Private Post-Secondary Education in Four Commonwealth ...unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001057/105736E.pdf · New Papers on Higher Education 17 Studies and Research Private Post-Secondary

New Paperson Higher Education 17

Studies and Research

Private Post-Secondary Education in

Four Commonwealth Countries

by Allan Schofield

A Study undertaken within the framework of theUNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Plan inHigher Education Management

ED-96/WS-33 Paris, 1996

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Authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained insigned articles and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily thoseof UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication donot imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCOconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published in 1996by the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP

ED-96/WS-33

© UNESCO 1996


FOREWORD

Since the inception of the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme in 1991, one main aim hasbeen to foster the involvement of the NGO community specialized in higher education. Theirexperience brings a most valuable contribution to the conception and implementation of inter-institutional co-operation projects to benefit universities in the developing world. The NGOs ofthe Collective Consultation on Higher Education have responded wholeheartedly to this call forenhanced collaboration with the result that a number of dynamic joint projects have beenestablished with UNESCO.

The UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Programme for Institutional Development is an excellentexample. The promotion of higher education management capacities is a cornerstone of theUNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme and thus stands to gain much from the extensiveexpertise of the ACU-CHEMS Programme in this regard, In 1994-1995, the joint programmeundertook research and training activities around five major themes:

● Strategic Planning (including Strategic Planning Guidelines)● Higher Education Management Information Systems (HEIMS)● the Middle Management Development and Training Needs• the Management of International Co-operation in Higher Education● Private Post-Secondary Education

The present document analyses the development of private post-secondary education inselected Commonwealth countries. Four case studies are used to describe current provision andthe criteria used by governments to authorize the establishment, accreditation and monitoring ofprivate post-secondary institutions.

In this changing climate of higher education, privatization has become a much discussedissue. While actual provision differs widely across the regions of the world, the trend itself isone of the most important aspects characterizing the sub-sector at the end of the 20th century.For this reason, it constitutes a major challenge for national and institutional policy-makers andthus merits further research. The UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS study is a step towards this goal.

UNESCO wishes to thank ACU-CHEMS for its intellectual and practical co-operationin this useful project designed to strengthen management capacities in higher educationinstitutions.

Marco Antonio R. DiasDirector

Division of Higher Education


Contributors

Allan Schofield is a consultant in the management and organisation of highereducation, and is head of The Higher Education Consultancy Group in the UnitedKingdom. He is also a consultant to CHEMS, and during its formation served asActing Deputy Director. He has worked on numerous international projects involvinghigher education, including acting as team leader on a major Asian Development Bankstudy which reviewed all aspects of the Indonesian private higher education system.

Monica Barrow is the Head of Training and Development in the Nigerian NationalUniversities Commission where she has worked since 1975, and in which capacity hasbeen heavily involved in both staff development and personnel management. She isalso Chair of the Staff Development Subcommittee of the NUC-World BankImplementation Project Unit.

John Knight is a reader in education in the Graduate School of Education at theUniversity of Queensland. The focus of his research is education policy in Australia,with particular attention to higher education, teacher education, the restructuring ofeducation, and the sociology of education. He has published extensively in all theseareas.

Professor Tan Sri Date’ Awang Had Bin Salleh has been Executive Head of theAkademi Filem Malaysia since 1991. Prior to that he held a number of seniorpositions within higher education including acting as Special Advisor to the Ministryof Education, serving as Foundation Vice-Chancellor of Universiti Utara Malaysia,and being Vice-Chancellor of University Kebangsaan Malaysia. He has publishedwidely on higher education policy.

Merle Warry is a research assistant in the Graduate School of Education at theUniversity of Queensland where she has been involved in numerous research projects,including a study which investigated the changes that have occurred in Australianhigher education following the transition from elite to mass provision.

Dr W M Zaki has been an associate of MM Pakistan since 1992 where he is involvedin projects concerning education and training. Prior to that he was Vice-Chancellor ofAllama Iqbal Open University, and has held numerous other senior positions,including on projects supported by UNESCO. He has published widely on educationpolicy in both Pakistan and other countries.


Contents

Page

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An Overview of the Development of Private 1-14Post-Secondary Education in SelectedCommonwealth Countries

Allan Schofield

Private Post-Secondary Education in Australia 15-51

John Knight and Merle Warry

Private Post-Secondary Education in Malaysia 53-67

Dr Awang Had bin Salleh

Developments in Private Post SecondaryEducation in Nigeria

Monica Barrow

69-83

5 Private Post-Secondary Education in Pakistan 85-106

Professor W M Zaki


Chapter 1: An Overview of the Development of Private Post-Secondary Education in Selected CommonwealthCountries

Allan Schofield

Introduction and Terms of Reference

In many Commonwealth countries there continues to be increasing interest in thedevelopment of private post-secondary education, and although such provision is wellestablished in a small number of education systems (for example, India andBangladesh), it is only relatively recently that significant interest and expansion hasoccurred elsewhere. However, outside the Commonwealth the developing world ischaracterised by wide range of practice from countries with no private provision at ail,to the Philippines where private enrolment is more than 80% of the total in highereducation. Other countries with a majority of post-secondary students within the privatesector include South Korea, Indonesia, Brazil, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic(Levy, 1993). Within the Commonwealth, with the exception of India and Bangladesh,progress has, in general, been slow despite the prominent examples of the University ofBuckingham in England and Bond University in Australia, and it has only been duringthe past decade that significant activity has started to take place.

In this context, this study was conceived to update information about provision inselected Commonwealth countries, and in particular to examine both trends andoperational issues in some detail, As agreed with UNESCO the specific purposes of thisstudy were “to undertake the design, dissemination and analysis of an internationalsurvey in private post-secondary education covering at least four Commonwealthcountries, and to prepare a report containing summaries of country data studied, and thecriteria used by governments to authorise the establishment, accreditation andmonitoring of private post-secondary education institutions. ”

Four countries were chosen: Australia, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Malaysia, the rationalebeing to select a range of different types of post-secondary systems in differentgeographical regions, and also to ensure that existing information on private post-secondary education in other parts of the Commonwealth (for example, on Cyprus,Kenya, and Zimbabwe) was not duplicated. In particular the Association of AfricanUniversities has recently surveyed private provision in parts of anglophone Africa, andhas concluded that private university education is very much in its infancy. Only a fewAfrican countries (principally Kenya) have such private provision, and where it exists itis, with a few notable exceptions, of recent origin, has small enrollments, and provides alimited range of courses, covering humanities, business studies, technical and vocationalprogrammes, and training for religious service.

Throughout this study the term ‘post-secondary education’ has been used in order toemphasise that a range of private provision may exist and be provided at a number oflevels including diploma,post-secondary education

certificate, and degree. Exact definitions of what constitutesare impossible because of the variations in different country

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systems, but where possible the intention has been to include all those private providersoffering alternative or parallel provision to existing state funded institutions. If thestudy had been restricted to those institutions only offering degree programmes it wouldhave ignored many interesting developments, and also would not have been able to takeaccount of the processes by which private institutions upgrade their programmes overtime from sub--degree to degree level. However, the study does not includeconsideration of skills based technical and vocational education.

This opening Chapter is intended as an introduction and overview of the four countrystudies. Attached to the country studies are several appendices which contain details ofgovernment regulations and accreditation procedures, and these have been included toenable points of detail in government regulatory frameworks to be identified.

Developments in Private Post-Secondary Education

The World Bank report ‘Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience’, identifies therapid growth in private post-secondary provision in many countries, but as is notedbelow its development in Africa has been slower, and only four countries have anysignificant provision: Kenya, Zimbabwe, Liberia, and Rwanda. As a recent Associationof African Universities Study shows not only are most of the institutions relativelyrecent, but many have involved a strong religious backing, which has implications forfinancing, and the level of fees charged (AAU 1995). None of the private universitiessurveyed by the AAU featured a full cost-recovery regime.

A further feature of much existing private provision in both the Commonwealth ingeneral and Africa in particular, is the small size of enrolment and the very limitedrange of programmes on offer. For example, enrolment in Kenya in 1992-3 stood at2,000 as compared to 41,000 in the five public institutions, and total enrolment in thetwo private universities in Zimbabwe in 1994 totalled 540. Within African private post-secondary education the dominant subject studied is business studies and related topicswith the next most popular religious studies. In the whole of Africa there are no post-secondary institutions with anything resembling a comprehensive portfolio ofprogrammes. It is within this context that the recent developments in Nigeria describedbelow have to be seen, and in what was Africa’s largest post-secondary sector, one ofthe most interesting developments will be to see if Nigerian private post-secondaryproviders can become more comprehensive institutions to rival their established statecompetitors.

Although all four studies considered in this report demonstrate increasing interest inprivate post-secondary education, they represent different examples of the extent towhich private provision has traditionally been an accepted part of post-secondaryeducation. Not surprisingly private provision is most established in Australia, and thefirst private institution to be established was formed in 1856, and by 1910 at least fourinstitutions were in existence, all with religious missions. This tradition, along withappropriate economic conditions and government regulations which are the same forprivate post-secondary institutions as for the establishment of any other business, haveassisted the rapid growth in the past decade to 29 institutions. However, private

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institutions cannot confer formal qualifications (bachelors and higher degrees) withoutformal accreditation, and indeed are legally prevented from doing so.

