Problem Statement How do we represent relationship between two related elements ?

Problem Statement

How do we represent relationship between two related elements ?

Relations

Definition

Let A and B be sets. A binary relation from A to B is a subset of A x B.

A binary relation from A to B is a set R of ordered pairs where the first element from each ordered pair comes from A and the second one from B.

Notation: a R b denotes that (a,b) Є R

Definition

Example:Let A = {a,b}

B = {1,2}Then {(a,1),(a,2),(b,1)} is a relation from A to B. (b,2) is in A X B

Note that (b,1) belongs to R but not (b,2)

Function as Relations Relations are generalization of functions that

can be used to represent much wider class of relationships between sets.

Functions can be visualized as subset of relations.

Example: F: A B is a subset of A x B

Relations on a Set A relation on a set A is represented as A to A

Example: A = {1,2,3}, R = {(a, b)| a < b}Represented as {(1,2), (2,3),(1,3)}

Properties of Relations

A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (a, a) Є R for element a Є A

Example: A = {1,2,3}R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}

R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3)}

Here, R2 is reflexive whereas R1 is not.

R1 contains (1,1) but not (2,2) & (3,3).

Properties of Relations…(continued)

A relation R on a set A is symmetric if (b,a) Є Rwhenever (a,b) Є R, for all a, b Є A

A relation R on a set A such that (a,b) Є R and (b,a) Є R only if a = b, for all a,b Є A, is calledantisymmtric.


Example: A = {1,2,3}R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}

R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)}

Here, R1is symmetric because in each case (b,a)belongs to the relation whenever (a,b) does.

R2 is antisymmetric. There is no pair of elementsa and b with a≠b such that both (a,b) and (b,a)belongs to the relation.


A relation R on a set A is transitive if (a,b) Є R and (b,c) Є R, then (a,c) Є R, for all a,b,c Є A.

Example: A = {1,2,3}R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2)}

R1 is transitive.

Combining Relations

R1 ={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}

R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}

R1 U R2 ={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}R1 – R2 = {(2,2),(3,3)}R2 – R1 = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}

Composite Relations

Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B and S a relation from set B to set C.

The composite of R and S is the relation consisting of ordered pairs (a,c), where a Є A, c Є C, and for which there exists an element b Є B such that (a,b) Є R and (b,c) Є S.

The composite of R and S is denoted by S o R.

Composite Relations

Example: A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2,3,4} C = {0,1,2}

R:ABR = {(1,1), (1,4), (2,3), (3,1), (3,4)}

S:BCS = {(1,0), (2,0), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1)}

S o R = {(1,0),(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(3,0),(3,1)}

Composite Relations

Let R be a relation on the set A.

The powers Rn,n = 1,2,3,… are defined recursively by

R1 = R and Rn+1 = Rn o R

The relation R on a set A is transitive if and only if Rn R for n = 1,2,3,…

Theorem 1

The relation R on a set A is transitive if andonly if Rn R for n = 1,2,3,…Proof:=> : Rn R

Given, Rn is a subset of R for n = 1,2,3. If (a,b) and (b,c) are in R, then (a, c) Є R2 by definition of composite relationship.

=> R2 R (a, c) Є R R is transitive

Proof contd …………

<= Using Mathematical inductionBasic Step:R is a subset of R Assume Rn RInductive Step:We know that by composite relationship 1. (a, b) Є Rn+1 , Rn+1= Rn o R For element x with x Є A such that (a, x) Є R and (x, b) Є Rn

2. Since Rn R => (x, b) Є R3. R is transitive and (a, x) Є R and (x, b) Є R (a, b) Є R Rn+1 R

N-ary Relations & Databases

Definition:Let A1, A2, …, An be sets. An n-ary relation on these sets is a subset of A1 x A2 x .. X An. The sets A1, A2, .., An are domains. n is its degree.

Example: Database relations.

