles theselves and solid particles and a solid surface, are determinThese results explain the conditions of nucleation on coatedfaces, surfaces ‘‘filled’’ by solid particles, surfaces with scale, aother similar cases.

The effect of ionizing radiation is in the enhancement of herophase fluctuations of structural particles of the liquid, whabsorb radiation energy, i.e., in the enhancement of nucleationthis case, the degree of the effect is in direct proportion toradiation energy—the fact is confirmed by a number of dirmeasurements during onset of boiling in thermal nuclear reacand fast neutron reactors.

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Elastic collision, for example, of a neutron and a structuparticle of a boiling liquid in the cavity of the microstructure othe surface, can be taken as a possible model of the effectparticle flux.

The effect of magnetic and electromagnetic fields also mafests itself primarily in the interaction between these fields andsubstance. A practical value of this factor is most importantelectrically conducting liquids, in particular, for liquid metalsthe zone of strong electromagnetic fields.

The effect of heating conditions manifests itself, first of all,the temperature mode of the heat transfer surface. For exampthe heat transfer surface is a partition~wall! of a certain shapebetween heating and heated liquids, then the distribution of tperature in the wall is determined by the laws of heat conductBut if the surface belongs to the solid body heated by hifrequency currents, such as electric resistance, a beam oftrons, or laser radiation, then the distribution of temperaturebe determined by a set of properties of the source of energythe surface. In this case, a decisive role is played by the sh~plate, tube, wire, etc.!, size, and position of the heat transfsurface.

Along with the factors mentioned, it follows from the analysof the model of nucleation in boiling of a liquid that variouphysics-chemical processes that occur in the transient surfacgion can exert a considerable effect on nucleation. Thesedissociation of boiling liquid~or one of its components!, origina-tion of chemical reactions, etc., which depends on temperaand lead to changes in the transient surface region.

Bergles@50# has precisely noted that discussion of a problemnucleation in the bulk of the liquid and at the surface shoproceed.

3.2 Development of the Vapor Phase on the SurfaceGrowth of Bubbles and Departure. In contrast toprobabilistic-statistical laws of origination of nuclei, the growtheach separate vapor bubble obeys the laws of hydromechaphase transitions, and surface phenomena. This makes it posto use a mathematical apparatus for describing conditions ofgrowth of bubbles.

Five consecutive stages of the development of the vapor pon a real surface are distinguished: origination of a nuclegrowth within a cavity of the microstructure; growth above tcavity to the liquid volume; propagation within the liquid and ovthe surface; formation of the bridge~‘‘neck’’ ! of the bubble beforedeparture from the surface.

Analytical methods of the description of growth of vapbubbles go back to Rayleigh, who used the Euler equationspherical coordinates. High velocities of growth of vapor bubband the complex dependence ofRn from numerous parametermake it difficult to obtain solutions of equation in a form convnient for calculation. Most known attempts to obtain simplifitypes of the bubble growth are based on molecular-kinetic, mroscopic, or balance equations.

In the first case, a resultant flow of molecules~or atoms! fromthe liquid phase to the bubble~minus the condensing molecules! isthe basic characteristic. On the basis of Knudsen’s ideas@51#,when the density of the flow of molecules through the liquvapor boundary is dependent on multiple parameters, the calctions of the mentioned forces, acting on a growing vapor bubon different surfaces for different liquids, show that, becausethe difference in thermophysical properties of substances, theperature mode around the growing bubble can be substantdifferent, as can quantitative ratios of all acting forces. By virtof the combination of these factors, a wide variety of conditiofor growth and departure of vapor bubbles is observed inboiling of different liquids.

The main methods of experimental investigation of the vabubble growth are high-speed filming and photography by opt



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or electron microscopes, which convincingly show a determininfluence of the experimental conditions, among which the statthe surface is of decisive importance.

If a bubble departs from the surface absolutely, i.e., there isvapor phase on the phase interface, then recovery of the cobetween the liquid and the surface takes place—adhesion deture ~determined by surmounting of the adhesion forces ofsolid surface and the vapor phase!. If departure occurs in the zonof the bridge formation~‘‘neck’’ of a bubble!, when a portion ofthe vapor phase still remains on the phase interface, then a csion~or combined! departure takes place. A conclusive momentinterrelation between the vapor bubble and the surface is a deture from the point of origination, characterized by the diametethe instant of departureDdep.

4 Ways of Heat Transfer EnhancementFigure 3 presents the curves for determining parameters of

heat transfer process, which are averaged over the consideredof the heat transfer surface: qk is the heat flux density andDT5(Tw2Tl) is the temperature difference. The quantityDT relatesthe dimensional parametersqk and ak—average values of heaflux density and the coefficient of convective heat transfer, whare determined by the basic heat transfer equation

qk5ak~Tw2Tl !.

The basic problems of thermophysics and engineering oftwenty-first century remains search of possible ways of increqk and ak especially for new technologies.

4.1 Determining Role of Surfaces of Heat Transfer. Oneof the most evident trends of the practical application of nstudies is the opening of wide possibilities of enhancementdifferent heat transfer processes, in particular, those ascribesurface properties.

Heat exchangers are the most widely used units in all typeenergy plants and engines. This equipment makes up the buthe production in many branches of the industry: power engineing, machine construction, aviation and rocket-space engineechemical, petroleum refining, and food processing, and alsofrigerating and cryogenic technology, systems of heating, vention, air-conditioning, and others. In an overwhelming majorityheat exchangers used in all these fields, heat is transferred frhot heat carrier to a cooler one through a solid body~wall!. In thiscase, a heating agent transfers the heat to one surface, wher

Fig. 3 Types of a ‘‘boiling curve’’ depending on the conditionsat the boundary between the heat transfer surface and liquid: I,heat transfer to single phase liquid; II, nucleate boiling; III,mixed boiling; IV, transient boiling; V, film boiling

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coolant takes it from the other surface of the wall, i.e., in all caheat transfer takes place between the heat carrier and thetransfer surface. Therefore, technical and economical characttics of heat exchangers of all types and purposes are determby the soundness in the design and construction of the macro-microstructure of the heat transfer surfaces.

The theory of heat and mass transfer gives the scientific bfor the selection and design of surfaces in heat exchangersvarious purposes. The boundary layer theory, which defines trport processes in the liquid at the boundary with a stable htransfer surface, is the basic component of the theory. As appto a wide class of new problems, especially in nuclear powaviation, and rocket-space technologies, where high densitieheat fluxes, velocity, and temperature of heat agents can occuheat transfer surface acquires an active role in its interactionthe liquid and cannot be considered as a passive, stable, nonable medium. In many cases, we observe physical-chemical,momechanical, radiative-chemical, and other types of interacbetween the liquid and the surface. Without regard for thesecesses we cannot gain the complete idea of the heat transfercess, i.e., the boundary layer theory is inadequate for descrithe mechanism of hydrodynamics and heat transfer under tconditions.

Correlation of various experimental data on heat and mtransfer and hydrodynamics under these conditions, whichcount for achievements in the study of solid surfaces and surphenomena at the laboratories of universities and compaworldwide, indicates the necessity for a qualitatively new moding and a theoretical approach to such problems. The studmultilayer models of the boundary region of heat transfer forthe basis for the developed theory as applied to the models oPrandtl boundary layers. In the simplest case the boundary reincludes three plane layers: a boundary layer of liquid, an inmediate layer with nonuniformities of the microstructure of theat transfer surface, and a surface layer of the solid body, winvolves nonuniform and unsteady structures of the heat transurface. In the models studied, the boundary region of heat trfer realizes all nonuniformities of various processes of heatmass transfer.

If the Prandtl theory explains the processes in liquid, thenmodern theory of a crystalline structure of a solid body doespresent a unique description of its surface, since the mere pence of the surface~the boundary! is a ‘‘defect’’ of a three-dimensional structure of crystalline matter. This defect, a breaa periodic crystal lattice, leads to the appearance of geomethermal, chemical, and other nonuniformities of the surface. Wallowance for the diversity of these nonuniformities and inhomgeneity of physicochemical properties of the surfaces interacwith different heat agents that are determined by them, underconditions we deal with complex systems involving many unctainties. These objective difficulties of the consideration ofheat transfer surface problem are complemented by the diveof the methods of investigation of surfaces of solid bodies, tenological processes of the formation of surfaces, and their chaunder real conditions~deposition and other contaminations, fomation of oxide films on the surface, etc.!.

All these various and very complex processes are extensistudied by specialists who design heat exchangers. Many ware concerned with the search for the ways to improve thefaces and the methods of heat transfer enhancement. A largeof these works are devoted to partial problems, the results of mworks are contradictory, and the methods suggested in themnot always effective and adaptable to streamlined manufactura number of cases, the choice of the method of enhancement isubstantiated and has a random character. This situation masubstantiated selection of effective heat transfer surfacestremely difficult. Certain results of the studies reveal some cservatism as a result of which the possibilities for improvemenheat transfer surfaces for many fields of technology are not r

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ized. In a number of cases use of traditional heat transfer surfleads to the substantially overestimated areas of heat transferfaces.

The problem of enhancement of heat transfer through the efof the surface structure is of decisive importance in nuclearthermonuclear power engineering, aviation, and space technoand also in solving the problems of transportation engineermachine construction, environmental protection, electronics,The variety of the methods of investigation, experimental equment, and traditions of different branches results, in many cain unjustified duplication of expensive experimental studies, mtiplicity, and incoherence of recurrent design recommendation

A complex general-science approach to an urgent scientengineering problem on the basis of use of achievements inferent disciplines and technological processes, which is untaken by the author, is not only the summary of advances inconsidered problem. A comprehensive analysis makes it possto justifiably define perspectives of the considered new trendthe theory of heat and mass transfer, to facilitate wideningdeepening of research and development; hastening of the induction of the results of fundamental and applied studies ipractice has been shown@22#.

Two general directions which are related to single-phase floand vapor generation result in the development of fundameprinciples of the theory of heat transfer. In the first directioheretofore unknown changes in heat transfer on channel wwith discrete flow turbulization in forced convection were rvealed@24#.

4.2 Enhancement of Heat Exchange of Single PhasFlows. The first group that determines the formation of the sface geometry involves technological processes of surface trment. A variety of methods of its treatment makes it possibleobtain a set of the surface structure parameters. For examplRussia the standard defines 14 grades and 24 categories of getry @24#. However, the method of surface treatment does not dnitely determine the parameters of roughness.

The formation of the surface in mechanical treatment is defiby a complex set of properties of the metal of the treated surfainstrumentation, and the mode of treatment. For example, in trment by cutting~turning, planing, milling!, absolutely differentmicrostructures are formed on the same treated surface depenon the structure and properties of the cutting tool and manygime factors: respective velocity of the cutting tool and the sface, force of interaction, thickness and evenness of the remolayer, atmosphere and temperature at the contact point, typcoolant, etc. The complexity of integration of all these factopredetermines the uncertainty of universal solutions.