On the other hand, the growth of private institutions in both Nigeria and Pakistan hasbeen retarded by political decisions in both countries to prohibit private education (in thecase of Pakistan through nationalisation), and only recently have both systems begun torelax constraints and been able to build upon previous initiatives. Such objections toprivate post-secondary education have occurred in varying forms in manyCommonwealth countries, and only recently have political and social conditions becomemore favorable.

Private post-secondary education to degree level is also relatively new in Malaysia, butis now receiving strong support from government as part of the 2020-Vision programmewhich amongst other things aims to ensure that Malaysia becomes a contributor to theexpansion of knowledge in the world community rather than being solely a recipient ofit. Consistent with the belief that the future engine of national growth will rest with theprivate sector, more of education is to be placed in private hands, encouraged by theprovisions of a new Private Higher Education Institutions Act and a new Department ofPrivate Higher Education which has been recently established. A particularlyinteresting feature of such developments is the encouragement of private colleges inMalaysia to form twinning arrangements and partnerships with foreign institutionsrather than with existing state universities, although this pattern of provision may changeunder the new arrangements.

However, despite recent growth the numbers of institutions and students remain small inrelation to the state post-secondary systems in all countries surveyed, and this pattern istypical of the Commonwealth, where most systems have, of course, been based uponthe British model of higher education whereby state finding has been provided, oftenassociated with quite generous levels of student support. This is in marked contrast tothe rapid development of private post-secondary education in some non-Commonwealthcountries, for example in Indonesia where within a ten year period student enrolmenthad quadrupled in size from 324,266 to 1,275,352, a figure which representedapproximately 70% of total enrolment in all post-secondary education (Schofield 1995).

In summary, the studies represent different examples of the development of private post-secondary provision: two are in their infancy after previous attempts were halted forpolitical reasons (Nigeria and Pakistan); one is developing in a process of partnershipwith foreign institutions (Malaysia); and the other is both more developed and operateson a more competitive basis with public sector institutions (Australia).

Institutional Mission and Types of Private Post-Secondary Provision

In a number of non-Commonwealth states the growth of private post-secondaryinstitutions has been associated with the ‘public failure’ of state institutions, which mayhave become associated with student overcrowding, political conflict, and declining orinefficiently used resources (Levy 1993). Although this represents a problem inCommonwealth Africa, most of the examples of private post-secondary institutionsidentified in the four countries studied have developed not for this reason, but rather

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because of strong demand pressures from students and parents, not for private educationas such, but rather because of the absence of state funded provision, thus raising broaderissues of equity and access to post-secondary education. Thus as the section on Pakistanmakes clear, the growth in post-secondary education has been triggered largely becauseof comparatively low levels of investment in higher education by the government, andthis pattern is found in many Commonwealth countries.

Conversely, there are a smaller number of higher education systems where supply-sidefactors have been instrumental in encouraging private post-secondary education, andoutside the Commonwealth in many countries in Asia and Latin America the supply ofpublic educational services by the state has been less in evidence. In this context,Australia presents air interesting illustration of the importance of supply-side pressurefor post-secondary education, and of the three main reasons for the establishment ofprivate institutions two are attributable to such factors: the growth of religiously orientedinstitutions (a factor also reported in Nigeria); and the establishment of institutions forcommercial and profit oriented reasons. The third reason identified in the Australianchapter is more demand driven: the growth of specialist institutions providing a widevariety of courses in one area of activity, and thus meeting current demand forintegrated provision perhaps on a credit accumulation basis.

In contrast, the objectives for private institutions in Pakistan are reported to be primarilyconcerned with increasing student access and meeting social demand for highereducation, together with the introduction of competition to the existing state sector.Indeed, in Pakistan private post-secondary institutions are reported as not being profitearning institutions, and may not qualify for Government financial support if thiscondition is infringed. Such an approach represents a potential form of partnershipbetween private and public sectors, whereby the state increasingly recognises thatfunding all educational activities from within the public sector may be impossible.

In Malaysia the development of private institutions is set within the overall context ofthe inability of the public sector to meet the extensive human resource needs of thecountry as it embarks upon its industrialization policy. Encouraged by a liberal policyon the use of English as a medium of instruction, the move towards privatisation hasbeen encouraged by the stare as a way of checking the large outflow of foreign currencysince the government spends about three billion Malaysiam ringgit annually on studentsstudying abroad. As in other countries, the majority of academic programmes are insubjects for which there is relatively low capital outlay, for example, managementeducation, however, at least two other notably developments are reported in the sectionon Malaysia: the establishment of two private medical colleges, and a number of privatecorporations having been invited by government to establish universities in subjects suchas petroleum engineering and telecommunications.

A significant feature in all four countries studied is the influence of religion as a factorin the development of private post-secondary education, either as a motive for theestablishment of institutions, or in articulating a set of social and cultural conditions inwhich secular institutions may have to operate. The section on Australia notes theimportance of the growth of fundamentalist Christian institutions, reflecting the pluralistnature of contemporary Australian scciety. Such trends are also found in many othercountries both inside and outside the Commonwealth, and the influence of both Islamic

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and Catholic religions in the formation of institutions is strong in the private post-secondary sectors of the Philippines, Indonesia, and some other South East Asiannations.

With the exception of Australia, the countries studied do not suggest that theestablishment of private post-secondary institutions is currently seen as an opportunityfor profit making as a commercial enterprise, although this is undoubtedly the case inthe private further and technical education sector which this review does not cover.Indeed, in both Nigeria and Pakistan government restrictions clearly emphasis the rolethat such institutions should play in the future in nation building, although in the formerit is interesting-that the initial experiment with private sector education initiatives in the1980s was halted because commercial pressures were felt to be too influential in therapid establishment of institutions. Nonetheless in some other countries the expansionof private institutions has often been undertaken as a commercial venture, in some casesby academic staff at nearby state institutions who for financial reasons may be unable toexist on a public sector salary, and who may attempt to found their own institutions as away of supplementing income.

Other than some modest developments in Australia, there is little indication in the othercountries studied that private post-secondary institutions have yet become comprehensiveinstitutions in terms of both the range of academic programmes and levels of awardsoffered. In addition, there is also little sign of the majority of institutions undertakingany significant research role, although it is likely that those institutions teaching appliedsubjects may be undertaking some consultancy in popular areas.

In all four countries studied the state system of post-secondary education remains thepreferred provider for the overwhelming majority of students and parents, as is the casein the majority of Commonwealth countries. As such there is no evidence of privatepost-secondary institutions becoming a preferred form of education for sociallyprivileged groups, as may be the case in some Latin American nations.

The Role of Government in Private Post-Secondary Education

The four countries studied demonstrate clearly differing attitudes to the role ofgovernment in the development and operation of private post-secondary education. Inthree countries (Malaysia, Nigeria and Pakistan) such education has only recently beenpermitted, although in some cases private colleges existed in a colonial era. In the otherstudy the government of Australia has adopted a more neutral attitude to such provision,relying on market forces to highlight any unmet demand in higher education that untilrecently had been resourced almost entirely from public sources. In no case has thegovernment of any of the countries studied adopted a policy of encouraging private post-secondary education, and this position is found throughout the Commonwealth. This, ofcourse, contrasts strongly with a number of other higher education systems, mostnotably Japan and the United States, where a significant part of the post-secondarysystem has always been based upon private provision.

The hostility of some governmentseducation emerges in studies of both

to private initiatives in private post-secondaryNigeria and Pakistan, where only recently have

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policy changes been made to encourage private institutions. Thus in Nigeria in 1984 thegovernment abolished the infant private sector partly because of the inadequateinfrastructure to accredit and monitor such institutions. However, as the study in thisreport notes, what was required was not total prohibition but rather regulations tocontrol the operation of private institutions. In Pakistan similar outcomes occurred butby a different device: the nationalisation in 1972 of all privately managed institutions.

However, in the new and more favourabie climate that now exists, relationshipsbetween governments and private providers are starting to change. So far as theestablishment of new private institutions are concerned, the studies highlight the twomain ways that are available for government recognition to be obtained. They are:

(a) Private post-secondary institutions are treated in the same way as any business,and the only restriction to its operation is compliance with the law that applies toall commercial organisations. In some systems such institutions might also beable to award their own qualifications without reference to any nationalaccrediting system, but this does not occur in any Commonwealth country; thusAustralia requires the ministries of education of the individual states to accreditformal qualifications. (For an outline of accreditation criteria see below.)

(b) Private providers can be established only by a decision of government or anexecutive agency, often based upon legislation enacted for just such a specificpurpose. Thus in Nigeria applications to establish a private university have tobe made to the Minister of Education through the National UniversitiesCommission, and in Pakistan private colleges have to be registered with theProvincial Education Department for the area concerned. Such approval mayonly be granted on the basis of a number of criteria being met, includingfinancial guarantees. Such a process may be closely related to the accreditationof programmes as in the case of Nigeria, or may be separate from accreditationas in Pakistan where, once established, degree awarding institutions need to beaffiliated with a neighboring state university for purposes of examinations andassessment.

The role of government in Malaysia is characterised by some of the processes in (b), butuntil the recent 1995 Education Act, private providers were regarded as ordinarybusinesses and registered under the Company Act. This has now been replaced by asystem which places no restrictions upon the establishment of private institutions,provided basic health and safety regulations are met, and the educational criteria of theMinistry of Education have been complied with. Restrictions on the ownership ofprivate education institutions exist under the new Education Act, and institutions must befully owned by Malaysians with a minimum equity of 40% held by Bumiputrashareholders. Permission may be granted for a maximum 20 per cent equity to be heldby foreigners if justifiable.