Student_Name ID_Number Major GPA

Operations on N-ary Relations


Definition:Projection Pi1, i2,..,im maps the n-tuple (a1,a2,..,an) to them-tuple (ai1,..,aim) where m<= n.

Example: P(1,3) on Students Database: <Student_Name,Major>.



Definition:Selection Sc maps the n-ary relation R to the n-ary relationof all n-tuples from R that satisfy the condition C.

Example: Condition C can be Major = Computer Science.Gives a set of n-tuples with students majoring CS.


Student_Name Address Phone Cell

Definition:R: relation of degree m. S: relation of degree n. Join Jp(R,S)[p <= m and p <= n], is a relation of degree m + n – p thatconsists of all (m + n – p) tuples (a1, a2,..,am-p, c1, c2,.., cp, b1, b2,…, bn-p). (a1, a2,..,am-p, c1, c2,.., cp) in R. (c1, c2,.., cp, b1, b2,…, bn-p) in S.

Example:Join J1 on the 2 databases: Produces a databasewith tuples <Student_Name, ID_Number, Major, GPA, Address, Phone, Cell>

Representing Relation

Different ways of representing Relation are:

Ordered pairs (which we have already seen) Zero-one matrices (useful for representing

relations in computer programs) Directed Graphs (useful in understanding the

properties of relations)

Representing Relation using Matrices

Let A = {a1 ,a2 ,a3,…,am }

B = {b1 ,b2 ,b3 ,…,bn }

The relation R can be represented by the matrix MR = [mij], where

Rbaif

Rbaifij

ji

ji

m),(1

),(0

Representing Relation using Matrices

Example 1: A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2}Given R = {(2,1),(3,1),(3,2)}Find MR?

Example 2:A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2,3,4,5} Given Find R?

R = {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)}

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Relation Properties using Matrices

R is reflexive if and only if mii = 1, for i = 1,2,…,n. i.e

if all the diagonal elements of MR are equal to 1.

R is symmetric if and only if mij = mji, for all pairs of

integers i and j with i = 1,2,…,n and j = 1,2,…,n

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Relation Properties using Matrices

R is antisymmetric if and only if mij = 1 with i ≠ j,

then mji = 0

Example: The relation R on a set is given by

Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric ?

R is reflexive, symmetric and not antisymmetric.

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Relations & Matrices

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MR1UR2 =

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Representing Relation using Digraphs

A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of vertices together with a set E of ordered pairs of elements of V called edges. The vertex a is call the initial vertex of the edge (a,b), and the vertex b is called the terminal vertex of this edge.

Example:R = {(A,B), (A,C), (A,D), (B,D), (C,D), (C,E), (D,E), (E,A)}

A

C

E

B

D

Relation Properties using Digraphs

Relation Properties using Digraphs

A relation R is transitive if and only if whenever there is an edge from vertex x to a vertex y and an edge from a vertex y to a vertex z, there is an edge from x to z

Closures of Relations

Let R be a relation on a set A. R may or may not have some property P, such as reflexivity, symmetry, or transitivity. If there is a relation S with property P containing R such that S is a subset of every relation with property P containing R, then S is called the closure of R with respect to P. 3 types of Closures exists:

1. Reflexive Closure2. Symmetric Closure3. Transitive Closure

Reflexive Closure Given a relation R on a set A is not reflexive.

The reflexive closure of R can be formed by adding ordered pairs (a,a) not already in A, where a Є A.

These new additions will make the new relation reflexive which contains R.

Example: A = {1,2,3}Let R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (3,2)}

R is not reflexive since it does not contain (2,2) and (3,3). Adding these two ordered pairs to R will make the new relation, say S, reflexive. Also, S contains R.

Thus, S is a reflexive closure of R.

Symmetric Closure

Given a relation R on a set A is not symmetric. The symmetric closure of a relation R can be constructed by

adding all the ordered pairs of the form (b,a), where (a,b) is in R, that are not already in R.