Thus, the formation of the microgeometry of the surface focertain material is stipulated by a set of technological factorsdetermine the type of treatment, regime, and its special featuIn all types of metal treatment, any newly formed surface psesses the properties of juvenility~homogeneous!, starting fromthe instant of its formation until the moment of its first contawith the environment, i.e., the surface of the metal itself issurface outlet of the crystalline structure of this substance. Incase, the structure of the crystal lattice in the surface layealways deformed. The mechanism of deformation and the formmicrogeometry are determined by the conditions of surface trment.

Irrespective of the technology of treatment, all surfaces of rbodies possess an ‘‘adsorption potential’’ that defines the pcesses occurring on the atomic-molecular level and makes ularge group of phenomena that form a real surface of the sbody. In the general case, it is rather difficult and even impossto separate this group of phenomena from chemical processeinteraction between the juvenile surface and different substanwhich are always present in the surrounding medium. Varioapproaches to the description of the formation of the structurereal surface of metals by adsorption layers are known.



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Achievements in analysis and experimental studies of theof heat transfer surfaces discussed in@31# occupy a prominentplace among the possible ways of heat transfer enhancemThese results formed the main trend in the construction otheory that described general laws governing the effect of aface in single-phase heat transfer, boiling and condensation,also possibilities of the development of engineering computatiotechniques and use of the most efficient surfaces with optidesign characteristics.

This behavior consists of the fact that, within a certain rangethe ratio of dimensions and the position of turbulization, ancrease in heat transfer leads hydraulic resistance as comparesimilar situation in a smooth channel. In 1981, this regularity wregistered by the State Committee on Inventions as a sciendiscovery~Diploma No. 242! @32#. This makes it possible to determine the optimal design characteristics of the structural geetry of heat transfer surfaces that provide origination of turbulvortices in the near-wall region and possibilities of rigid contover the process of enhancement of convective heat transferexample, it is seen from the results of comparative studies ofdesigns of water-water heaters of hot-water supply using longdinally streamlined tube bundles with ring turbulizers that subtution of smooth tubes by knurled ones allowed an 1.8-foldcrease of heat power of the equipment. In the equipment wone-phase media heat power increased by 60–80%, in evaporand condensers—2.2 times~for the same area of heat-exchangsurface!. Employment of tubes with an intense heat transfer sface in the form of annular knurling based on research with hexchangers of nuclear power plants, provides up to 12–15%ings of the calculated expenditures as compared to smooth-heat exchangers.

There also exist many examples of using the results of stuof large-scale technologies due to new design-technological stions, in order to enhance the heat transfer. In particular, thesults of the efficiency study of heat transfer surfaces of shatubes have found practical application in tube bundles of fire-tboilers, utilizers of waste-gas heat in industrial furnaces, andexchangers in the food and chemical industry, dimensionsweight of which were decreased by 1.5–2.2 times.

Most such examples of the results of studies show that pracally in all cases new developments directed to the improvemof reliability of thermal regimes and enhancement of heat tranprovide an increase in technical-economical efficiency of insments, equipment, and systems.

4.3 Enhancement of Heat Exchange at Phase Transitions. The formula for calculations of theDdep obtained by Fritz@52# takes into account the effect of only two forces on the diaeter of bubble departs from the surface: buoyancy and surtension satisfactorily describes the results of observations of tin pool boiling of water and other liquids on a horizontal surfaonly at about atmospheric pressure. Substitution of the expsions for forces affecting the bubble growing on the surface ithe balance equation yields an approximate expression forDdepwhich is valid for a wide range of operating parameters.

Figure 4 presents the comparison of the correlations of theameter of vapor bubbles at the instant of their departure fromheat transfer surface, on pressure obtained by calculation obalance of all different forces affecting a vapor bubble duringgrowth on the surface, with an earlier dependence in which otwo forces were considered~formula for calculations of theDdepobtained by Fritz@52#! without allowance for the combination ophenomena on the surface@53–57#. It is evident that, if the sur-face effect is taken into account, this correlation is in rather safactory agreement with the experimental data.

Points on a real surface of a solid body, where vapor bubboriginate and grow, are called nucleation sites~NS!. All microas-perities of the structure of the phase interface, where the cotions for origination of vapor-phase nuclei can develop, are potial NSp . All sites where, at the given specific parameters a



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The effect of microstructure of a real heat transfer surfacethe number of potentially possible nucleation sitesN per unit sur-face areaN/A is determined by mathematical modeling as a nuber of intersections of the plane parallel to the surface withcroroughness asperities. Despite the simplicity of the formulatof the problem, its correct solution by the method of correlatifunctions requires serious assumptions, even in the first apprmation.

One of the main assumptions is the adoption of a mean sizthe stable nucleus of a vapor bubble. Figure 5 gives a versiothe solution of the problem of determining the number of poten

Fig. 4 Comparison of the dependence of the vapor-bubble di-ameter at the moment of departure from the heat transfer sur-face on pressure for boiling of water on horizontal plates andtubes obtained by calculation of balances of different forcesaffecting a vapor bubble during its growth on the surface withexperimental data of different authors: 1, Labuntsov and co-workers †53‡; 2, Tolubinskii and Ostrovskii †54‡, 3, Borishanskiiand co-workers †55‡; 4, Mamontova †56‡; 5, Coul †57‡; 6, calcu-lation by the Fritz equation †52‡; 7, calculation by the equationof balance of all forces affecting a vapor bubble

Fig. 5 Dependence of the limiting number of potential nucle-ation sites on the mean size of cavities: 1, calculated depen-dence of the limiting number of nucleation sites; 2, region ofthe number of nucleation sites limited by a microstructure; 3,region of the number of nucleation sites not limited by a micro-structure

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nucleation sites for the case of water boiling on a horizontal sface. The result of solution is line 1, which represents the depdence of maximum possible nucleation sites on the mean sizmicrocavities~the parameters of surface microroughness!. In itsphysical meaning this line is a boundary between region 2, whthe number of potentially possible nucleation sites is limitedmicro- and macrostructure of the surface, and region 3, wherenumber of nucleation sites for the specified conditions isbounded by the microstructure of surface roughness.

At real values ofDdep the interaction of neighboring nucleatiosites, which distorts the considered mechanism of the effecforces on an individual isolated bubble, plays an important ro

The shape of vapor bubbles at the moment of departuredepends on the combination of factors. A hemispherical shaptypical of the region of low pressures at very low heat flux desities. Flattened bubbles are sometimes observed in highly visliquids and in thin films of liquid near a heat transfer surface.boiling of subcooled liquids and at high heat flux densities, ‘‘peshaped’’ vapor bubbles were recorded. However, in most caseheat flux densities typical of power and industrial heat exchangin both laminar and turbulent vapor-liquid flows, the shapevapor bubbles at the moment of departure from the surfacclose to spherical.

4.4 Borders of Area of the Boiling Realization. The mi-crostructure, cleanliness, and combination of thermophysproperties of the heat transfer surface exert an effect on all critthat determine heat transfer. This role may be both directindirect. To outer conditions, which are not directly related tomechanism of boiling but affect it, we can refer various effectsthe surface and the liquid. In partial cases, to this effects assigare: mechanical~shocks and vibrations!, electromagnetic, gravitational ~both increased and decreased!, ionizing radiation withinrather wide ranges, pressure fluctuations, and variations of mrogeometry and operating parameters of the process.

As a whole, direct or indirect effect of the structure and tproperties of the surface on heat transfer in nucleate boiling taplace at all fixed points that describe the dependenceqk5 f (DT)whenDT5(Tw2Tl) ~Fig. 3!. At the point of the onset of boilingthe surface determines the conditions of the origination of vapbubble nuclei, and in the region of nucleate boiling up to the ficritical heat-flux density the microstructure of the surface, amomain factors, determines the level of heat transfer.

The presentation of a set of curves corresponding to the lgoverning heat transfer under different conditions on the surfin the coordinates reflects their important role in the region of htransfer bounded. The consideration of interrelation of the teperature head in nucleate boiling, pressure, and conditions ofmation of vapor-bubble nuclei indicates the same character ofdependences for different liquids. These data, like similar graconstructed for many substances with different properties, indithat irrespective of the physical properties of a liquid, there igeneral pattern of interrelation of the parameters characterithe formation of stable nuclei, in relation to the state of the sface.

This suggests the possibility of describing a limited regionpossible attainment of nucleate boiling depending on the geomof surface roughness and physical properties of liquid, whichpressure dependent. A systematic approach to and computatmethods of the analysis of the role of the surface microstructurthe mechanisms of boiling and heat transfer can lead to furprogress in this direction. One of the important findings here isstrict description of limits of the region of possible occurrencenucleate boiling on real heat transfer surfaces in the coordinp-R ~Fig. 6!.

The region of possible occurrence of surface nucleate boilinlimited ~from the left and the right! by the dimensions of roughness cavities on the heat transfer surface. As roughness cadecrease, a higher pressure is necessary to make them into anucleation sites, and, conversely, at a low pressure the proce

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boiling on a technically rough surface cannot be realized. Frabove and below, the region of possible occurrence of nucleboiling is limited by the necessary minimum superheat of liquand maximum possible superheat. As the critical point is aproached, the necessary superheat decreases and, at the cpoint, it vanishes.

4.4.1 Experimental Study of Heat Transfer EnhancementBoiling on Real Surfaces.A large variety of experimental studies of liquid boiling under different conditions on different sufaces has been partially systematized in the monogra~@23,24,30# among others!. Here, we consider in brief only somecharacteristic results of original experimental studies of heat trafer enhancement in boiling of liquid metals.

The boiling of liquid metals has become especially urgent bcause of their unique heat transfer and nuclear properties, thato which liquid metals are beyond competition when choosicooling media for fast neutron reactors, breeders for thermnuclear reactors, and many other engineering devices that reqhigh stable levels of heat transfer at low pressures within a wrange of temperatures of the surface and boiling liquid.

At the first stages of the development of nuclear power enneering, mercury was favored over possible liquid metals; lathe main attention was paid to the sodium-potassium eutecand, at present, priority is given to liquid sodium for breedereactors, lithium for thermonuclear reactors, mercury for electriand magnetohydrodynamics devices, etc.

In contrast to problems arising with the use of water in hetransfer in the boiling of liquid metals, of special practical intereis the first stage of the boiling mechanism, namely, originationnuclei. In most studies, the ways are sought how to prevent ornation of vapor nuclei by creating necessary conditions onheat transfer surface and to enhance heat transfer at the expentransition from film to nucleate boiling.

Heat transfer in film boiling of mercury in tubes with naturacirculation was studied in six different tubes at pressures up toW/m2. An increase of pressure and heat flux density was limiby the temperature mode of the experimental sections~surfacetemperatures reached 770 °C!. The results of experiments are iagreement with modern concepts of the mechanism of film bing. At heat flux densities less than 80 kW/m2, film boiling ofmercury begins bypassing the stage of nucleate boiling which pcedes it~dotted line AF in Fig. 3!.