As the studies make clear, various forms of reporting by private institutions togovernment are in existence. In accordance with its more market orientation, Australiaprovides the example of the most minimal form of reporting whereby providers are notrequired to account to higher education commissions or funding bodies. Rather the onlyform of reporting that is legally required is to provide data on student enrolment and

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related statistics to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, and this is the case with alleducational institutions whether public or private. On the other hand, in Pakistaninstitutions have to make annual returns to their authorizing agency which is used todetermine the extent to which the requirements of the affiliation and accreditationsystem are being met. In Malaysia the new regulations have changed reportingrelationships, and the requirements of the new system have yet to be fully determined.At the moment complete data on the scale of private provision is difficult to determine,and institutional returns to Ministry requests for information are unreliable.

In Nigeria, the Federal Government is anxious to ensure uniform practice across post-secondary education, and therefore private institutions are subject to the same forms ofreporting and control as their more established public counterparts, including the use ofthe Joint Matriculation Board to conduct entrance examinations to universities. Indeed,this uniformity includes the requirement for private institutions to adopt the sameinternal institutional governance systems as in the state universities, for example,senates, faculty boards, and a range of committee based decision making systems. Suchan approach appears unnecessarily prescriptive for the more flexible and responsivesituation facing private providers, particularly when such systems have been the subjectof considerable criticism for being slow and indecisive.

This diverse pattern of reporting arrangements is typical of what may be found in manypost-secondary educational systems, where the reporting arrangements for privateinstitutions may vary considerably from being subject to fewer restrictions than theirstate counterparts through to being subject to greater control and restrictions. As isapparent from the four studies, the key factor in determining the form and nature ofsuch reporting arrangements is often not the need for best practice for the developingprivate sector, but rather political considerations within government, including itswillingness to provide the operational freedom that infant private institutions require.

Financing Private Post-Secondary Education

Financial support for private providers may come from four main sources: government,eithrer by direct financial support or through indirect measures such as tax exemptions;loans from banks and other lending sources; from students through fees; and fromdonations usually from those involved in the running of institutions.So far as government funding is concerned, none of the studies provide illustrations ofsignificant government support such as occurs in some other private systems, forexample in Indonesia where large numbers of academic staff working within the privateinstitutions are financed by government. In Nigeria, Malaysia and Australiagovernment does not provide direct financial support to private institutions, and neithercan Nigerian private institutions benefit from the tax fund established by the EducationTax Decree of 1993 in order to increase resources available to education. However, inMalaysia the Minister of Education is empowered to provide financial aid, in the formof grants, to Islamic religious institutions not established by the Ministry of Education orby the state government.

In Pakistan the position appears slightly more complex, and the criteria for registrationof private colleges suggest that government financial support may be available, and

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those which are outstanding may receive up to 50% of approved expenditure subject tothe availability of funds. However, in practice central government does not providesupport either for institutions or for students, although limited funds may be availablefrom provincial government and this is provided for at least one institution. However,even if support from the state were available, some private providers may hesitate totake advantage of it for fear of the restrictions and controls that may be associated withsuch funding, and the chapter on Pakistan clearly identifies the concerns of institutionsabout accepting such support.

So far as loan financing is concerned, the difficulties of this being a main form offunding within the developing country context is clearly articulated in the chapter onPakistan, particularly in relation to the problems of capital funding. Although there areno regulatory restrictions preventing lending to private post-secondary institutions, loansare difficult to obtain because of macro-economic policy, and where available areexpensive and likely to be short term. Thus although loan funding for specificinitiatives may be possible on occasion, it is unlikely to be a viable form of wide scalefunding for most institutions. Such a pattern is found in many private post-secondarysectors within developing countries. including some of those where credit restrictionsare not a complicating factor.

In this context it is inevitable that the main sources of financing are from donors andstudent fees. Donor funding by those involved in the establishment of institutions isreported to be particularly important in institutions with a religious mission, where feesmay either be set at well below self-financing rates or where extensive provision ofbursaries or scholarships may be available. However, in some secular institutions,significant bursary provision may be available, and in Australia both Bond Universityand the University of Notre flame offer a range of scholarships. Donor provisionthrough business sponsorship appears not to be well developed, with the obviousexception of Bond University, thus supporting the contention argued in relation to otherpost-secondary systems that many businesses may be ill-inclined to support institutionsperceived to be academically weak (Levy 1993).

In all four countries reviewed, fees charged by private institutions are well in excess ofthose charged by comparable stare institutions. In Australia, Nigeria and Malaysiainstitutions may charge the fees that they wish and the government does not set eitherminimum or maximum fee levels, although in the case of Malaysia regulations requirethat tuition fees must be “reasonable and consistent with the curriculum and facilitiesprovided”. In Pakistan, although fees may have to be approved by the appropriateEducation Department, it is not clear the extent to which this, in practice, limits the feethat can be charged. In other systems demand driven private education that is dependentupon fee income is often characterised by low-paid reachers, high student-staff ratios,and a poor infrastructure (James 1986), and it remains to be seen if such a pattern willexist in Nigeria and Pakistan as their infant private systems develop.

Unsurprisingly the studies of both Nigeria and Pakistan report on the difficulties tostudent recruitment caused by self-financing fee levels, for example in Pakistan recentefforts to attract self-financing student-s in engineering, computer science, andmanagement have recruited only 1% of the total enrolment. A sobering conclusion isreached in the Pakistan chapter: that the market is not able to bear the full cost of fees

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particularly in those academic programmes where quality may be partly measured ininternational terms.

In such circumstances the way that the countries studied have adopted differing practiceson the availability of student loans and their applicability to the private sector isinteresting. The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme has become a modelfor several other systems to copy, but only students at one institution - AvondaleCollege - are eligible to receive HECS, and then only if they are undertaking the teachertraining course. Avondale is the only remaining College of Advanced Education (therest have joined the university system) and is thus also in an unusual position vis-a-visother private providers. In Nigeria a previous loans scheme for all students experiencedvery low rates of loan recovery, and a modified scheme is now to be introducedoperated by the new Nigerian Education Bank. This will enable students in both publicand private institutions to obtain loans for educational purposes. In Pakistan studentloans are highly underdeveloped, and the only scheme that appears to exist is the Qarze-e-Hasna Scheme for Education which is run by the Pakistan Banking Council, howevernumbers supported are small and loan repayment has been poor. Malaysia also has nowidescale provision for supporting students in the private sector, although assistancemay be available for some selected courses and students in both private and publicsectors may also take advantage of study loans offered by various banks.

Clearly. in all three of the newly emerging private post-secondary systems reviewedbelow, financial support and fee levels are likely to remain crucial issues so far as thesuccess of existing institutions and the future expansion of the sector is concerned.

Academic Quality Control and Accreditation

The form of academic accreditation to which private post-secondary educationinstitutions are subject remains a contentious issue. However, so long as the perceivedquality of much private provision remains variable it is likely that issues of qualitycontrol and accreditation will remain central to the development of the private sectors inmany Commonwealth countries. Within different countries, however, the pressures arefelt in different ways: typically in more developed systems many private providers areseeking to loosen the control that frequently rests with stare accrediting bodies, whilst inmarry developing nations the dependence upon stare accrediting mechanisms or localpublic institutions is likely to remain strong for some time. In the former category arethree of Kenya’s more established private universities which now have been givenauthority to award their own degrees.

The section on Australia typically identifies such accreditation as seeking to achievethree purposes: to protect the interests of the community and students; to ensurecomparability of awards across the higher education sector; and to facilitatetransferability of awards between sectors. The mechanisms by which this is done varyin the countries studied, but with the exception of Australia the focus is on the initialaccreditation of programmes, and continued on-going accreditation of the evaluation ofteaching and the quality of awards is generally weak.

In Australia, responsibility for accreditation rests with State Ministers of Education,who, in general, have established Offices of Higher Education to assist with the

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accreditation process. This is centred upon reviews of each proposed programme orcourse by an independent course assessment committee. with appropriate expertise.Although such a committee is guided by identified criteria, it is able to examine outputcriteria (for example, the quality of graduates) as opposed to relying solely on inputcriteria (for example, the availability of facilities, required staffing levels, and so on).This reliance on input criteria - which is typical of many such accreditation schemes - iscriticised in the Pakistan section as encouraging bureaucracy and for being cumbersome,and a move to output criteria is suggested.

Within the Pakistan context, accreditation is performed by the Universities GrantsCommission and is primarily concerned with ensuring that institutions have appropriatefacilities, although this is supplemented both by the need to produce an annual reportand also to submit to a visitation of the UGC if required. In addition to accreditation,private institutions in Pakistan have to become affiliated to nearby state institutions whoconduct examinations on their behalf. This dependency on public institutions forexaminations and curriculum purposes is a common feature of a number of private post-secondary systems, and whilst helpful in sharing expertise across the system as a whole,may limit severely the freedom of private institutions to develop innovative approachesto teaching and assessment, and in practice may place them in an overly reliant positionon their public sector neighbour.