Example: A = {1,2,3}Let R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (3,2)}

The ordered pair (2,3) is to be added to R. This new relation S will then be symmetric. S will then be called the symmetric closure of R.

Transitive Closure using Digraphs

A Path from a to b in the directed graph in G is a sequence of edges (x0,x1),(x1,x2),…,(xn-1,xn) in G, where n is a nonnegative

integer, and x0 = a and xn = b, that is, a sequence of edges

where the terminal vertex of an edge is the initial vertex in the next edge in the path. The path is denoted by x0, x1, x2,…,

xn-1, xn and has length n.

Example: Consider the directed graph G:

Path(A,E) = {A,C,E},{A,D,E},{A,B,D,E}, {A,C,D,E}

A

C

E

B

D


Let R be a relation on a set A.

There is a path of length n, where n is a positive integer, from a to b if and only if (a,b) Є Rn.

The connectivity relation R* consists of the pairs (a,b) such that there is a path of length at least one from a to b in R.

Rn consists of the pairs (a,b) such that there is a path of length n from a to b, it follows that

The transitive closure of a relation equals the connectivity relation R*

n

nRR

1*


Given a digraph G, the transitive closure of G is the digraph G* such that

G* has the same vertices as G

if G has a directed path from u to v (u v), G* has a directed edge from u to v

The transitive closure provides reachability information about a digraph

B

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G*

Transitive Closure using Matrices

Let MR be the zero-one matrix of the relation R. The zero-one matrix of the transitive closure R* is

MR* = MRMR[2]MR

[3]…MR[n]

Procedure for computing the transitive closure


Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}

R can be represented by the following matrix MR:

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]4[]3[]2[* RRRRR MMMMM

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Warshall’s Algorithm

Warshall’s Algorithm is based on the construction of a sequence of zero-one matrices.

If a, v1,v2,…,vk,b is a path, its interior vertices are v1,v2,…,vk

The algorithm computes Wk = [wij(k)], where wij

(k) = 1 if there exists a path from vi to vj such that all interior vertices of this path are in the set {v1,v2,…,vk} and is 0 otherwise.



Example: A = {a,b,c,d}R = {(a,d), (b,a), (b,c), (c,a), (c,d), (d,c)}

W4 is the matrix of the transitive closure.

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Equivalence Relations

A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if and only if1. R is reflexive2. R is symmetric, and3. R is transitive

Example:The congruent modulo m relation on the set of integers i.e. {<a, b>| a Ξ b (mod m)}, where m is a positive integer

greater than 1, is an equivalence relation.

Equivalence Classes

For an equivalence relation R on a set A, the set of the elements of A that are related to an element, say a, of A is called the equivalence class of element a.

The equivalence class of a is denoted by [a].

[a] = {s | (a, s) Є R}.

IF b Є [a], then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.

Equivalence Classes

Example:

For the equivalence relation of hours on a clock, equivalence classes are

[1] = {1, 13, 25, ... } = {1+ 12n: n Є N} , [2] = {2, 14, 26, ... } = {2+ 12n: n Є N} , ........,

where N is the set of natural numbers. There are altogether twelve of them.

Equivalence Classes and Partitions

For an equivalence relation R on a set A, every element of A is in an equivalence class. For if an element, say b , does not belong to the equivalence class of any other element in A, then the set consisting of the element b itself is an equivalence class.

Another property of equivalence class is that equivalence classes of two elements of a set A are either disjoint or identical, that is either

1. [a]=[b]

2.

Thus the set A is partitioned into equivalence classes by an equivalence relation R on A.

][][ ba

Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Let A be a set and let A1, A2, ..., An be subsets of A. Then {A1, A2, ..., An } is a partition of A, if and only if

1.

2. if Ai ≠Aj , 1≤ i, j ≤ n

Example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A1 = {1, 5}, A2 = {3}, and A3 = {2, 4}.Then {A1, A2, A3} is a partition of A since the subsets satisfy both theconditions.