Fig. 6 Limits of the region of possible realization of nucleateboiling on real heat transfer surfaces in p -R coordinates „p ,liquid pressure; R, reduced radius of surface roughness cavi-ties providing stable vapor nucleation …



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4.4.2 Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Boiling LiquMetals. Physical-chemical changes in the transient surfacegion make up a special group of possible trends of enhancemof heat transfer in boiling, first of all, for liquid metals and othliquids that do not ensure reliable wetting of heat transfer sfaces. As applied to boiling of mercury, this trend includes theof amalgamating additives. In studying special features ofboiling of amalgams, we can consider a surface layer of amalgas a surfactant with respect to the volume of mercury. UsingGibbs equation of adsorption, transformed to the dependencadsorption on chemical potential, we can state that their lovariation, rather than variation of the concentration of the amgamating substance, plays a decisive role. In this case, adsorof surfactant not only to a solid surface, but also within the enzone~or many zones!, where deviation of the parameters of hetransfer from an equilibrium value takes place, is substanMoreover, one must take into account changes in mechanproperties of surfactant with respect to the mass of mercuryparticular, a film of surfactant is much more elastic comparedthe surface of pure liquid, thus facilitating attenuation of wamotion on the surface.

The analysis of the laws governing formation of the transisurface region, mechanism of boiling, and experimental studieheat transfer in boiling showed that nonwetting of certain sosurfaces by some liquids is the result of regular adsorption pcesses on a real surface, which precedes contact between thface and the liquid. Knowledge of these processes makes itsible to state that wetting of any surface of pure metal by asimple pure liquid is, in principle, attainable and to find practicmeasures for attaining wetting. These statements predetermthe possibility of wetting of pure metal surfaces, in particular,pure mercury under the conditions when contact between theface and any other substance is prevented.

Use of high-frequency inductive heating of vapor-generattubes in the experiments allowed one to reach high superheathe surface in contact with boiling mercury. During film boiling omercury, foreign substances were removed from the surfacereasons preventing wetting of the surface by mercury were elnated, and the mode of nucleate boiling was reached. This meof surface cleaning in contact with boiling mercury in orderenhance heat transfer in boiling has acquired the name of tmomercury treatment of surfaces@41#.

First results of the thermomercury treatment were obtained overtical portion of the loop with natural circulation. After 30 hr ocontinuous film boiling of mercury, when superheat was staabove 300°C over the entire length of a vapor-generating tubdecrease of superheat took place at some points. As the procemercury boiling goes on, superheat decreases at an even gnumber of points on the tube surface. With an elapse of 50 hr fthe onset of boiling, low-temperature heads characterizing theset of nucleate boiling of mercury occurred on the entire surfof the tube.

The attainment of surface wetting by mercury made it possto conduct a detailed study of the laws governing heat transfenucleate boiling of mercury within a wide range of heat flux desities up to 3 MW/m2. The resumption of studies with breaks200, 400, and.1000 hr did not cause changes in the attainwetting in contact with mercury. But even a short interruptionthe contact with mercury led to gradual destruction of a contious coating of the surface by a mercury film that remains onsurface after mercury has been drained from the loop. The raa decrease of the area wetted by mercury is determined byproximately the rate of mercury evaporation to air that is freemercury vapor.

The modes of nucleate boiling of mercury in tubes, as wellboiling of water, amalgams, and cesium, were characterized bystability and constancy of both flow-rate characteristics and tperature mode. A special feature of the approach to the generof vapor in boiling of amalgams is that an amalgam proper, rat



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than the amalgamating additive, is liberated as a surfactant. Csequently, in transfer of heat from a solid metal surface to boilliquid metal, the structure of the transient surface region willclude surface layers of solid metal, a layer of amalgam withdecreasing concentration of additive~or additives, in multicompo-nent systems!, and surface layers of liquid mercury.

In this case, the layer of the amalgam wets the surface ofsolid metal well and, at small concentrations of the surfactarepeats the microgeometry of the surface. Considering this stture of the transient surface region~with account of a realisticmodel of nucleation in boiling! we can assume that origination onuclei of the vapor phase will occur on the boundary betweenamalgam and mercury@44,58#.

During the growth of vapor bubbles, local concentrationsmercury in the additive to amalgam in the transient surface regchange greatly. As shown by direct measurement of the contration of magnesium in the vapor formed in boiling of magnsium amalgams, it is by three orders lower~,0.0003! than theconcentration in the zone of boiling@59#. But by virtue of thestructure of amalgams, their equilibrium concentration recoverabout the same rate as its change in vapor generation. Morefluctuations of the concentration of amalgams enhance the inbility in the transient region.

It follows from a brief review of an up-to-date state of thenhancement of heat transfer in boiling, theoretical prerequisand revealed regularities of the mechanism of boiling of liquidsreal surfaces, that all characteristics of the process of vaporeration can be affected by producing certain conditions of inaction between the surface and liquid. The main trends of pposeful influence on the organization of the mechanism of boilat the expense of the heat transfer surface are the creation ospecified structure of the heat transfer surface proper, the usmaterials with specified properties for continued, stripped,point coating of the surface, the use of physical or physicochecal methods of treatment of the heat transfer surface, which imthe required structure and properties to it, as well as treatmenthe boiling liquid, which imparts the required properties to it finteraction with the heat transfer surface. These measures carealized both individually and in any combination for speciconditions of boiling.

4.5 Problem of Optimization of the Structure of a HeatExchange Surface. One of the main factors of achievementthe optimum decisions at minimization of dimensions of a hexchanger, in particular, as steam generators, is maintenancthe most rational macro- and microstructure of a heat exchasurface. The possible variants of microstructure are limited byopportunities of the technological and layout conditions. With rpossible variants of the macrostructure of the heat exchangeface for specific conditions, steam generation can strictly bemulated and correctly decide problems of optimization of a mcrostructure of this surface.

On the basis of a developed technique of optimization osteam generation surface, principles of the system approachfixed @60#. The main object of the analysis: a heat exchange sface is represented in a kind of system, having hierarchical stture, including three interconnected subsystems. Thesubsystem—a superficial area of a solid heat exchange surHis properties are described by a set of complex thermophisparameters of a solid~which enter into determining the criteria!and a stereometrical, a set of rationed parameters of a surmicrostructure. The second subsystem is a superficial areaboiling liquid. His properties are described by a set of compthermophisycal and surface properties of liquid and steam,determining a system of criteria. The third subsystem is describy conditions and factors, determining interactions between hexchange surfaces and boiling liquid in conditions of nucleatof a new steam phase—nuclei~bubbles or films!.

Thus, the considered system, without fail, includes subsystwith a set of diverse properties, the description of which a

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determination of opportunities of management by them is ccerned with the different branches of knowledge and kindsactivity: to technological processes of treatment of metal surfachoice of parameters of thermal processes, physical-chemistrteractions of a boiling liquid with a structure of a roughness ometal surface, dependence from influences on microstructuresurface by oxides and other compounds.

The analysis of similar objects, containing a large numberdiverse elements, the functioning of which is subordinate tovarious laws of nature, study of conditions of their functioninand management of them as ‘‘by large systems,’’ is carried oumethods of the system analysis. The system analysis recogthat at each element of a system, each part’s availability of its opurposes is recognized. However each of the individual purpshould be, in the end, subordinated to the general purpose, i.acceptance of the target decision the preference in all casgiven back to a higher step of the hierarchy of a system. Frhere it follows, that for use of the system analysis it is necessfirst of all, to strictly formulate a problem and to find out the madetermining components, their structure, external and inteconnections and also laws of functioning of a system.

The main system analysis tools are axioms and symbols oftheory of sets, in which the set is great number of objects ofnature included in the given heterogeneous set. Using theseconcepts of the theory of sets and methodology of the sysapproach in considered aspect manages to construct a strict sture of a system for analysis. Particularly for conditions of tdescription of a thermal flux at mode of boilingQb , the consid-ered system requires the account to have three main compoin summary heat flux from surface to liquid

Qb5Q11Q21Q3 .

HereQ1 , the convective component of heat flux from surfaceliquid; Q2 , the conductive component of heat flux from surfaceliquid, and Q3 , the heat flux from surface for steam generatiand evaporation.

It is shown@61# that each of these is directly interconnectedthe properties of the boiling liquid, vapor, wall, parameters ofboiling mechanism, and characteristics of a real heat exchasurface—the wall. This interrelation is described by the followiequations:

Q15 f ~DTs ,l l ,lw ,W,p,s,¯ !

Q25 f ~Ts,l l ,lw ,lv ,hv ,¯ !

Q35 f ~N/A,Dn ,Dd ,hv ,DTs ,Fn ,s,¯ !

HereDTs5Tw2Ts , Tw is the average temperature of a surfacTs , saturation temperature of a boiling liquid for established prsurep; l, the heat conductivity;s, surface tension;N/A, the num-ber of nucleation centers on the solid surface~m2!; Dn , size of avapor nuclei;Dd , bubble departure diameter;hv , heat of phasetransition; andFn , the frequency of departure vapor bubbles frothe surface.

The management of a considered system with the purposachievement of the optimum decision on minimum dimensionsthe heat exchanger is carried out by variants of parametersmicrostructure. In general, the case of controlled parameterssubsystem of a steam generated solid surface areHmid , Hmax, theaverage and maximum height of rises and cavities in a structurroughness;SmidX , SmaxX , average and maximum step of rises acavities in structure of roughness on ax-axis;SmidY , SmaxY , sameon ay-axis; andFmid , Fmin , the average and minimum density oa cavities on a microstructure of a surface.

On a comparison of these parameters for a heat exchangeface with the characteristics of a vapor-nuclei-generation mecnism on this surface:N/A, Dn , Dd , hv , Fn , etc., and thermalparameters of a subsystem shows interdependency on themexample,Dn can be only in the interval fromSmid to Smax. A set of

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ment method on elementary processes of a steam-genermechanism with results of traditional representation of heat trafer data the account of bubble boiling in a kind of density depdence of a thermal flux and temperature difference

q5Kn~Tw2Ts!

where indexn is a function from all parameters of a steamgeneration surface microstructure and n5 f (DTs ,p,s,l l ,lw ,lv ,N/A,Dn ,Dd ,hv ,Fn ,Hmid ,Hmax,S, . . . ).

This conform with typical ‘‘curves of boiling’’ shown in Fig. 3.The common results of the analysis were involved with t

experimental data. With this purpose all known experimentalsults, containing data on heat exchange at boiling of differliquids on surfaces with a various structure, were used.

The methodology enabled one to execute a systems optimtion of the heat exchanger in three stages. At the first stagefound that possible limits of parameters change, including demination of n, and allowable significancesDT, in the field ofpossible realization of boiling, are defined. At the second staminimum significanceDT in this area is determined. At las~third! stage, minimum significance of the necessary area of htransfer—Amin is determined.