In Nigeria there is no difference between the accreditation arrangements and the criteriainvolved between state and private institutions, and similar provisions for the use ofexternal examiners are used as a way of determining the quality of student work.However, whilst the rationale for such an approach is easy to understand, in practice itis likely to cause major problems for private institutions, perhaps severely limiting theirdevelopment. In such circumstances there are few incentives for achieving moreefficient methods of teaching than may apply in the public university system, andmoreover academic staffing loads in private institutions are likely to be determined onthe basis of very different workloads. However, the use of such harmonised criteriaoccurs in other post-secondary systems, and in some cases is felt by private institutionsto be a way of limiting their opportunities for growth and expansion. Indeed in somecases such criteria may not even be met by the stare funded institutions themselves.

Quality control and accreditation arrangements are currently changing in Malaysiawhere the Ministry of Education is in the process of establishing a new NationalAccreditation Council, which will become the central authority on the whole range ofacademic, professional, and vocational qualifications. Currently there is no requiredaccreditation procedure for post-secondary providers, and institutions rely on theirforeign partner institution to moderate examination and assessment procedures involvedin twinned programmes. Such arrangements may, of course, change under the newlegislative framework but this is not yet clear.

With the exception of Australia, in none of the countries studied do any proposalsappear to exist to move in time to a position whereby private institutions that havereached an appropriate level of institutional maturity cart have autonomy overaccreditation arrangements. This may be for several reasons: that the private sector isstill too underdeveloped for this to be a possibility in the near future; that within aharmonised accreditation system it may be difficult to give private institutions more

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autonomy than possessed by their state funded counterparts; and doubts about the qualityof provision of much of the private (and perhaps public) post-secondary educationsector. In contrast, in Australia the critical issue concerning autonomy is whether aprivate provider is a university or not. Private universities such as Bond and NotreDame do have autonomy over their accreditation arrangements. Other private providersdon’t, and some other institutions - typically mainstream theological colleges - workwith an established university to ensure recognition for their students and for the qualityof their work.

Even when mature such private institutions are likely to have continued problems inremoving themselves from the accrediting and examining relationships with their currentpublic sector partners, and there are numerous examples from more developed privatepost-secondary systems to show that the move from dependency on public sectorpartners can be extremely difficult and politically sensitive.

The Future of Private Post-Secondary Education in the Countries Studied

In all the countries studied it is clear that there is significant potential for growth in theprivate post-secondary sector, although whether this will be achieved is not so certain.The section on Australia identifies an increasingly complex pattern of provision, andsuggests a number of areas in which private provision is likely to increase. Indeed theboundary between what is currently regarded as private and public may become moreblurred, a position increasingly likely to be found in many developed countries.Moreover, traditional boundaries of provision are likely to become still more blurred asinformation technology has a greater impact upon the curriculum.

In Malaysia opportunities for expansion of the private sector also seem good, although itis too soon to be certain of the outcomes of the revised legislation and other forms ofgovernment action. Currently only about 7 per cent of the appropriate age cohort entertertiary education, and plans exist to raise this to 30% by the end of the century. It isunlikely that this ambitious target can be achieved without the development of anextensive private sector. Moreover, the experience of both Indonesia and thePhilippines may also be useful with their substantial private sectors.

Within the other two countries studied, the future of private provision is less certain,particularly in the short term. Although the climate towards private initiatives inNigeria is now more favorable, and some growth and a number of new institutions areplanned, projections by the National Universities Commission are cautious, and plannedstudent enrolment by 2000/2001 is only 17,530 students in private universities. Inaddition to the problems of funding mentioned above, other constraints include shortageof land and accommodation at a viable cost; the availability of qualified staff to teachprogrammes (particularly at the levels as defined by the NUC accreditation criteria), andin rural areas the need to provide residential accommodation and an appropriateinfrastructure. In Pakistan similar constraining factors apply but within an operationalcontext that appears to be less supportive of private sector developments, and althoughthe current national education policy has spelled out directives for the encouragement ofprivate post-secondary education, no significant private initiative is yet forthcoming.

11


Conclusion

From the four countries studied it is possible to identify a number of key issuesconcerning the development of post-secondary education that will need careful planningby both the institutions themselves and those responsible for their coordination andaccreditation. These include:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

With the exception of Australia, institutional data and statistics on privateproviders is weak, and a reliable infrastructure will have to develop to enableboth the size of, and the demand for, private post-secondary education to bedetermined.

The development of a private post-secondary sector frequently causes problemsfor government, who may feel unsure about the implications for the statesystem. On the other hand, many private providers appear to be suspicious ofgovernment, and any attempts to exercise control by excessive regulation maybe resisted. The balance between the appropriate protection of the publicinterest and unnecessary control is a tine one, and will need carefulmanagement.

Forms of accreditation and academic quality control are being reworkedextensively in numerous countries with private sectors, and the recentdevelopments in both Malaysia and Nigeria are typical. However, there is atendency for such forms of accreditation to be overly reliant on input measures,and over time it is likely that - along with state systems - there will be pressurefor institutions and accrediting bodes to move towards output criteria in order toassess quality and performance.

The financial basis of many private institutions is weak, and in countries with anunder-developed financial system special arrangements may be needed to ensurethat adequate financial support cart be made available to institutions at reasonableinterest rates. Student support also remains weak, and if institutions are toattract high fee students, then an infrastructure must be developed to provideappropriate student financial support, probably through some kind of studentloan scheme.

Although the private post-secondary sector is characterised in many countries bydiversity, institutions are currently weak at providing anything approachingcomprehensive provision by both subjects and levels, and considerableinstitutional development will be required for this to take place.

All of these issues will require a high level of management if successful private post-secondary systems are to be developed. Nationally, a challenge for governmentdepartments and planning agencies will be to develop an informed set of policies tosupport institutions. Within private providers there is likely to be a constant need foreffective management if institutions are to thrive and maximise the potential contributionthat they can make.

12


References

Association of African Universities, 1995, Study on Private Tertiary Education inGhana. Accra

Association of African Universities, 1995, Private Tertiary Education In Zimbabwe,Accra

Association of African Universities, 1995, Private Tertiary Educational Institutions inKenya, Accra

Bessant B, 1986, Privatisation and Academic Freedom, Australian Universities Review,No 2

Cunha L A, 19$0, Public Policies for Higher Education in Brazil, Higher EducationPolicy, Vol 3 No 2

Eisemon T O, 1992, Private Initiatives in Higher Education in Kenya, Higher

Education. Vol 24

James E, 1986, Public Policies Towards Private Education: an InternationalComparison, in Levy D (cd) Private Education: Studies in Choice and Public Policy,Oxford University Press

James E, 1991, Private Higher Education: the Philippines as a Prototype, HigherEducation. Vol 21

Geiger R L, 1986, Private Sectors in Higher Education: Structure, Function andChange in Eight Countries, University of Michigan Press

Koyzis A A, 1989, Private Higher Education in Cyprus: in Search of Legitimacy,Higher Education Policy, Vol 2, No 2

Hochleitner R D, 1990, The Private University and the Private Sector in HigherEducation: A Spanish Perspective, Higher Education Policy, Vol 3 No 2

Levy D, 1992, Private Institutions of Higher Education, in, Clark B E and Neave G(eds) The Encyclopedia of Higher Education, Pergamon

Levy D, 1993, Problems of Privatisation in Higher Education, Journal of EducationalPlanning and Administration, Vol 7, No 3

McCulloch G and Nicholls J, 1987, Privatisation: a Critical Perspective, AustralianUniversities Review, No 2

Nishihara H, 1990, Private Colleges and Universities in Japan: Glittering Prizes, HigherEducation Policy, Vol 3 No 2

13


Patrinos H A, 1990, The Privatization of Higher Education in Colombia: Quality andEquity, Higher Education, Vol 20

Pritchard R, 1992, Principles and Pragmatism in Private Higher Education: Examplesfrom Britain and Germany, Higher Education, Vol 24

Salmi J, 1992, Perspectives on the Financing of Higher Education, Higher EducationPolicy, Vol 5, No 2

Samoff J, 1990, The Politics of Privatization in Tanzania, International Journal ofEducational Development, Vol 10, No 1

Stone D, 1990, Private Higher Education in Australia, Higher Education, Vol 20

Smart D, 1986, The Financial Crisis in Australian Higher Education and the InexorablePush Towards Privatisation, Australian Universities Review, No 2

Schofield A et al, 1995, Private Post-Secondary Education in Indonesia, AsianDevelopment Bank

UNESCO, 1995, Change and Development in Higher Education, Paris

Walker W G, 1988, Private Higher Education: Challenges for Australia and Beyond,Journal of Education Policy, Vol 3, No 3

The World Bank, 1993, Higher Education: Issues and Options for Reform, Washington

14

The World Bank, 1994, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, Washington


Chapter 2: Private Post-Secondary Education in Australia

John Knight and Merle Warry

General Description of Private Post-Secondary Education

In the Australia federal system, education has constitutionally been the responsibility ofthe various States. Thus the regulation and control of post-secondary institutions, publicor private, rests with the Minister for Education in each State or Territory. However,the period from the mid 1940s has seen an increasing de facto Commonwealthinvolvement in the funding and control of higher education. In 1989 the then binarysystem of higher education - Colleges of Advanced Education (CAEs) and universities -was replaced by a unified national system (UNS) of higher education, all of whosemembers were fully accredited universities, and none of which were private institutions.Members of the UNS are in theory fully funded by the Commonwealth, with smallincomes from overseas students and some fully feed courses. A second and longstanding stream of post secondary (though not higher) education has been provided by asystem of technical and further education (TAFE) colleges under the control of thevarious states.