However, B1 = {1, 2, 5}, B2 = {2, 3}, and B3 = {4} do not form a partition for A.

ji

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n

i

AA

AA1

Equivalence Relations

Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then the equivalence classes of R form a partition of S.

Conversely, given a partition {Ai | i Є I} of the set S, there is an equivalence relation R that has the sets Ai, i Є I, as its equivalence classes.

Example: S = { 1,2,3,4,5,6}

A1 = {1,2,3}, A2 = {4,5}, and A3 = {6}

{A1, A2, A3} are the equivalence classes of R. The pair (a, b) Є R if and only if a and b are in the same equivalence class.

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)belong to R due to A1.

Similarly, (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5) due to A2 and (6,6) due to A3

Partial Orderings

A relation R on a set S is called a partial ordering or partial order if and only if

1. R is reflexive2. R is antisymmetric3. R is transitive.

A set S together with partial ordering R is called a partially ordered set, or poset, and is denoted by (S,R).

Partial Orderings

Example: The “greater than or equal” relation (≥) is a partial

order on the set of integers

It is reflexive: a ≥ a for all a Z It is antisymmetric: if a ≥ b then the only way that

b ≥ a is when b = a It is transitive: if a ≥ b and b ≥ c, then a ≥ c

Note that ≥ is the partial ordering on the set of integers

(Z, ≥) is the partially ordered set, or poset

Partial Orderings … (continued)

The symbol is used to represent any relation when discussing partial orders

Not just the less than or equals to relation Can represent ≤, ≥,, etc Thus, a b denotes that (a, b) R The poset is (S,)

The symbol is used to denote a b but a ≠ b If represents ≥, then represents >

Comparability

The elements a and b of a poset (S,) are called comparable if either a b or b a.

Meaning if (a, b) R or (b, a) R

It can’t be both because is antisymmetric Unless a = b, of course

If neither a b nor b a, then a and b are incomparable Meaning they are not related to each other

If all elements in S are comparable, the relation is a total ordering.

ComparabilityExample: Let be the “divides” operator |

In the poset (Z+,|), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable? Yes, as 3 | 9

Are 7 and 5 comparable? No, as 7 | 5 and 5 | 7

Thus, as there are pairs of elements in Z+ that are not comparable, the poset (Z+,|) is a partial order.

Well-ordered sets

(S,) is a well-ordered set if: (S,) is a totally ordered poset Every non-empty subset of S has a least element

Example: (Z,≤) is a total ordered poset (every element is comparable to

every other element) It has no least element Thus, it is not a well-ordered set

Example: (S,≤) where S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } is a total ordered poset (every element is comparable to

every other element) Has a least element (1) Thus, it is a well-ordered set

Lexicographic ordering

Consider two posets: (S,1) and (T,2)

Order Cartesian products of these two posets via lexicographic ordering

Let s1 S and s2 S Let t1 T and t2 T (s1,t1) (s2,t2) if either:

s1 1 s2 s1 = s2 and t1 2 t2

Lexicographic ordering is used to order dictionaries

Lexicographic ordering

Let S be the set of word strings (i.e. no spaces)

Let T be the set of strings with spaces

Both the relations are alphabetic sorting

Thus, posets are: (S,) and (T,)

Order (“run”, “noun: to…”) and (“set”, “verb: to…”) As “run” “set”, the “run” Cartesian product comes before

the “set” one

Order (“run”, “noun: to…”) and (“run”, “verb: to…”) Both the first part of the Cartesian products are equal “noun” is first (alphabetically) than “verb”, so it is ordered

first

Lexicographic ordering Consider the two strings a1a2a3…am, and b1b2b3…bn

The formal definition for lexicographic ordering of strings is as follows:

If m = n (i.e. the strings are equal in length)

(a1, a2, a3, …, am) (b1, b2, b3, …, bn) using the comparisons discussedExample: “run” “set”

If m ≠ n, then let t be the minimum of m and n then a1a2a3…am, is less than b1b2b3…bn if and only if either of the following are true:

(a1, a2, a3, …, at) (b1, b2, b3, …, bt) Example: “run” “sets” (t = 3) (a1, a2, a3, …, at) = (b1, b2, b3, …, bt) and m < n Example: “run” “running”

Hasse Diagrams

Consider the directed graph for a finite poset ({1,2,3,4},≤).