The complex optimization macro- and microstructure of hexchange surfaces is an effective direction of minimizationtheir dimensions and mass. Use of the received decisions,mum combination of accepted technological variant of configution of the apparatus for given parameters of the heat trancondition and boiling liquids on set, provides economic efficienFor example, by one variant for liquid—metals steam-generareduction of the capital making cost price of the apparatus manot less than 10–15%@24,62#.

4.6 Special Features of Surfaces With Coatings.Differenttypes of deposition of coatings onto the surfaces of heat exchers are widely used for enhancement of the heat transfer proceon the surface, protection of the surface, and for other purpothat change the surface properties in the required direction. Vous types, means, and technologies of deposition and charactics and properties of coatings are used. The main types of cings used at present are metallic, organic, organosilicones,some varieties of ‘‘filling’’ of the surfaces with particles of different shapes.

4.6.1 Metallic Coatings. Metallic coatings on the surface ometals, which can be deposited by electrolytic, anodizing, thmodiffusion, gas-thermal, hot, or metallization techniques,most widespread. Use is also made of multilayer coatings wdifferent layers differ in type, means, and technology of depotion. The variety of means and methods of deposition of coatidefine a number of special features of these coatings, whshould be taken into account upon consideration of their staFor example, for electrically deposited coatings these specialtures are stipulated, first of all, by the effect of the interactibetween the deposited metal and the surface of deposition,regime of electrodeposition, and electric parameters of the pcess.

If the deposit grows faster on the protrusions of the microrelthen the roughness will increase; but if it grows faster in tcavities, then smoothing~leveling! of the surface will be ob-served. In the consideration of the parameters of the microst



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ture of coated surfaces, all the features and characteristics osurface will be referred to the uppermost~outer! layer of the coat-ing. In estimating their microgeometry one can use the same cacteristics and parameters as for the surfaces without coating

It may be stated on the basis of the data of the studies ofstate of electrodeposited surfaces, that in an overwhelming mity of cases the surface is smoothed~levelled!. Change in theroughness depends on the type of current, time of action,other factors.

4.6.2 Polymeric and Organic Coatings.The formation ofadsorption polymeric and organic coatings on surfaces of sbodies is interrelated with special features of structural formaof these substances that reside in a continuous change of fotions and dimensions of molecular aggregates. In the procesdeposition of polymers on the surface of a solid body, the eqlibrium between aggregated and nonaggregated molecchanges continuously; therefore, a thickness of absorption lais, as a rule, much larger than molecular.

As the adsorption layer becomes filled, the mobility of moleclar aggregates changes nonmonotonically: first, it decreasescertain value and then it increases. The point of transition demines this variation of the process during which the molecuaggregates, which are in a weak interaction with the surface,into the coating layer. In this case, the mechanism of the proof formation of the coating of the adsorption layer of oligomemolecules is the same in adsorption from both the solution andliquid phase.

One of the rapidly developing methods of deposition of coings on the surface of ferrous and non-ferrous metals is the anspark electrolysis, which is also called microplasma or microoxidation~MAO!. This method is the development of anodizatimethods, but at voltages higher than 200 V when there arise melectrical breakdowns of oxide films and the electronic componof current through electrolyte, oxide and oxide-metal interfaincreases sharply. In this case, a sharp increase in temperatobserved in the breakdown channels where a low-temperaplasma is formed and the growth of the coating is accelerateda whole, the MAO method creates new possibilities of obtaincoatings of various thicknesses from different materials, includceramics and silicates.

4.6.3 Combined Coatings.To solve the problems of the enhancement of the efficiency of heat transfer surfaces, combcoatings are used in furnaces, combustion chambers, and cheequipment. For example, the first layer is metal coating, andupper layer is metal ceramic with a constantly decreasing conof the metallic component. As the fraction of metal decreases,absorptive of cermets coating increases. Thermal conductivitcermets coatings increases with an increase in the fractiometal. Chromium carbide coating with an addition of from 2540% of NiAl has thermal conductivity approximately 1.5 timehigher than chromium steel.

Exploitation properties of heat transfer surfaces with cermcoatings~resistance to corrosion and erosion, to cyclic thermloads, etc.! are much higher that those of surfaces without coings. The results of industrial tests revealed that chromicarbide-based cermets are the most acceptable types of comcoatings of heat transfer surfaces of waste-heat boilers.

4.6.4 Capillary Porous Coatings.Enhancement of heatransfer, along with other urgent practical problems~enhancementof reliability and reduction of the quantity of metal in machinbuilding, enhancement of surface strength, wear resistance, sity, etc.! stimulated the development of a new type of coatingsheat transfer surfaces—capillary-porous structures. At presthese structures are used in the form of sintered metal matand also matrices made of heterogeneous substances deponto surfaces during plasma spraying, electrolytic deposition,to ‘‘foaming’’ of surface layers and by other modern technologicprocesses.



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One of the promising trends in the development of heat transurfaces in nuclear power engineering is the use of sphericalelements or ‘‘dustlike’’ fuel in the active zone of gas-coolenuclear reactors. For example, with a diameter of particles;500 m km, the surface area of particles in 1 cm3 of volume willamount to about 100 cm2/cm3, i.e., the area of heat transfer wiincrease by 25 times as compared to the use of prismaticelements of a rectangular 10310 mm cross section for the samheat transfer conditions in the reactor. The properties of porcomposite coatings open new possibilities for their use in htransfer equipment of nuclear power plants of this type.

4.6.5 Low-Reflection Coatings.As the use of photovoltaicconverters of solar radiation~photocells or solar batteries! hasincreased, striving for more effective utilization of the incominflow of photons becomes quite natural. In the absence of coatiup to about 30% of photons incident onto the surface of a seconductor of then-type are reflected. Low-reflection coating alows one to considerably reduce these losses and to direct photo the boundary of semiconductors of thep- andn-type.

For more complete utilization of spectral distribution of phtons in solar radiation, use is made of multilayer thin-film phocells. For example, the upper layer of this cell adsorbs the phoof the blue spectrum~0.4–0.5 m km!, thus transmitting the pho-tons of the red spectrum~0.6–0.7 m km! to the next layer.

5 Ways of Increaseing Efficiency of Heat-Power In-stallations

On a boundary of millennia more than 90% of the needenergy in the world the thermal power system provides. Determing value of the theory of heat for perfection of the heat-powinstallations making both electricity and heat is considered in clective monographs@62–65#. The present stage of heat theoallows designating five basic directions of increase in efficienboth using and again creating heat-power installations. Theserections are based on the known laws of dependence of resuefficiency of installation from component products

h5hT ,hG ,hP ,hA ,hOPT,¯,

wherehT is thermal efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle;hG ,efficiency of a steam generation;hP , efficiency of a turbine;hA ,efficiency of a auxiliaries; andhOPT, level of optimization of allunits in the installation.

For using installations, achievable levels of increase ofcomponents ofh are defined by opportunities for change of prameters and steam-generator design, core turbines, and auries.

For projected and perspective heat-power installations onganic and nuclear fuel, achievable levels of increase of all coponents ofh are defined by new parameters and designs ofcore and auxiliaries, created on the basis of research results.

Already now, at achievement of optimum decisions and reization of complex optimization of achievable initial, intermedate, and final water steam parameters, it is possible to increfficiency of the steam power stations by 10–15%.

In the long term, with the use of new heat carriers and bodit is possible to increase efficiency of the new power stations u30–40%@66–91#.

6 Progress in the Theory of Heat for the Solution ofProblems of Thermal Modes of Electronics, Informa-tion, and Nanotechnologies

It is evident that a set of advances in analytical and experimtal studies of thermal modes with an account for design and s

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cial features of new technologies of microsystems and nanotnologies, and also of large-scale power plants and indusinstallations is of decisive importance for their reliability.

At the beginning of 2002, the Scientific-Research Confere‘‘THERMES-2002’’ or ‘‘Thermal Challenges in Next GeneratioElectronic Systems’’ took place in Santa Fe. Bird wrote a reviof this conference entitled, ‘‘Then There Will Be Accelertion . . . ’’ @3,92#. The Conference demonstrated an increasacute interest of the electronics industry to the problems of thmal modes of operation of electronic devices and instrumentsfirst of all, cooling of microsystems, the enhanced heat releaswhich is an inevitable companion to an increase in their hispeed operation and miniaturization.

The employed systems of enhancement of local heat remfrom the elements of electronic devices because of the usenhanced radiator surfaces and air-cooling fans have progressa high degree of sophistication~Fig. 7!. Nonetheless, the limit ofthe potential of this method of heat removal has been reac@2,6#.

In order to solve the urgent problems of thermal-mode opetions, the international community of engineers and scientfound it expedient to establish a new specialized forum aimethe employment of advances in the control of thermal processeelectronics.

Two typical tendencies should be noted. On the one hand,the search for new solutions and, on the other hand, use of eaknown ideas. Among these are, for example, liquid cooling athermoacoustic devices. The latter are known and have beenied as early as in the nineteenth century; however, only nowstructure where heat is removed by ‘‘singing’’ plates insidechamber-resonator are used for cooling microcircuits. Two protypes of thermoacoustic coolers~with dimensions of 4 cm and 1.5mm!, which decrease the temperature of chips by 10–20°C, wmade at the University of Utah. In the nearfuture, the designare going to present the prototype of a thermoacoustic cooleindustrial production.

Among other alternate methods of microcircuit cooling, ofevated interest are ‘‘microfans’’ based on a piezoeffect, whpossess great possibilities of miniaturization and minimizationenergy consumption. In designing, the positioning of elementelectronic systems is selected, first of all, proceeding fromconditions of optimization of their functional relations. Therefoin a most general case, a variant of the problem of selectingthermal mode of the equipment and its automatic control syst~ACS! is studied as applied to a random~chaotic! location of thediverse elements. Such problems, where a great number of dent elements are present and processes of different physical noccur, are considered on the basis of the method of systems asis. The analysis results show that at the modern level of kno

Fig. 7 Block of a radiator with a fan of forced air cooling amicrocircuit

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edge, in the general case, use of liquid cooling is the most psible variant of solving the problem of a reliable thermal modeACS @2,6#.

Using the possibilities of the efficiency of controllable thermmodes of microelectronic systems, technically feasible variantliquid cooling remain beyond competition. Neither thermoacotic nor piezoelectric, nor newly developed thermoelectric coolare capable of removing 200 W of heat per 1 cm2 of a microcir-cuit, which is typical in modern electronic technology and canensured only in liquid cooling. One of the versions of this problehas been successfully solved by a group of specialists headeGoodson at Stanford University who developed a water micpump~Fig. 8!. However, in this case, the most complex engineing problem—pumping of cooling liquid through capillary pipelines with a diameters of about the human hair—calls forsolution.

Hitachi, which is one of the world’s leading companies in tfield of nanotechnology and computational equipment, announthe creation of a new portable computer with water coolingmicrocircuits. This makes it possible to improve the efficiencycooling of elements by more than 25 times as compared totraditional air cooling. In this case, the noise of the cooling systis reduced, reliability is improved, and the weight, dimensioand price remain at the same level. According to the publisadvertisement, Hitachi presupposes the experience of use of wcooling in computers and other products based on nanotechngies, e.g., servers and plasma panels. Using the data of@2,6#,water cooling of electronic devices provides improvement of threliability by a factor of ten.