The earliest private higher education institutions (HEIs) were religious in backgroundand purpose; they include Moore Theological College, founded in 1856 to train peoplefor the Anglican ministry; the Australian College of Theology, 1891; the AustralasianMissionary College (SDA church), now Avondale College, in 1897; and the MelbourneCollege of Divinity, 1910, representing Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationaland Presbyterian churches.

The period up to the 1980s saw relatively few additions to this list it may well be thecase, however, that a large number of’ colleges’ existed of which we have no record, asthis brief study is concerned only with those which have received accreditation fordegree granting courses. However, from the mid 1980s the number and range ofinstitutions have greatly increased. They include fundamentalist and mainline Christiancolleges, single and multi purpose institutions, non-profit and commercial institutions,and fully fledged universities.

In general, also, issues of accreditation have only achieved significance with thedevelopment of Advanced Education (AE) sector during the 1970s until its demisein 1989. Private colleges which offered diploma and degree courses then had to meetappropriate accreditation requirements. Up to that time most private colleges generaIlyoperated at certificate level or without formal accreditation.

All of the private HEIs in this study are now accredited to offer particular degreedcourses; some offer Bachelors degrees only, others include Masters and Doctoralstudies. In many cases the initial accreditation has been fairly recent. It should also benoted that accreditation is only for a set period of years and must be reviewedthereafter. Only those HEIs with full university status or their own Act of Parliamentare effectively autonomous with respect to course offeringsmembers of the UNS and receive no government funding.

15

Nevertheless they are not


Australian Private Post-Secondary Providers

Details of the date of establishment, student/staff numbers, courses and fees for everyinstitution which responded to this survey (two did not reply) are contained in Table 1.It will be seen from the Table that the institutions reviewed for this survey varyconsiderably in character and function. They range from those with full universitystatus conferred on them by the government of the State in which they are located to avariety of college level institutions which have been accredited by a State authority tooffer specified degrees and diplomas. Full university status by an Act of the relevantState Parliament has been granted to Bond University in Queensland and Notre DameUniversity of Australia in Western Australia; also in this category, although not grantedfull university status, is the Melbourne College of Divinity in Victoria.

The following distinctions may be useful in understanding the types of non-universitygroups. Firstly, institutions whose provisions are effectively for one area (eg, businessmanagement, religious education, or medical training) can be contrasted with thosewhich provide a wide variety of courses (eg, liberal arts, science, commerce, etc).Secondly, institutions whose orientation is clearly religious can be contrasted with thosewhose character is essentially secular. Thirdly, some institutions are manifestlycommercial and profit-oriented in character (eg, the KvB College of VisualCommunication or Monash-Mt Eliza Business School), whilst others (eg, the religiouscolleges) are non-profit organizations. A further distinction within the spectrum ofreligious institutions can be made between those whose orientation is more or lessfundamentalist or sectarian, and those of a more ecumenical background or from themainline Christian churches.

Some mention should also be made of the issue of postgraduate medical education.Each branch of medical practice has its own medical college (psychiatry, orthopedics,gynecology, pediatrics, etc) with its own training and assessment” programmes.However they follow traditional practice in awarding letters (eg Fellow of RACGP)rather than postgraduate degrees. As far as we can ascertain the RACGP is alone inoffering a postgraduate diploma in Rural General Practice.There is another group of non-university HE institutions which have been excludedfrom this study because they are effectively ‘public’ institutions funded by the State orFederal Governments (eg, The Australian Maritime College, Batchelor College, theNational Institute of Dramatic Arts, the Canberra Institute of Technology, the Centrefor Strategic Leaders, and the Australian Film, Television and Radio School). Theapparently anomalous situation of the Australia Catholic University should also benoted - it is a full member of the UNS but is broadly predicated on Catholic principles.

The classification consequent on these distinctions is complex and multi-dimensional; forexample, Avondale College is a non-profit religious institution whose background isfundamentalist and sectarian, yet it provides a wide range of courses and is currentlyseeking university status. It should be clear, too, that decisions over the boundariesbetween these groupings are inevitably blurred or in some degree arbitrary.

The number of religious institutions in the private HE sector is significant and meritsfurther discussion. Thus, of the forty nine institutions reviewed here, some thirty three

16


are religious in orientation and control. Four of the religious institutions are ‘umbrella’organizations, that is a number of smaller institutions receive accreditation under theirauspices (see Table 1). The great majority of the religious colleges could be classifiedas having a fundamentalist, evangelical (the two terms are effectively synonymous) orcharismatic basis. Some are controlled by a particular denomination (ie, typically insociological terms, a sect), others are ‘interdenominational’. Their ‘statements of faith’are typically replete with claims of the infallibility of scripture, creationism, the need forholy living, the end of the age, divine judgment on the wicked, and so on. Some havebeen in existence for many years--eg, Avondale College for the Seventh-day Adventist(SDA) church--many others, more particularly those of a charismatic form, are morerecent. Their origins can be found in the separatist instinct of fundamentalist andsectarian religions: the need for ‘pure’ forms of education, based on ‘the truth’. Theircontinued existence reflects the pluralistic nature of contemporary Australian society andthe crucial importance of religious beliefs to a significant (and arguably intellectuallythreatened) minority of the population. The growing provision of non-Christianschools, particularly those of an Islamic persuasion, could lead to the establishment ofIslamic colleges within the next two decades. Such developments might well test thelimits of the Australian commitment to multiculturalism.

Most of the current fundamentalist-type institutions have as a primary function thetraining of ministers, missionaries, and layworkers to evangelize, that is, to promotetheir particular version of Christianity. To this primary aim, it is increasingly commonto find professional/vocational and sanitized ‘liberal arts’ type courses, although theperspectives provided will general} y be antithetical to the ‘ secular’ approach of publicuniversities. Despite their accreditation, concerns can legitimately be raised over thequality of some of these forms of training.

Given that until recently, the only accredited degrees were issued by universities, andgiven the current growth of charismatic/fundamentalistic Christianity, it could beanticipated that such institutions will increase. On the other hand, the current press foruniversity (as opposed to college of advanced education) status by Avondale Collegeimplies some modification of fundamentalist/sectarian assumptions to meet therequirements and obligations of a full university. Thus there are, almost inevitably,conflicting trends and pressures between ‘education’ and ‘indoctrination’ in many ofthese institutions.

17


Table 1: Australian Private Post-Secondary Education Institutions

Institution

Australian College ofPhysical Education

Australian College of Theology -Member Institutions:Baptist Theological College;Bible College of Queensland;

Bible College of South Australia•;

Bible College of Victoria•;

Burleigh College•;

Kenmore Christian College;Moore Theological Col lege•;Morling College;Presbyterian Theological

Centre;Presbyterian Theological

College of Victoria;

Reformed Theological College•;Ridley Col lege•;

Sydney Missionary & Bible College

*Listed in Table

Australian InternationalHotel School

Year Esta-blished

1917

1891

1995

StudentNumbers

300

2200

25

StaffNumbers

12

Not

available

5

Accredited Courses

Bachelor of Physical EducationBachelor of Education(Phys.Ed.)

Bachelor of TheologyBachelor of MinistryMaster of TheologyMaster of ArtsDoctor of TheologyGraduate Diploma in Christian

Studies

Bachelor of Hotel Management

Fees

$ 1 1 5 1 4 p a

Examination feesonly varying from$30 per subject atBachelor level to$1500 for Doctor ofTheology

For fees forindividual institutionssee separate entrieswhere available

$6200 per term


Table 1: Australian Private etc.

Avondale College

Bible College of SouthAustralia

Bible College ofVictoria

Bond University

1897

1925

1922

1987

6 7 8

100

320

1460

85

4 fulltime12 parttime

14

146

Bachelor of ArtsBachelor of BusinessBachelor of Education (Primary)Bachelor of Education(Secondary)Bachelor of NursingBachelor of Nursing(Conversion)Graduate Diploma in NursingBachelor of ScienceBachelor of Arts (Theology)

Bachelor of MinistriesBachelor of TheologyGraduate Diploma in ChristianStudies

Bachelor of MinistriesBachelor of TheologyMaster of TheologyDoctorate of Theology

40 Bachelor Degrees12 Postgrad Diplomas31 Masters Degrees3 Doctoral Programs

$4810 pa$4810 pa$3010 pa$3010 pa

$4965 pa

$4810 pa$4810 pa

$2850 pa$2700 pa$2700 pa

$2950 pa

$16 400 pa typicalundergraduatedegree



36Brisbane College of Theology --Member Institutions:Pius XII Provincial Seminary;St Francis’ Theological College;Trinity Theological College;

1983 665

17 full19 parttime

Bachelor of TheologyGraduate Diploma in TheologyMaster of TheologyGraduate Diploma in MinistryMaster of Ministry

$2000 for 3 yrs$2400 1y course$4500 2yr course$3200 18m course$4500 2 yr course

Burleigh College 1952

1970

1986

2 full6 parttime

Bachelor of MinistriesBachelor of Theology

$2850 pa$2700 pa

Canberra College ofTheology

38

275


Bachelor of Theology $1224 pa


Christian HeritageCollege

Bachelor of Education (lnservice)Bachelor of Education(Preservice)Bachelor of TeachingBachelor of ArtsGraduate Diploma Christ Educ.