Many edges in the directed graph for a finite poset do not have to be shown since they must be present.

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Diagram

Hasse Diagrams

Example: For a poset ({1,2,3,4,5,6},|)

Maximal and Minimal Elements

Let (A, R) be a poset.

An element of a poset is called maximal if it is not less than any element of the poset.

a is maximal in the poset (A, R) if there is no b Є A

such that a R b

An element of a poset is called minimal if it is not greater than any element of the poset.

a is minimal in the poset (A, R) if there is no b Є A such that b R a


Example: Consider the Hasse Diagrams of P({a,b,c}, )

{a,b,c} is the maximal element and Φ is the minimal element


Consider the following poset ({2,4,5,10,12,20,25},|)

12

25

20

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52

Maximal Elements : 12, 20, 25

Minimal Elements : 2, 5

Least and Greatest Element

Let (A,R} be a poset. A element a in A is the least element in A if every

element b in A, a R b. A element a in A is the greatest element in A if every

element b in A, b R a.

c dd

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a ba

b

ed

c

ba

(i) (ii) (iii)

(i) Least Element : a

Greatest Element : No Element

(ii) Least Element : No Element

Greatest Element : d

(iii) Least Element : No Element

Greatest Element : No Element

Upper and Lower Bound

Let S be the subset in the poset (A,R).

If there exists a element a in A such that s R a for all s in S, then a is called an upper bound.

If there exists a element a in A such that a R s for all s in S, then a is called an lower bound.

Upper and Lower Bound

Example: Consider the following poset with the Hasse Diagram

Subsets:

{a,b,c}: Upper Bound: e,f,j,h Lower Bound: a{j,h}: Upper Bound: No one

Lower Bound: a,b,c,d,e,f{a,c,d,f}: Upper Bound: f,g,j Lower Bound: ab

a

d

c

e

fg

jh

Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bound

Consider a poset (A,R).

The element x is called the least upper bound of the subset A if x is an upper bound that is less than every other upper bound of A.

The element y is called the greatest lower bound of A if y is an lower bound of A and z R y where z is a lower bound.

Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bound

Example: Consider the following poset with the Hasse Diagram

b

a

d

c

e

fg

jh

Least Upper Bound : {b,d,g}

Upper Bound : g ,h

Since g h, g is the least

upper bound.

Greatest Lower Bound : {b,d,g}

Lower Bound : a, b

Since a b, b is the greatest

lower bound.

Lattices

A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and greatest lower bound is called a lattice.

Example:

Lattices

Example:

Topological Sorting

A total ordering is said to be compatible with the partial ordering R if a b whenever a R b.

Constructing a compatible total ordering from a partial ordering is called topological sorting.

Topological sorting has application to the scheduling of projects.

Topological Sorting

Algorithm Topological Sort

Input: A finite poset <A, R>.

Output: A sequence of the elements of A preserving the order R.

i := 1;

while ( A ≠ Φ ) { pick a minimal element bi from A; A := A - {bi}; i := i + 1; output b }

Topological Sorting

Example: Consider a poset ({1,2,4,5,12,20},|)

2

1

4

5

2012 The algorithm selects the minimal

elements in the following order:

1 5 2 4 20 12.

The second minimal element can be

either be 5 or 2.

Similarly, either 20 or 12 can be

chosen at the later stage.

Documents

Problem Statement How do we represent relationship between two related elements ?