Only some results of theoretical and experimental studiesdifferent thermal processes considered in brief show a wide strum of real achievements in different branches of the theoryheat. Practical implementations of urgent applied problems ofprovision of reliable thermal modes of elements, instruments,systems, various micro- and macrotechnologies, and also thesibilities of creating principally new technologies based on thachievements, are very substantial. In order to provide a companswer to the raised question it is necessary to show that awith the provision of reliable modes of new technologies, scietific achievements in the field of thermal processes really extthe range of the theory of heat itself and open up fresh opponities for practical applications.

For example, one of the promising ways of developing nmaterials with prescribed properties is such a technologychange of the body structure when, under the effect of radiatthe structure changes from an amorphous state to a crystaone. This phenomenon, which has come to be known as ‘‘O

Fig. 8 Experimental block of forced water cooling



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onyx,’’ physically represents phase transition from a disorderean ordered crystalline structure. As follows from an Intel rep@93#, the developments on the basis of the Ovonyx technologyvery promising for microcircuits of memory and open up neavenues to upgrade computers. This technology is also a proing trend for other aspects of improvement of micro- and natechnologies, in particular, computer facilities and solar-radiatreceivers.

Operation of most devices and instruments of modern milittechniques, in particular, systems of control, night vision, guance, and communication, is based on the achievements otheory of heat.

7 Features of Consideration of Problems of ComplexHeat Exchange at Fast Heating

One of the actual problems of thermophysics is the compproblem about thermal destruction of details and designs.most typical of such problems are cases of a very fast risetemperature as a result of the concentrated allocation of energa limited volume. These are processes of burning and explosthermal emissions at nuclear reactions use of laser, space,high-frequency heating@94#.

At a modern level of knowledge, the unique opportunities aadvantages of this method over other known methods of heaallow its use for realization of perspective technological procesin metallurgy and methods of metal treatment. In the processolving similar problems connected to thermal destruction, deopment of the theory of thermal catastrophes is necessary.

8 Actual Heat Problems for Biology and MedicineAchievements in the application of new results of thermophy

cal studies are of importance for the development of modmedical and biophysical instrument engineering, for the devement of new methods of diagnostics and treatment, in particuof malignant tumors. At the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institutenew method of investigation that is based on use of a very s~only several picoseconds! pulse in a far-IR range of electromagnetic radiation spectrum has been developed. This radiatiotermed T-radiation, by analogy with the usual x-radiation!. Ascompared to ultrasound or x-ray analysis, use of T-radiationlows better results, e.g., in the estimation of the depth of a burin the search for a skin or mammary gland tumor. Because ofproperties of T-rays and the short duration of the pulse, onequickly obtain the high-quality images that are necessaryprompt decisions about the method of treatment. Scientistswork on an automated processing system. Using T-graphstained at different angles one can see a three-dimensional struof the studied object, e.g., a tumor. Thus, physicians will havvaluable instrument that allows better comprehension of theease.

Scientists think that, in the near future, instruments basedT-radiation can be widely used by physicians in hospitals. In mern biology, the T-radiation technology can facilitate decodingthe structure of deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic acids and indevelopment of gene engineering.

T-radiation opens up important perspectives in the fieldproduct-quality monitoring. At present, the National ScienFoundation and the US Department of Energy have allocaabout seven million dollars to continue the investigations iterahertz rays. Different instruments, which are termed ‘‘thermvisors’’ and whose action is based on the theory of heat,widely used in modern medical diagnostics and methods of trment.

At the Institute of Spectroscopy of the Russian AcademySciences, Letokhov@95# and his co-workers have conductedseries of experiments on the problem of laser cooling. The mimportant result obtained was the achievement of the sodiatom temperature of 3.5 K microdegrees. Such temperaturestypical of substance scattered in outer space. Investigation into



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behavior of substances at superlow cosmic temperatures icritical importance for progress in the discovery of fundamenregularities of the origination of life in the cosmos and on earAs Letokhov claimed, on the basis of these data one may conswith confidence, that the age of a gene amounts to;3.8 billionyears. This figure is comparable to the estimates of the geologage of the earth~;4.5–5 billion years!.

In the opinion of leading scientists in the field of biology anbiophysics, progress in this direction will make it possible to aproach the problem of the origin of life. Moreover, this must resin new discoveries in comprehension of the reasons for diseatheir manifestation at different levels~from the gene nanolevels toorgans, which differ by tens of orders!, thus making it possible todevelop new effective methods of medical treatment and progation of life.

Observing hornets’ lives Israeli scientists have establishedthese insects have effective mechanism for cooling the boViewed with an infrared camera, the images of separate horand groups of insects show that the temperature of a hornet’s b~or some parts of it! can be lower than the ambient temperaturesome degrees@96#. Researchers believe that they have collidwith an unknown earlier the phenomenon—thermoelectric cooof live essences.

9 Role of the Theory of Heat in the Solution of Envi-ronmental Problems

In considering the aspects of the value of the theory of hwith respect to global environmental problems at the beginningthe twenty-first century, the problem of the rising temperaturethe atmosphere is most urgent. The problem of the ‘‘greenhoeffect’’ or ‘‘global warming,’’ defined as the tendencies of a temperature mode of a planet, and the role in this process ofanthropology~man-made! factor, in second half of the twentiethcentury was put forward in number of actual global problems,only for natural sciences and industry, but also for politics. Askey parameter of this effect, the average temperature of the eaatmosphere, is accepted, and the major factor of man-made ience on this temperature is the emission of ‘‘greenhouse gainto the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases incwater vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozoCertain human activities, however, add to the levels of mostthese naturally occurring gases. Spectra of absorption and ration of these gases has been well studied. Current assessmethe quantity of their emission into the atmosphere, under varirecommendations, differ significantly. This is a result of the usevarious design procedures of their formation in various techlogical processes, as well as miscellaneous descriptions ofmechanism of physical, chemical, and photochemical processethese gases in an atmosphere. In some recommendations, themechanism of reduction from the atmosphere of CO and C2considers their absorption by water, whereas others consider abasic mechanism fixing of carbon by plants and the ground,Thus, there are significant divergence in the assessment oindirect consequences of the greenhouse effect: variationsstructure and quantity of precipitation, thawing of polar and cotinental ice, an increase in the average level of the ocean, anincrease in catastrophic flooding, earthquakes, and other phenena.

Our research into the greenhouse effect@80,96–102# are basedon a way to studying it not only from the viewpoint of climatchange, but is based on three principles:~i! rated and analyticaldefinitions of variation in the temperature of an atmosphere onbasis of achievements of the theory and practice in the solutioproblems of complex heat exchange;~ii ! use of a methodology ofthe system approach; and~iii ! search of ways to solve a problemon the basis of achievements of engineering development, ecially regarding new technologies—many are actively pursuprograms and policies that will result in a reduction in greenhogases.

MAY 2005, Vol. 58 Õ 217


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What is the problem of the Global Warming? In fact globmean surface temperatures have increased about 0.5–1.0°Fthe late nineteenth century. The twentieth century’s 10 warmyears all occurred in the last 15 years of the century. Of the1998 was the warmest year on record. All other climatic chanare the result of a rise in temperature of the atmospheric air~or theearth’s surface temperature, according to the U.S. National Aemy of Sciences terminology!. The snow cover in the NorthernHemisphere and floating ice in the Arctic Ocean have decreaGlobally, sea level has risen 4–8 in. over the past century. Wowide precipitation over land has increased by about 1%.

Despite of plenty of publications about the greenhouse effecdate there are no the in-depth studies using possibilitiesachievements of the theory of heat and mass transfer and a pbility of the interdisciplinary system approach on the basisconstruction of an integrated pattern of the given phenomenonto assessments of the variation of precipitation divergences inculations on patterns of well-known models CCC and Hadleyvery essential@61#. If on pattern CCC by the end of century deposits will increase a maximum on 2–3 in. for one year, on pattHadley they will increase a minimum by 9–10 in. for one yeAnd for many temporal ranges of this century-rated definitionprecipitation on patterns CCC and Hadley are directly opposFor example, in 30, 50, and 70 years, on pattern CCC, depowill not increase, and to the contrary, will decrease. The greadivergence in 70 years will be more than 400%. As a result ofabsence of reliable scientific recommendations, insufficienproved offers concerning the decision of a problem take place

In our approach, the basic processes in a problem are thelowing: radiating on different structures and property layers ofatmosphere, convective heat transfer in an atmosphere, absorand reflection of direct solar and reflecting radiation by differetypes of surfaces of continents and oceans, phase transitionswater-constituting atmosphere~evaporation, condensation, submation, the falling dew, etc.!, heat and mass transfer with atmspheric precipitation, convective heat transfer with oceanic crents, processes of thawing of continental glaciers, and variatand destructions of the snow and ice cover of the AntarcticaArctic oceans.

On the basis of research on applied problems in maintenancthermal modes in power installations, processes and deviceother branches, especially maintenance of thermal modes of sobjects, there are theoretical prerequisites and methods of clation that allow us, reasonably strictly, to describe all procesconstituting a thermal mode of the atmosphere.

On this basis, it is obviously first of all, necessary to consithe nature of essential divergence in patterns of calculationassessments of quantitative characteristics and the reasons fvergence in the assessment of the greenhouse effect, anthropics components of a effect to determine the basic directionmethodology of the approach, and to plan probable ways forpractical solution of problems of the reduction of negative facto

Very present assessments and other consequences of the ghouse effect are controversial. For example, the data on the risthe level of the world’s oceans, in different patterns change frseveral centimeters up to 80–95 cm. According to Kerr@103#, theaverage thickness of ice on the Atlantic site of Arctic Oceandecreased from 3.1 m up to 1.8 m and proceeds to decreasethe speed;15% per decade. However, other facts and opinioare available on the main issues: what are the true reasons foreduction of the thickness of ice; how it is connected to the areice rather than the sharp increase of thickness of the ice, marin particular, in 1989; how does the thickness of the ice laminatdepend on its age and variations of oceanic currents? Thesemany other unanswered questions of principle do not allow uunequivocally account for this factor in patterns of the greenhoeffect.

9.1 What are the Reasons for Divergence in the Assessment of the Greenhouse Effect? Human activities have

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changed composition of the atmosphere through escalatinggreenhouse gases. According to the laws of radiation absorpand emission in gas spectra, it conducts to variations of the tmal balance of an atmosphere. In our approach, the analysiseffect based on the system solution of all heat and mass tranprocesses as result, that the spectra of greenhouse gases, pthrough direct radiation from the sun to the surface of the eabut absorbed long-wave radiation from the surface.