$4400 pa

Gibaran Action ResearchManagement InstitutePty. Ltd.

1984 7 6 Graduate Diploma in Work-basedManagement Learning I

$25 000 for fullcourse

Harvest Bible College 1984 180 full40 p-time

5 Bachelor of Arts in BiblicalStudies I $2500 pa



Jubilee InternationalChristian College

KvB College of VisualCommunication

Kingsley College

Luther Campus

Melbourne College of Divinity-Member Institutions:Auckland Consortium forTheological Education;Catholic Theological College;Evangelical TheologicalAssociation;United faculty of Theology;Yarra Theological Union

Monash Mt Eliza BusinessSchool

1983

1978

1948

1968

1910

1957

249

500

95

290

2045

Notavailable

12

60

14


231

Notavailable

Bachelor of Social Science(Ministry)

Bachelor of Arts in VisualCommunication

Bachelor of Arts (ChristianMinistry)

Bachelor of Arts (Theology)Bachelor of TheologyGraduate Diploma in MinistryGraduate Diploma of Theologyin EducationMaster of Theology

Bachelor of TheologyBachelor of DivinityMaster of MinistryMaster of TheologyDoctor of MinistryDoctor of TheologyDoctor of Divinity

Graduate Diploma inManagementMt Eliza Executive MBA

$2913 pa 4 years$3600 pa 3 years

$20,613 pa 3 years$68,710 4 yr course

$2180 pa

$3240 pa

$4200

$2880 pa

$4000 pa

Not available



Mt Eliza Corporate MBAHenley Distance MBA

Moore Theological College 1856 208 full 17 full Bachelor of Divinity $10 500 pa tuition,time time Bachelor of Theology accom. & meals.35 part 18 Master of Arts (Theology) Bursary offered totime visiting Master of Theology candidates for

ministry

National Institute of 1995 500- 15-20 Bachelor of Naturopathy1000

$16,500 full courseHealth Sciences anticipat

anticipat edincludes text books

edand notes

!

Nazarene Theological 1953 15 7 Advanced Diploma of Ministry $2000 paCollege

Reformed Theological 1955 34 5 Bachelor of Theology $3046.50 paCollege

Ridley College 1910 310 20 Bachelor of Ministries $3300 paBachelor of TheologyMaster of TheologyDoctor of Theology

Royal Australian College 1958 1685 38 Graduate Diploma in Rural Not availableof General Practioners approxi General Practice by Distance

mately Education

Securities Institute I 1966 I 7402 \ 700 part I Graduate Diploma in Applied I $.2760



Education, Sydney, Melbourne,Brisbane,Adelaide, Perth

Sydney College ofDivinity-Member Institutions:Catholic Inst. of Sydney;Church es of Christ TheologicalCollege;St Andrews Greek OrthodoxTheol. CoIl.;St Marks National TheologicalCentre;St Pauls National Seminary;Union Theol. Institute;United Theol. College.

Tabor College, Adelaide

1983

1979

850

570

timewho arefull-timeindustrypractioners

110

57 totalfulltime &part time

Financeand Investment

Bachelor of TheologyGraduate Diploma in TheologyGraduate Diploma inTheologicalStudies (2)Graduate Diploma in DivinityGraduate Diploma in BiblicalStdsGraduate Diploma in PastoralStdsGraduate Diploma in PhilosophyGraduate Diploma in PastoralCounselingGraduate Diploma in SpiritualityMaster of Theology

Bachelor of Arts in BiblicalStudiesBachelor of Arts in ChristianCounselingBachelor of Arts in Intercultural

Fees are in the orderof $2700 to $4000pafull time. Plus $179paBachelor Degree and$750 pa for M.Thadmin costs, etc toSCD

$7440

$7440

$7440



StudiesBachelor of Arts in Ministry $7750Graduate Diploma in $3100Charismatic MinistryGraduate Diploma in $3100Intercultural Studies

Tabor College, Melbourne 1988 260 5 Bachelor of Arts in Biblical $7440StudiesBachelor of Arts in Christian $7440CounselingBachelor of Arts in Ministry $7750Bachelor of Arts in Intercultural $7440StudiesGraduate Diploma in $3100Charismatic MinistryGraduate Diploma in $3100Intercultural Studies

The University of Notre Dame 1989 208 9 plus 13 Bachelor Degrees

Australia

$5520 pacontract 2 Graduate Diplomased staff 1 Graduate Certificate

7 Masters Degrees1 Doctoral Program


The remainder of the religious institutions are of a very different calibre, typicallyproviding a quality theological education, including higher degrees, for priests,ministers and students of religion. Institutions such as the Brisbane College of Theologyor the Sydney College of Divinity are not only ecumenical in orientation, they are an‘umbrella’ institution for several theology colleges from the mainline (eg, Catholic,Anglican, Uniting, Orthodox...) churches and operate in conjunction with an existinguniversity. The situation of Notre Dame should also be noted: it is a full universityproviding a quality education within the Catholic tradition but receiving no funding fromthe State. outside our brief, but worthy of notice also, is the Australian CatholicUniversity (AC(J). ACU has campuses in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra andBalk-at, but is a full member of the UNS. Given the apparently favorable politicalclimate at State and Federal levels, further developments similar to Notre Dame in theprivate HE sphere and the ACU in the UNS seem possible.

Those institutions which after reflection fell outside the parameters of this study needfurther mention also. While they are not members of the UNS, they are,. by strictdefinition, public and not private HE providers. For example, Batchelor College in theNorthern Territory is an institution which provides TAFE type courses, and certificateand diploma education, including teacher training, to Australia’s indigenous peoples(Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders). While it is outside the UNS, it is fully fundedby the Territory; it will undoubtedly move to the provision of full degree courses in thenear future, and it is likely to shift across time to university status. The Technical andFurther Education (TAFE) sector is also funded and controlled by individual States andTerritories, and is moving through the provision of certificate, sub-diploma and diplomacourses (and even degreed courses) to fill the space left vacant by the demise of thebinary system and the conversion of CAEs to universities. Among developments in theTAFE sector we note the Centre for Strategic Leaders and The Canberra Institute ofTechnology. The Australian Defence Forces Academy is affiliated with the Universityof New South Wales and offers courses up to the doctoral level. The AustralianMaritime College is another degree granting institution (including Masters level work)funded by the state sector. So too are the National institute of the Dramatic Arts(NIDA) and the Australian Film, Television and Radio School. When the number andrange of these institutions is taken into account, a more balanced appreciation of theofferings in HE but outside the UNS is possible.

Mission Statements and Reasons for Establishment:

The mission statements and reasons for establishment of the private post-secondaryinstitutions surveyed are as follows, with mission statements being indicated by thenumber 1 and reasons for establishment by the number 2:

Australian College of Physical Education: 1. To prepare outstanding specialistteachers in physical education, dance, gymnastics, sport, health and personaldevelopment for the state and private schools of Australia and the region. 2. Non-profitprivate institution for physical education teacher training.

Australian College of Theology: 1. In a day of ever-growing religious pluralism, theCollege finds itself called to serve an increasingly diverse constituency, both

25


denominational and interdenominational. Its abiding commitment, however, continuesto be: ‘to foster and direct the systematic study of Divinity, especially among theclergy’. 2. The College is an umbrella institution for a number of Colleges throughoutAustralia, with no denominational restrictions. It is primarily an examining, not ateaching body.

The Australian International Hotel School: 1. To graduate students with the academicand professional competencies required for success in the global hospitality industry byoffering an integrated management curriculum and practical professional experiences.2. An institution for hotel management training conceived by the Canberra Institute ofTechnology and affiliated with the relevant school at Cornell University USA.

Avondale College 1. To preserve, disseminate and apply knowledge for the benefit ofthe individual, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and society; to provide excellence inhigher education; to encourage students to develop a commitment to Christ; to provideopportunities for the development of the character and potential of each person; toprepare Christian professionals for service; to function as a resource Centre for the SDAChurch in the South Pacific region and to contribute to the cultural and educationalenrichment of the local and national communities; to support the SDA Church in itsaccomplishment of the gospel commission. 2. SDA religious institution providingmultidisciplinary professional training (ministers, nurses, teachers, accountants, etc.)and science/arts/business courses.

Bible College of South Australia: 1. To prepare men and women who have beencalled by God and sent by their churches, to be more effective in making known theLordship of Christ in the world. 2. An interdenominational, evangelical religiousinstitution for theological and ministerial training.

Bible College of Victoria: 1. To glorify God, by helping the Church communicate theGospel of Jesus Christ to the world, through equipping disciples of Jesus Christ to growin their personal knowledge of God through the study of the Word of God; students tobecome more like their Lord in life and character; students to develop their spiritualgifts and skills in service for the Church and the unreached peoples of the world. 2. Aninterdenominational evangelical religious institution for theological and ministerialtraining.

Bond University: 1. To establish a university of world standing which is acclaimedinternationally for the excellence of its teaching and research, for the relevance of itscourses to present and future world needs, and for the quality of its staff and graduates.2. An independent non-profit private university.

Brisbane College of Theology: 1. Each member school brings its own tradition to thecooperative ecumenical life of the College which results in opportunities for studentinteraction and the development of knowledge, wider understanding and respect for thedifferent ways of interpreting and living the Christian gospel.2. Ecumenical religious institution for theological/ministerial training for students fromreligious colleges (Anglican, Catholic, Uniting.. .).

26


Burleigb College: 1. To prepare those whom God has called for ministry and servicewithin churches, mission fields or pm-a-church organizations. 2. A religious institutionof the Baptist church for theological and ministerial training.

Canberra College of Theology: 1. To train men and women for effective ministry withthe Christian & Missionary Alliance in Australia and worldwide. 2. Religiousinstitution for the Christian & Missionary Alliance Society providing ministerial andmissionary training.

Christian Heritage College: 1. To provide higher education programs which meet theparticular needs of Christian individuals, communities and institutions; to fosterChristian scholarship and research, and reflection upon social and cultural issues; toprovide an intellectual and scholarly platform for Christian reformation in society andculture. 2. A religious institution associated with the Christian Outreach Centre, hencealso the Assemblies of God, providing teacher training and liberal arts education.

Gibaran Action Research Management Institute: 1. To create a global Centre ofexcellence in work-based and indigenous management learning, using action principlesand the action research method. 2. A private institution providing managementtraining.

Harvest Bible College: 1. To provide ministry training and Christian education ofunsurpassed excellence; to strengthen the body of Christ by upholding Pentecostaltruths, emphasizing missions and encouraging evangelism. 2. A pentecostal institutionassociated with the Assemblies of God for theological and ministerial training.

Jubilee International Christian College: 1. To be recognized as an innovative,interdenominational Christian College mobilizing the Body of Christ through providingquality training and education in a caring and responsible environment, for thebetterment of all people across the world. 2. An interdenominational evangelical non-profit religious institution providing theological and ministerial training, also businessstudies, performing arts and counseling.

Kingsley College: 1. Although primarily established to serve the Wesleyan MethodistChurch in Australia, KC serves the wider Church by seeking to equip men and womenfrom all streams of life for more effective service in God’s world; to equip people forministry not only by adding to their knowledge but also by creating an environmentwhere they can experience life changes necessary for them to minister more effectively.2. Religious institution of the Wesleyan Methodist church providing theological andministerial training.

KvB College of Visual Communication: 1. To give students high quality hands-ontraining for a variety of creative careers in visual communication. 2. A division of KvBVisual Concepts Pty Ltd providing training in visual communication, graphic design &multimedia, art & design, fashion design, interior design, film, TV & photography.

Luther Seminary 1. To instruct and prepare candidates for the public ministry of thegospel in the Evangelical Lutheran Church; to equip people for the teaching ministry of

27


the church; to make provision for continuing and post-graduate studies in theology. 2.Religious institution of the Lutheran Church of Aust ra l ia providingministerial/theological and teacher training.

Melbourne College of Divinity: 1. MCD is a theological diverse institution committedto ecumenical cooperation in theological education in a way which enables eachparticipant to be true to its heritage and its commitments yet open to the enrichment ofengagement with others committed to the same journey. 2. Umbrella institutionoffering theological education for a range of mainline churches (Anglican, Catholic,Baptist, Uniting and Churches of Christ).

Monash Mt Eliza Business School: 1. TO meet the management development needs ofbusiness and government as well as the career aspirations of managers. 2. A privateentrepreneurial institution providing Management training in association with MonashUniversity.

Moore Theological College: 1. Exists to promote the gospel of Jesus Christ in theworld. So that Christ may be honoured, it trains students in the exposition andapplication of the scriptures. It aims to produce graduates who are godly evangelists,pastors and teachers, well-equipped to commend and defend the gospel. 2. It isAustralia’s oldest theological college. It is evangelical and Anglican, with its main roleto train people for the Christian ministry.

National Institute of Health Sciences: 1. To provide quality education for naturopathsand to facilitate the attainment of knowledge and skills to meet the standard required foracceptance by professional bodies . . . . To ensure the awareness of holistic care...Tofacilitate research into naturopathic topics. 2. A private institution providingprofessional & technical training in naturopathy.

Nazarene Theological College: 1. To offer quality education which emphasizesapplication in various Christian ministries in a way that is faithful to our ecclesiasticaltradition; to prepare men and women for the ministry of pastoral, missionary and layleadership roles in the church. 2. Religious institution of Church of the Nazareneoffering theological training for ministers, laypeople, etc.

Notre Dame University: 1. The advancement of learning, knowledge and theprofessions within a context of Christian faith and values. 2. Catholic Universityproviding teacher training, liberal arts and science, business and theology.

Reformed Theological College: 1. To teach the truth of the Word of God inunequivocal adherence to the authority of Scripture as expressed in that system ofdoctrine known as the Reformed faith; to form and develop a community of study andlearning with the purpose of forming ministers of the Word, and other workers inChurch and Kingdom, who are conversant with the truth of Scripture; to apply the vitalheritage of the Reformed faith to the needs and challenges faced by God’s people in ourmodem society. 2. Religious institution for theological & ministerial training associatedwith the Reformed Church.

28


Ridley College: 1. To equip men and women for Christian service in God’s world; tohelp students grow in their knowledge and understanding of the Christian faith,especially the Scriptures; to be both caring and contemporary; to prepare candidates forordained ministries in the Anglican church. 2. Religious institution for theological &ministerial preparation for Anglican church. It is associated with the University ofMelbourne.

Royal Australian College of General Practitioners: 1. To promote high standards ofcare in General Practice, for the benefit of the community, through education, trainingand research, whilst ensuring that General Practice is recognized as the principal sourceof primary health care, and is professionally and economically viable. 2. Non-profitinstitution for professional medical training.

The Securities Institute of Australia: 1. To serve the financial community andmembers by being the leading Australian professional association active in thedevelopment of the securities industry; fostering excellence in practical education;representing members’ views; promoting high standards of professional conduct. 2. Aninstitution providing membership for suitably qualified persons and professional trainingin investment, the financial market and securities.

Sydney College of Divinity: 1. To provide a structure within which students preparingfor Christian ministry and those wishing to study theology can complete programs ofstudy which lead to the granting of awards and degrees; to foster the study and teachingof Christian theology; to assist the Christian churches to make a distinctive and effectivecontribution to Australia’s multicultural society. 2. Ecumenical religious institution fortheological/ministerial training for nine other colleges (Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox,Uniting, etc).

Tabor College: 1. TC is a multidenominational charismatic teaching Centre whosemission is to promote unity, revival, teaching and training for ministry for people of allchurches and any nationality, and whose purpose is to be a witness to the majesty ofChrist in the whole life. 2. Multidenominational charismatic religious institution fortheological & ministerial training, Christian counselling etc.

Government Law and Private Post-Secondary Education Providers

Government regulations for establishing a private higher education institution are thesame as those which apply to the establishment of any business. The question of othergovernment regulations only emerges when the institution wants to confer formalqualifications on its students, and this cannot be done without formal accreditation of itscourses by the Minister for Education, as discussed later in this report. For example,the existing Education (General Provisions) Act 1989, No 30. for Queensland clearlystates that persons cannot confer or infer that they are competent to confer an award of ahigher education institution, nor can they advertise in any form that they are able to doso. Proposed new legislation (Higher Education (General Provisions) Act 1993) iscurrently being drafted, which considerably expands on the existing legislation andstipulates the penalties which apply if the law is broken.

29


Forms of Reporting and Controlling Private Post-Secondary Institutions

Private post-secondary institutions which do not receive government funding are notrequired to report to any bodies such as the higher education commissions or grantscommittees. Nor do they have to provide any form of reporting to non-educationministries, such as Health, other than what would be required of any business to whichthe public has access. However, as is the case with all other educational institutions,public or private, they are required to provide data on student numbers, etc to theAustralian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). They would be required to report to thegoverning body of their institution and the amount of control exercised by theirgoverning body would vary according to the Institution. For example, it is likely thatstrict fundamentalist religious institutions would be much more tightly controlled interms of curriculum and staff members, than others; staff members and students may berequired to subscribe to a particular religious creed and a strict life style codes may alsobe enforced.


As mentioned previously, members of the UNS are government funded. Howeverwhile fees are not charged for most courses, most students now have to bear part of thecosts of their higher education through the “Higher Education Contribution Scheme”(HECS), currently $2442 (Australian) pa. HECS may be paid ‘up front’ with a twenty-five percent discount, or by deferred payment as a loading on the annual income taxassessment when the student’s income reaches average weekly earnings. The repaymentrate then varies from 3 per cent to 5 per cent according to level of income. (Note thatthe charge may begin while the student is still studying as income level rather thancompletion of the course is the crucial variable.)

In general, private HEIs do not have access to the HECS scheme. One minor exceptionis Avondale College which retains the status of a CAE and whose students in theteaching course only are entitled to HECS. The financial arrangements for eachinstitution would depend on whether it is commercial and profit oriented in character ora religious non-profit organization. Although the religious institutions do charge fees,some more substantial than others, the revenue they receive does not meet the costs ofruining their institution, and they rely on support from their church and donations fromfollowers to cover costs. In comparison, the other type of institution, which isestablished as an ‘education business’, must charge quite substantial fees to cover costsand make a profit so that they can continue to upgrade their facilities and provide a highquality service. However, as with all government education institutions, all privatehigher education institutions are exempt from taxes such as sales and income tax.

A number of the religious institutions offer bursaries to students who intend to enter theservice of their church after the completion of their studies. Several also offer coursediscounts to spouses of theological students. A typical example is the Bible College ofSouth Australia which lists the following modes of financial support: spouses pay one-third tuition fees; support from student’s local church; vacation and part timeemployment scholarships for ministerial students; and Austudy.