Among the basic greenhouse gases some substances contatoms of carbon: oxide, dioxide, and methane~CO, CO2 , andCH4), freons~or refrigerants, as ClCnHm , FCnHm , etc.!, nitrogenoxides (NOx), not naturally occurring include hydrofluorocarbon~HFCs!, perfluorocarbons~PFCs!, and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),which are generated in a variety of industrial processes. Curreavailable methods for calculation of these substances in an asphere allow one to determine them with adequate accuracy.

One of the principal causes of the divergences is the compleof a natural cycle of carbon and a role of anthropogenous impin this cycle. It speaks, on the one hand, of different quantitatorders constituting a carbon cycle, and, on the other hand, a qconsiderable variety of processes, as in a natural cycle, ananthropogenous constituting. For example, assessment of thetent of carbon, in recalculation on millions of tons is estimatwith an accuracy of660%: in sediment,.60,000,000; at theglobal ocean,.38,000; and in an atmosphere,;720. For corre-lation, total planetary assessment of the content of carbon inganic fuel: coal, 3510; petroleum, 230; natural gas, 140; and p250 million tons. At the present time, world consumption of oganic fuel constitutes 10–12 million tons per year, and for thedecade, the twentieth century has made about 100 million tThis conforms with anthropogenous emission CO2 in an atmo-sphere from use of organic fuel in a range 22–25 billion tonsyear.

For calculation of the emission of greenhouse gases in theterm, versions of industrial development and consumption of elogical resources, which serve as the basis for calculationsquantitative characteristics, are accepted. The coordinated avespecific characteristics are accepted: at ignition of coal 94 kg C2on GJ, at ignition of brown coal of 104 kg CO2 on GJ, at ignitionof black oil of 106 kg CO2 on GJ, at ignition of diesel fuel andcrude petroleum of 72 kg CO2 on GJ, and at ignition of naturagas of 55 kg CO2 on GJ. Similar detailed characteristics are usat calculation of emissions and for other technological procesThat is, having accepted the certain structure of the resouconsumption, it is possible to estimate concentrations of grehouse gases in an atmosphere.

According the characteristic versions of the forecast of powresource consumption in 2050 in comparison to 1990 are giventhe WPC~World Power Conference! in Table 1: high—A; on theaverage—B; low—C, we have six variants of change of structof an atmosphere and change of its temperature, given in Fig

But as shown in Fig. 10, present parameters of variation inCO2 content in an atmosphere, even based on a backgrounnatural centenary and a thousand years, in the opinion of sscientists, predicted levels of variation in CO2 content and fluc-tuations of the earth’s climate occurred earlier by naturally pcesses, but it has not caused global consequence cycles, occat earlier unknown paces, and therefore the problem requires mserious study and acceptance of actual measures.

9.2 Bases of Methodology Choice The analysis shows, thause of ‘‘pull’’ or ‘‘line’’ patterns for practical task of global cyclesof substances does not give adequate results and, at the prlevel of knowledge, the most reasonable direction for the solutof similar problems is the methodology of system analysis.

The major fundamental positions in the developed methodolis the concept about ecological resources~Re!, and about a coef-ficient or factor of ecological efficiency~Ke!.

A multitude of ecological resources~Re! include natural sub-stances and compounds, natural processes, energy balance



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Table 1. Characteristic versions of consumption of power resources in 2050 in comparison to 1990 odata WPC: high—A; average—B; low—C „see Fig. 9…

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Primary energy, Got 9 25 25 25 20 14 14Primary energy mix, %Coal 24 15 32 9 21 11 10Oil 34 32 19 18 20 19 18Gas 19 19 22 32 23 27 23Nuclear 5 12 4 11 14 4 12Renewable 18 22 23 30 22 39 37Resource use 1990–2050,GTECoal 206 273 158 194 125 123Oil 297 261 245 220 180 180Gas 211 211 253 196 181 171

Energy sector investment,trillion US$

0.2 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.5

US$/toe supplied 27 33 47 36 40 36 37As a percentage of GWP 1.2 0.8 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.Final energy mix, %Solids 30 16 19 19 23 20 20Liquids 39 42 36 33 33 34 34Electricity 13 17 18 18 17 18 17Othera 18 25 27 31 28 29 29EmissionsSulfur, MtS 59 54 64 45 55 22 22Net carbon, GtCb 6 12 15 9 10 5 5

Note: Subtotals may not add due to independent rounding.aDistrict Heat, gas and hydrogen.bNet carbon emissions do not include nonenergy emissions or CO2 used for enhanced oil recovery.

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others natural resources, providing functioning of the multitudeall ekosystems. Each separate kind of resource of an environmis a part of this set, which directly or indirectly provides the abity of mankind to live. Every ecological resource is characterizby properties, quantitative and qualitative parameters, as wethe time of their natural formation, variations of properties, adisappearances. Usually ecological resources in an arbitraryare classified according to their environmental components: lihydro-, or atmosphere; energy of radiation; etc. Apparently, scial cases of the ecological resources are mineral, fuel, power,others that serve as a kind of classification of resources.

Fig. 9 Atmospheric CO 2 concentrations „in ppm …, historicaldevelopment from 1950 to 1990 and in scenarios to 2100. Insetshows global mean-temperature change compared to 1990.„Global carbon emissions in an atmosphere from fossil fuel usedepending on a version of scenario sources used in the worldto 2100. „WEC Table 1 data: A—high; B—average; C—low ….

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9.3 Coefficient or Factor of Ecological Efficiency„Ke… Generally, Ke is determined for specific manufactureseparate technological processes, as the level of impact on acific object of an environment by the relation

Ke5Bt1\Bf 15Bt1\Bt11Bi1

whereBt1 is the theoretically indispensable impact on manufature of a unit of production;Bf 1 is the actual impact on manufacture of a unit of production; andBi15Bf 12Bt1 is an excess parof the actual impact on the manufacture of the unit of productidetermined by specific manufacture. Ke is the universal toolthe comparative analysis of ecological perfection of the satechnological processes. In cases when technological processmanufacture render some homogeneous impacts of variatwithin the limits of specific manufacture Ke, it is determined btheir product

Ke5Ke13Ke23Ke3 ,¯,Ken

wheren is the number of homogeneous variations within the liits of one specific technological process of manufacture. Tmaximal value Ke equal to the unit is determined by the followicondition:

Bi150 and Bf 15Bt1

i.e., reflects a situation when actual impact conforms to a theocally indispensable level that is defined by the laws of indestrtibility of matter and energy.

Apparently, in that examined methodology, the efficiencyinstallations on transformation of energy is a special case ofWhen the value of Ke is lower, the subject matters less than wthe manufacture is perfect in the aspect of impacts on an enviment. For the same destination productions, Ke characterizesdistinctions on the use of raw material, energy, and on otherteractions with an environment.

For practical purposes in many cases it is more convenienexamine two constituting parts of Ke: a technological, Ket , deter-mining the degree of perfection of manufacture, and

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operational,—Keo determining the degree of realization of mesures on reduction of a level of negative influences on an eronment.

Experience shows that Ke evidently and objectively characizes a degree of ecological perfection of the ‘‘know-how’’ oninfluences on an environment on the basis of theoretically proand really achievable parameters. Among known proceduresis the most correct version of criterion~or factor! of ecologicalefficiency for technological processes~manufacture!.

9.4 Increase of Ke: A Way to Solve the Problem of theGreenhouse Effect The accepted methodology of the analysreasonably strictly defines~determines! practical directions of ac-tivity on the reduction of negative factors of the greenhouse effas an increase of factors of ecological action of technologprocesses of the manufacture of Ke and economy of ecologresources~Re!, determined on the basis of the system approac

In this way the methodology determines three basic directiof scientific research: the first, a deepening of study and devement of ecologically safe new technological processes forbranches of economic activities; the second, development of mreliable patterns on the basis of achievements of natural scienmethodology of system analysis and system engineering, andsibilities of computer facilities; and the third, acceptance ofproved international and national programs. All these directishould be subordinate to the unified objective stated at the FWorld Forum on Global Problems in Rio de Janeiro~Rio-92!:Maintenance of tolerant progress in the interest of presentfuture generations.

The first step in the solution of such large complex problemthe correct assessment of a share of branches of economic aties in total greenhouse gas emissions. For each branch, accoto the principles of the system approach of emissions, searcfor ways to increase Ke should be carried out in all probadirections of achievement of objectives. For specific technologprocess possibilities and improvements of parameters of acinstallations, both perfection of types of installations and develment of fundamental new technologies are considered.

For example, in the field of motor transport, the equipmentcurrent types of motors by systems and arrangements for cleaexhaust gases; creation of and installation on automobiles oftypes of engines using new energy sources~hydrogen, electricaccumulators, flywheels, solar power, etc.!; and creation of funda-mental new systems of vehicles when the main idea is the extion of harmful influences on an environment. A sample of suapproach is the creation of an individual vehicle for a city aconvenient small-sized economic ‘‘skateboard’’ brought in mo

220 Õ Vol. 58, MAY 2005


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ment with speeds of up to 30 mph with an electric accumulaUndoubtedly, each decision has well-defined restrictions becaof specific conditions.

In the field of power, the basic direction of the introductionnew environmental technologies, the power stations usingsumptions energy sources, are solar, wind, marine waves, etc

As an indicative example of an indispensability of the compcomprehensive approach, it is possible to specify and vary igtion processes of organic fuel. This process takes place in all kof industrial production, transport, and household sector, sucignition of waste products. Among major factors in this procesis necessary to take into account technology of preparation offor ignition, the organization of the mixture of fuel with air, thtemperature mode of the process, a way of combustion producexit an atmosphere, availability of clearing arrangements,From the set of all these stages, the organization of combusdepends on the formation, transformation, and emission in anmosphere in the structure of products of combustion; not ojoints of carbon, but also toxic substances.

Apparently, the purposeful increase of Ke of technological pcesses on the basis of a unified approach and methodologyradical direction toward the practical solution of the greenhoeffect problem.

In a problem of a perspective energy source from spaceenergy of space vacuum and so-called dark energy are considIn new work of American scientists@104# having compared mapsof the thermal radiation of disappearing traces of the Big expsion with maps of the modern universe, astronomers assertthey have found out attributes of the presence of dark enedegrading the universe. Models of dark energy are conveniecharacterized by the equation-of-state parameterw5p∧r, wherer is the energy density andp is the pressure. Imposing the domnant energy condition, which guarantees stability of the theoimplies thatw>21. Nevertheless, it is conceivable that a wedefined model could~perhaps temporarily! havew,21, and, in-deed, such models have been proposed. Authors have beening the stability of dynamical models exhibitingw,21 by virtueof a negative kinetic term. Although naively unstable, authorsplore the possibility that these models might be phenomenolcally viable if thought of as effective field theories valid only uto a certain momentum cutoff. Under most optimistic assumtions, authors argue that the instability time scale can be grethan the age of the universe, but only if the cutoff is at or bel100 MeV. Astrophysics concludes that it is difficult, although nnecessarily impossible, to construct viable models of dark ene



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with w,21; observers should keep an open mind, but the buris on theorists to demonstrate that any proposed new modelsnot ruled out by rapid vacuum decay.

In the opinion of astronomers, these results are an imporacknowledgment of the existence of dark energy and mark thselves as the occurrence of a common opinion concerning ththe universe the mysterious dark matter and even more mystedark energy dominates. Use of solar and space energy will prothe power needs of mankind without negative changes in thevironment and the solution of environmental problems.

10 ConclusionThere is no place for doubt in the great promise for the the

of heat!As mentioned in the Introduction, one of the aims of the pres

paper is an attempt to answer the question raised by ProfeNelson in his paper ‘‘Do we doubt too little?’’ presented at tASME-ZSITS International Thermal Science Seminar held in Svenia in 2000@1#.

Several examples of new results of investigations in the fieldthe theory of thermal processes that convincingly show quatively the new achievements have given quite a positive answethe question raised by Nelson—‘‘There is no place for doubtsgreat promises for the theory of heat!’’

Looking at the future prospects of the theory of thermal pcesses, it is necessary to note the role that is played by the thof heat in the development of physics’ philosophy and applsciences. The largest discoveries and scientific and technachievements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries arerectly or indirectly based on use of achievements in the theorheat. First of all, achievements in power, in transport, and in aspace and nuclear engineering.

The approach to modern physics by Albert Einstein and MPlanck, as well as Robert Oppenheimer and Jakov Zeldovich,ators of nuclear weapons, and also the author of the theorchaos Ilya Prigogine and many other oustanding scientistssources of their outlook and creativity had works in the field oftheory of heat.

Similar to the principle of existence formulated in the last cetury and unattainability of absolute zero of temperature, the theof heat is destined for constant progress. In the establishedbitual image of the blossoming physics tree, heat was always,will be one of the brightest, blossoming, and fruitful branches

Some of the considered examples from different areas of eneering, both for traditional and for new technologies, perssively specify a role and the inexhaustibility of the value of ttheory of heat for its development in the twenty-first a centuThis especially concerns the prevention of accidents and failconnected to thermal processes and maintenance of themodes. From this there is a necessity of further development odirections of the theory of heat and an increase in the leveteaching and studying it in universities.

This conclusion will be fully coordinated to our affirmativanswer to the question about the future prospects of the theoheat.

AcknowledgmentThe author would like to express his sincere gratitude to

William Begell, a famous editor and publisher of literature in tfield of thermal engineering, power engineering, and ecology,founder of Begell House, Inc., Publishers, for discussions, unstanding, and criticism.

References@1# Nelson, R. A., 2000, ‘‘Do We Doubt Too Little? Examples From th

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@2# Kraus, A. D., 1983,Thermal Analysis and Control of ElectroniEquipment, Hemisphere, Washington DC.



enare

antm-t iniousideen-

ry

entssore

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ofita-r toin

o-eoryedicaldi-ofro-

axcre-

ofas

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ei-

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@5# Yang, W.-J., and Mori, Y., eds., 1987,Heat Transfer in High Tech-nology and Power Engineering, Hemisphere, Washington, DC.

@6# Kopp, I. Z., and Obukhovskii, S. A., 1989,Provision of ThermalModes in Devices of Systems of Control~in Russian!, SudostroeniePress, Leningrad.

@7# Grief R., 1988, ‘‘Natural Circulation Loops,’’ ASME J. Heat Transfer, 110, pp. 1243–1258.

@8# Suris, A. L., 1987,Handbook of Thermodynamics. High Temperture Process Data~English edition, W. Begell, ed.!, Hemisphere,Washington, DC.

@9# Becker, R., 1974,The Theory of Heat~Russian translation!, EnergyPress, Moscow.

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mation of Energy in an Adiabatically Boiling-up Flow,’’ PromTeplotekhn,23„4–5…, pp. 5–20.

@14# Bazarov, I. I., 1991,Thermodynamics~in Russian!, Vysshaya Sh-kola Press, Moscow.

@15# Rumer, Ju. B., and Rivkin, M. S., 1977,Thermodynamics and Statistical Physics~in Russian!, Nauka Press, Moscow.

@16# Kittel, C., and Kroemer, H., 1980,Thermal Physics, 2nd Edition,Freeman, San Francisco.

@17# Kittel, C., 1977,Statistical Thermodynamics~in Russian!, NaukaPress, Moscow.

@18# Kouwenhoven L. P., and Venema L. C., 2000, ‘‘NanotechnologHeat Flow Through Nanobridges,’’ Nature~London!, 27, pp. 943–948.

@19# Gibbs, J. W., 1960,Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanicand Foundation of Thermodynamics, Dover, New York.

@20# Gibbs, J. W., 1964,Works on Thermodynamics~in Russian!, MGUPress, Moscow.

@21# Hill, T., 1963,Thermodynamics of Small Systems, Pt. 1, W. A. Ben-jamin, New York.

@22# Rusanov, A. I., 1967,Equilibrium of Phases and Surface Tension~inRussian!, Khimiya Press, Leningrad.

@23# Kutateladze, S. S., 1984,Foundations of the Heat Transfer Theor~in Russian!, Energoizdat Press, Moscow.

@24# Kalinin, E. K., Dreitser, G. A., Kopp, I. Z., and Myakochin, A. S1999,Efficient Surfaces Heat Transfer~in Russian!, Energoatomiz-dat Press, Moscow~English edition~2002!, Efficient Surfaces HeatTransfer, A. Bergles and W. Begell, eds., Begell House, New York!.

@25# Begell, W., ed., 1983,Glossary of Terms in Heat Transfer, FluidFlow, and Related Topics, Hemisphere, Washington, DC.

@26# Kopp, I. Z., 1978, ‘‘Influence of a Surface on Heat TransferBoiling of Metals,’’ Advances in Heat Transfer, Collection of Papers ~in Russian!, Energoizdat Press, Leningrad, pp. 258–274.

@27# Borishanskii, V. M., and Kopp, I. Z., 1968, ‘‘Combined Solutions othe Laplace-Gibbs and Clapeyron-Clausius Equations for Deternation of the Size of a Nucleus in the Vapor Phase,’’Proc. of 1stConf. on Thermodynamics, Vol. 3 ~in Russian!, Nauka, Leningrad,pp. 3–9.

@28# Kopp, I. Z., 1977, ‘‘Development of the Model of Nucleus Orignation in Boiling,’’ Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics, CollectioPapers, Vol. 1, Nauka Publ, Leningrad, pp. 71–80.

@29# Hewitt, G. F., 1998,Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, BegellHouse, New York.

@30# Isachenko, V. P., Osipova, V. A., and Sukomel, A. S., 1981,HeatTransfer~in Russian!, Energy Publ, Moscow.

@31# Kalinin, E. K., Dreitser, G. A., and Yarkho, S. A., 1972,Enhance-ment of Heat Transfer in Channel, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow

@32# Kalinin, E. K., Dreitser, G. A., Yarkho, S. A. et al., 1981, ‘‘Otkrytiya Izobreteniya,’’ No. 35, 3~USSR Discovery Diploma No.242!.

@33# Kopp, I. Z., 1973, ‘‘The Role of Real Properties of Heat TransfSurfaces on Liquid Metals Boiling,’’Advances in Heat Transfer,Energy State Publ, Leningrad, pp. 258–274.

@34# Kopp, I. Z., 1973, ‘‘Start of Boiling in Heat Pipes,’’Proc. of 4thNat. Conf. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 10, Nauka Press, Minskpp. 75–76.

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@35# Kopp, I. Z., 1974, ‘‘Investigation of Various Conditions on HeTransfer Surfaces With Liquid-Metal Boiling,’’Proc. of Nat. Conf.of Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics, Vol. 3, Nauka Press, Lenin-grad, pp. 4–7.

@36# Kopp, I. Z., 1976, ‘‘Experimental Investigations Various TypesMicrostructure Surfaces for Boiling Heat Transfer,’’Proc. of 5thNat. Conf. of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. III, Nauka Press, Len-ingrad, pp. 61–68.

@37# Borishansky, V. M., Danilova, G. N., and Kopp, I. Z., 1977, ‘‘Requirements for Structure to Heat Transfer Surfaces,’’Heat Transferand Hydrodynamics, Nauka State Publ, Leningrad, pp. 105–1@English Trans., 1981,Heat Transfer, Soviet Research, 2, pp. 26–36.#

@38# Kopp, I. Z., 1978, ‘‘The Role of Solids Particles of NucleationBoiling Liquid,’’ Temperature Rates and Hydrodynamics, NaukaState Publ, Leningrad, pp. 48–54.

@39# Shpilrain, E. E., Jakimovich, K. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1978, ‘‘Expermental Installation for Liquid-Metals Injectors,’’Critical Heat Flux,Nauka State Publ, Leningrad, pp. 155–164~English Trans., 1981,Heat Transfer, Soviet Research, 1, pp. 8–16.!

@40# Kopp, I. Z., 1985, ‘‘Dynamics of Temperature Regime of HeTransfer Surfaces,’’Proc. of VII National Conf. of Heat Transfeand Hydrodynamics, Vol. 2, Nauka Press, Leningrad, pp. 92–96.

@41# Gelman L. I., and Kopp I. Z., 1988, ‘‘Heat Transfer to BoilinMercury,’’ Teplophis. Visokich Temp.,3, pp. 258–259.

@42# Kopp, I. Z., 1988, ‘‘Analysis of Number Potential Centers of Nuclation in Real Structure of Heat Transfer Surfaces,’’Proc. of theCentral Boiler and Turbine Inst, Vol. 91, Trudi CKTI, Leningrad,pp. 64–71.

@43# Kopp, I. Z., 1990, ‘‘Capillary Processes in Steam Bubble Genetion,’’ Proc of the 2 Nat Conf of Heat Transfer with Phase Trantions, Vol. 2, Nauka Press, Leningrad, pp. 28–31.

@44# Kopp, I. Z., 1990, ‘‘Nucleation of Vapor Bubbles in Real Structuof Heat Transfer Surfaces,’’Proc. of VIII Nat Conf. of Heat Transferand Hydrodynamics, Vol. 2, Nauka Press, Leningrad, pp. 67–69.

@45# Volmer, V., 1939,Kinetik der Phasenbildung, Steinkopf, Dresden.@46# Frenkel, Y. I., 1975,Kinetic Theory of Fluids~in Russian!, Nauka

Press, Moscow.@47# Frenkel, Y. I., 1979,Theory of Metals~in Russian!, Nauka Press,

Moscow.@48# Westwater, J. W., 1979, ‘‘Development of Extended Surface for U

in Boiling Liquids,’’ AIChE Symp. Ser.,69~131!, pp. 1–9.@49# Tien, C. L., 1962, ‘‘A Hidrodinamic Model for Nucleate Boiling,’

Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,5~6!, pp. 533–540.@50# Bergles, A. E., 1969, ‘‘Survey and Evaluation of Techniques

Augment Heat and Mass Transfer,’’ Prog. Heat and Mass Trans1, pp. 331–334.

@51# Knudsen, J. G., and Katz, D. I., 1950, ‘‘Heat Transfer and PressDrop,’’ Chem. Eng. Prog.,46, pp. 490–500.

@52# Zuber, N., 1993, ‘‘Nucleate Boiling,’’ Int. J. Heat Mass Transfe6~1!, pp. 53–78.

@53# Labuntsov, D. A., 1963, ‘‘Approximate Heat Transfer Theory fNucleate Boiling,’’ Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Energetika I TranspoNo. 1, pp. 58–69.

@54# Tolubinskii, V. I., 1980, Heat Transfer in Boiling~in Russian!,Naukova Dumka Press, Kiev.

@55# Borishanskii, V. M., and Zhokhov, K. A., 1965, ‘‘Pressure RoleNucleate Boiling,’’ Atomnaja Energia.,18~3!, pp. 39–48.

@56# Skripov, V. P., 1972,Metastable Liquid~in Russian!, Nauka Press,Moscow.

@57# Collier, J. G., 1994,Convective Boiling and Condensation, OxfordUniv. Press, Oxford, UK.

@58# Kopp, I. Z., 1994, ‘‘Intensification of Heat Exchange at Boiling ofLiquid,’’ Trudi Pervoj Rossijskoj Konferencii po teploobmenu, 8,Moscow, pp. 117–123.

@59# Kalinin E. K., Dreitser G. A., and Kopp I. Z., 1992, ‘‘Modern Problems of Enhancement of Boiling Heat Transfer,’’ Izv Ross AkNauk, Energet.,3, pp. 121–134.

@60# Kopp, I. Z., and Nosov, V. V., 1997, ‘‘Optimization of a SteamGeneration Surface Microstructure,’’Proc. of Int. Conf. on CompacHeat Exchangers, Snowbird, USA, June, Begell House, New Yorpp. 501–505.

@61# The Greenhouse Effect, 1989,Climatic Change and Ecosystem,Wiley, Chichester.

@62# Kanaev, A. A., Ratnikov, E. F., and Kopp, I. Z., 1976,Thermody-namics and the Power Equipment of the Atomic Power Stat,Atomizdat Publ, Moscow.

@63# Kanaev, A. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1968,Liquid Metals Power Instal-

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lations for Ships and Nuclear Power Installations, SudostroenijeState Publ, Leningrad.

@64# Kanaev, A. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1973,Non-Water Matter for PowerInstallations, Mashinostroenije State Publ, Leningrad.

@65# Kanaev, A. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1975,Closed Cycle Gasturbine forShips and Power Installations, Mashinostroenije State Publ, Leningrad.

@66# Putilov, K. A., 1971,Thermodynamics~in Russian!, Nauka Press,Moscow.

@67# Kompaneec, A. C., 1976,Laws of Statistical Physics~in Russian!,Nauka Press, Moscow.

@68# Leontovich, M. A., 1983,Introduction in Thermodynamics~in Rus-sian!, Nauka Press, Moscow.

@69# De Broglie, L., 1963,La Physique Nouvelle et les Quanta, Flam-marion, Paris.

@70# Chambadal, P. R., 1963,Evolution et Applications du Concepd’Entropie, Dunod, Paris.

@71# Gershuni, G. Z., and Zhukhovitskii, E. M., 1972,Convective Insta-bility of Incompressible Fluid~in Russian!, Nauka Press, Moscow.

@72# Bhandari, C. M., and Rowe, D. M., 1988,Thermal Conduction inSemiconductors, Wiley, New York.

@73# Kikoin, I. K., and Kikoin, A. K., 1973,Molecular Physics~in Rus-sian!, Nauka Press, Moscow.

@74# Kinan, G., 1963,Thermodynamics~in Russian!, Energy State Publ,Leningrad.

@75# Kirillin, V. A., Sichev, V. V., and Sheindlin, A. E., 1974,Thermo-dynamics~in Russian!, Energy State Publ, Moscow.

@76# Fen, D., 1986,Mashine, Energy, Entropie~in Russian!, Mir Publ,Moscow.

@77# Fortov, B. I., and Bushman, A. B., 1983, ‘‘Models of the Equatioof the State for Substances,’’ Uspehi Phiz. Nauk,140~2!, pp. 177–232.

@78# Chyu, M.-C., and Fei, J., 1991, ‘‘Enhanced Nucleate BoilinGeometry Found in Structured Surfaces,’’ Int. J. Heat Mass Trafer, 34~2!, pp. 437–448.

@79# Kutateladze, S. S., Kanaev, A. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1967, ‘‘Probleof the Capacity Increase of the Binary Power Installations,’’ YWorld Power Conf., Preprint No. 28, Moscow.

@80# Kanaev, A. A., Skalkin, F. V., and Kopp, I. Z., 1982,Energy andEnvironment~in Russian!, Energy State Publ, Leningrad.

@81# Li, Z. X., Du, D. X., and Guo, Z. Y., 2000, ‘‘Experimental Study oFlow Characteristics of Liquid in Circular Microtubes,’’Proc. ofInt. Conf. on Heat Transfer and Transport Phenomena in Microcale. Proc. of Symp. on Energy Engineering in the 21st Centu,Vol. 2, Banff, Canada, Conference Press, pp. 162–167.

@82# Fukushima, N., and Kasagi, N., 2002, ‘‘Turbulent Momentum aHeat Transfer in Ducts of Rombic Cross Section,’’Proceedings ofthe 12th International Heat Transfer Conference, Vol. 2, Grenoble,Aug., pp. 202–217.

@83# Amon Cristina, H., 2002, ‘‘Advances in Computational ModelingNano-Scale Heat Transfer,’’12th Int. Heat Transfer Conf.,Grenoble, France.

@84# Hubka, V., 1984,Theorie Technischer Systeme, Springer-Verlag,Berlin.

@85# Kopp, I. Z., 1990, ‘‘Systems Approach to Analysis and Maintenanof Thermal Modes at Designing,’’Proc. of the Nat. Conf., Sudos-troenije State Publ, Leningrad, pp. 72–76.

@86# Ivanov, V. A., and Kopp, I. Z., 1993, ‘‘Foundation of the SystemAnalysis to Heat Power, 1,’’~in Russian!, Izv VUZ, Energy,6, pp.1–4.

@87# Chowdhury, I., and Xu, X., 2002, ‘‘Heat Transfer in FemtosecoLaser Ablation of Metal,’’12th Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Vol. 1,Grenoble, France, pp. 459–464.

@88# Faddeev, I. P., and Kopp, I. Z., 1998,Heat Power Installations forEnergy Supply and Environment Protection, State Univ Publ, St.Petersburg.

@89# Yegorov, A. D., and Kopp, I. Z., 1996, ‘‘Air Aerosol Pollution DataAnalysis and Airborne Lidar Measurements,’’Proc. of Second IntAirborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition, Vol. 3, Ger-many.

@90# Kornfeld, M., 1951,Elasticity and Strength of Fluids~in Russian!,Nauka Press, Moscow.

@91# Therm-2002: ~2002!, 7th Intersociety Conf. on Thermal and Themomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems, IEEE, Piscat-away, NJ.

@92# Intel Corp., 2002, Annual Conference, USENIX Association PuSan Jose.

@93# Kopp, I. Z., 2001, ‘‘Heat Transfer in One-Sided Induction HeatinBar in a Liquid,’’ Ind. Heat Eng.,3~5–6!, pp. 54–59.



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@94# Letokhov, V. S., 1976, ‘‘Problems of the Laser Spectroskopy,’’ Upehi fix. Nauk~in Russian!, Vol. 118, pp. 136–165.

@95# Ishay, J. S., Pertsis, V., Rave, E. et al., 2003, Phys. Rev. Lett.,90,218102.

@96# Kopp, I. Z., 1993,Foundation of the Systems Analysis AppliedEnergy and Environment Problems, North-West Politeh Inst Publ,Leningrad.

@97# Kopp, I. Z., 1990, ‘‘Systems Analysis of Heat Processes toGreen House Effect,’’Trudi Pervoj Rossijskoj Konferencii poteploobmenu, Vol. 9, Moscow Energy Institute, Moscow, pp. 101107.

@98# Kopp, I. Z., 1996, ‘‘Priority Tasks in the Green House Effect Intenational Researches,’’Proc. Int. Ecological Congress, Tech. Acad.Publ., Voronezh, pp. 11–17.

@99# Yegorov A. D., and Kopp I. Z., 1997, ‘‘Multiposition Lidar Moni-toring of Inhomogeneous Air Aerosol Pollution,’’Lidar Atmo-



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spheric Monitoring, Proc. SPIE,3104, pp. 239–241.@100# Yegorov, A. D., and Kopp, I. Z., 1998, ‘‘International Cooperatio

in Lidar and Other Optical Studies of Atmospheric Air Aerosol Polution,’’ Proc. of 11th World Clean Air Congress, University Press,Durban, pp. 64–67.

@101# Kopp, I. Z., and Yasenski, A. N., 1998, ‘‘A Role of Carbon Compounds Emission for Greenhouse Effect,’’Proc. of 11th WorldClean Air Congress, University Press, Durban, pp. 119–126.

@102# Kopp, I. Z., 1993, ‘‘Systems Approach to Analysis of Thermal Impacts on the Environment From Energy Power Plants,’’Proc. of 6thInt. Symp. ISTP-6, Seoul, Science Publications, pp. 131–137.

@103# Kerr R. A., 1999, ‘‘Will the Arctic Ocean Lose All Its Ice?’’ Sci-ence,286, p. 1828.

@104# Carroll S. M., Hoffman M., and Trodden M., 2003, ‘‘Can the DarEnergy Equation-of-State Parameter w be Less Than21?’’ Phys.Rev. D,68.

intsity,y. Heat he

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Ilya Zinovii Kopp obtained his MS in Engineering, NAVY Architecture University, SaPetersburg, Russia, 1946–1951; Dr. of Science, St. Petersburg, State Technical UniverRussia, 1961; and Ph.D., 1988, Moscow Aviation Institute—State Technical Universitbecame Professor in 1989 at State Technical University, St. Petersburg. Prior to thserved as Head of the Research Department, St. Petersburg, Russia, 1957–1986; Professor,State Technical University, Petersburg, Russia, 1988–1997; and Deputy Director and Headof the Theoretical Department, Scientific and Research Institute for the Atmosphere, Pburg, 1988–1997. He is the author of 17 books, including: Effective Surfaces For HTransfer (Russian Edition 1999, American Edition 2002); Power Installations for EnSupply and Environment Protection, 1998; Foundation of the Theory of the EnvironmProtection, 1993, Special Prize, 1994; Energy & Environment, 1982; Foundations of Tmodynamics and Energy Equipment for Nuclear Power Installations, 1989. He also ha

other publications and patents. Kopp is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of SWashington, DC, 1998; New York Academy of Science, 2000; International Information Academy, 1996, Itional Energy Academy, 1994, among others.

MAY 2005, Vol. 58 Õ 223


Documents

Problems of Thermophysics and Thermal Engineering for the New Technologies of the Twenty-First Century