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In keeping with traditional university values, Bond University applies 8 per cent oftuition income to scholarships for “outstandingly gifted youth--regardless of incomelevel”. Notre Dame offers “Scholarships, Financial Aid and a Workstudy Scheme” toassist with the costs of fees. KvB offers a limited number of scholarships at fifty percent of normal fees. The Australian International Hotel School administers and providesa range of scholarships; sponsorship from organizations and individuals in thehospitality industry; working opportunities and student loan and loan supplementationarrangements through the Commonwealth Bank. The use of student loans from banksseems to be a widely accepted practice for students in private post-secondary education.

Students at both public and accredited private institutions are entitled to apply forAustudy and Abstudy. Austudy, which is income and asset tested, provides financialassistance to fulltime students aged sixteen and above. Abstudy benefits, some of whichare means tested, are provided to encourage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders tocomplete secondary education and go on to tertiary studies, and is also available toadults who wish to return to study. The Australian International DevelopmentAssistance Bureau (AIDAB) provides financial assistance to some fee paying overseasstudents from countries nominated by the Australian government.

Quality Control and Accreditation

As mentioned previously, in the Australian federal system, education hasconstitutionally been the responsibility of the various States. Thus, as indicated below,accreditation procedures for private higher education institutions (HEIs) remain ingeneral with the State in which the relevant private HEI is located. Nevertheless, from1945, the Commonwealth has had an increasing interest in the funding and direction ofthe public higher education (HE) sector in particular.

Note also that whilst the majority of documentation on accreditation of courses of HEoffered by private institutions was provided by the Office of Higher Education (OHE) inQueensland, similar accreditation and accountability procedures are in place in all Statesand Territories in Australia.

Within Australia, prior to 1989 there were two categories of higher education, theuniversity sector and the advanced education (AE) sector. Each university wasresponsible for ensuring the quality and standing of the qualifications it conferred, butState, Territory or Commonwealth authorities were responsible for the accreditation ofcourses within the AE sector. The Register of Australian Tertiary Education (RATE),established in October 1989 by the Australian Education Council (AEC), itself a peakcouncil of State and Federal Ministers of Education, was responsible for the registrationof course awards within the AE sector.

The major restructuring of HE in Australia in 1989, with the amalgamation of theadvanced education and higher education sectors, led to changes to theaccreditation/national registration system. With the demise of CAEs there was nofurther need for the Boards of Advanced Education in each of the States or for theAustralian Council on Tertiary Awards (ACTA) whichregistrations within the AE sector and TAFE. With the

31

was responsible for alldissolution of Boards of


Advanced Education from 1 January 1990, the State Ministers for Education became theaccrediting authority for conferring awards for courses that are of an equivalent standardto those of HEIs. To assist the Minister for Education in carrying out hisresponsibilities of accreditation of courses, States and Territories established Offices ofHigher Education within the Department of Education or similar support structures. Inaddition, Education Acts within each State were modified or implemented to makeprovision for private providers of higher education awards to obtain recognition of theircourses. HE courses offered by private providers must be accredited and offered onlyby providers authorized to conduct them. A similar situation applies to non-universitypublic institutions (eg The Australian Maritime College, the Australian Film, Televisionand Radio School, etc).

The following extract from a document prepared by the Office of Higher Education inQueensland details the accreditation procedures in place in that State. The other Statesand Territories follow similar procedures.

“The purposes of State accreditation of higher education courses offeredby institutions outside the Unified National System are threefold:

● to protect the interests of the community, and of studentsin particular;

● to ensure comparability of awards in higher education across theprivate and public sectors;

● to facilitate transferability of awards between sectors.

These procedures are designed to ensure that higher education coursesaccredited by the Minister are of comparable academic value andstanding to courses of the same level of award offered by institutions inthe Unified National System of higher education.

To this end, these procedures:

● require the review of the course by an independent courseassessment committee, with appropriate relevant expertise;

● ensure that certain significant matters are addressed;

● require the course to be reaccredited after a specifiedperiod. ” (Office of Higher Education, Queensland 1995)

The full guidelines for the documentation sought for the accreditation of highereducation courses in Queensland are provided as Appendix 2 of this Chapter. (It shouldbe noted that a new set of Guidelines for Accreditation is currently in preparation.)

In 1993, the peak council of the relevant State and Federal Ministers, the MinisterialCouncil on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) -formerly the AEC - established the Australian Qualification Framework Taskforcewhose brief was to develop a new qualifications system to replace the work of the

32


Register of Australian Tertiary Education (RATE). Whilst the initiative for a nationalqualifications framework emanated from the vocational education and training sector,the Universities, although at first reluctant to be involved, have been represented on theTaskforce through the Australian Vice-Chancellors Committee (AVCC). The purposeof the Australian Qualification Framework is to “ensure that the level, the tides and theintent of qualifications will be consistent on a national level so that education andtraining authorities and the community can readily interpret and understand theirmeaning” (Australian Qualifications Framework Taskforce 1994).

As well as institutions which have specific courses accredited, there are three institutionswhich have been accorded autonomous status by an Act of Parliament of the State inwhich they are situated. These are the Melbourne College of Divinity, Kew, Victoriaestablished by the Victorian Parliament with the Melbourne College of Divinity Act1910; Bond University, Robina, Queensland, established by the Queensland Parliamentwith the Bond University Act 1987; and the University of Notre Dame, Fremantle,Western Australia, established by the Western Australian Parliament with the Universityof Notre Dame Australia Act 1989.

Future Plans for Private Post-Secondary Education

(a) The Brooder Context

It is now generally accepted that the collapse of the youth employment market ispermanent. Partly in consequence, the retention rate to Year 12 in secondaryschools remains high, with a slight fall from seventy-seven per cent in 1993 toseventy-two per cent in 1995. Some fifty per cent of secondary graduates nowgoon to some form of higher education and over twenty-five per cent of schoolleavers go to TAFE and similar institutions. Given that over thirty per cent of19-22 year olds now undertake some form of higher education, the transitionfrom elite to mass provision of higher education is clearly over. Participation insome form of post-secondary or HE is now sought by up to ninety per cent ofschool graduates, with HE (ie university) generally preferred over other formsof post-secondary (ie TAFE) education (See Knight, 1994; Bartlett and Rowan,1994; Lingard et al, 1994). Student demand for access to HE has reducedsomewhat in 1996 while Commonwealth funding for extra places has increased.In consequence, for the first time in the recent past, universities are activelycompeting for students.

Government policy intention, as laid out in recent Federal reports (Carmichael,1992), is that by the end of the century some ninety per cent of all 19 year oldswill be in some form of post-secondary education. This includes TAFE typetraining provisions, and recent policy statements (Beazley, 1993) indicate thegovernment’s preference for larger intakes for TAFE institutions which areexpected to provide a more ‘practical’ and ‘applied’ training for multiskilled andflexible workers for the (still-to-be achieved) post-fordist restructuring ofAustralian industry (cf. Knight, 1994). Another element of this policy press fora training agenda is fiscal: the cost of TAFE type training is substantially lessthan university education.

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In this ‘push-pull’ situation, the shift to universal post-secondary (but notexclusively higher) education is well under way. What is now at issue is not somuch universal access, as its form and provision. While the particulardevelopment of PSE and HE is contingent on the political party in power at theFederal level and the changing nature of Federal/State relations (cf. Lingard etal, 1995), the fiscal situation is even more crucial in determining the extent towhich the ‘social wage’ can be extended in the areas of PSE and HE and whatalternatives are available.

The likely continuation of the current recessionary economic situation, bothglobally and within Australia, and the continued loss or ‘export’ of semiskilledand unskilled industries (and hence jobs) to the third world, combine to reducethe fiscal take at the very time when demands for services (health and welfare,pensions, the dole, education, etc) and competition between the various serviceagencies are increasing.

The following related responses, shared in varying degrees by both majorpolitical groups, are emerging: a shift from universal to targeted provision ofaspects of the social wage; a growing acceptance of the ‘user pays’ premise; apress for more efficient modes of provision and more effective outcomes, alongwith tighter accountability procedures, more extensive reporting and‘performance indicators’; a shift from the system of industry-bawd salaryawards and conditions to ‘on sire’, ‘enterprise bargaining’ where productivityand efficiency gains are traded for salary increases; and a growing‘privatization’ of provision and competition between providers (including publicproviders). The underlying assumptions are those of the market, economicrationalism and corporate managerialism (cf. Lingard, Knight and Porter,1993). This situation is compounded by the social and cultural diversity of oneof the most multicultural nations in the world and the democratic tensionsconsequent on this. As a result, and despite economic stringency, we have seenlegislation against discrimination on the basis of gender, race, and most recentlyage, as well as a range of ‘equity’ and ‘social justice’ policies.

(b) Implications for Post-Secondary Institutions

In what follows we suggest likely developments for private post-secondaryinstitutions during the next decade. In doing this we first address the situationfor public institutions, which remain the largest providers of higher education inthis country and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Theiradvantages in terms of fees, breadth of provision and size of facilities areevident. By comparison private HEIs are more likely to fill the gaps whichremain, eg access for students with lower tertiary enrance scores who canafford the high fins; specialist or niche markets such as religious training orsectarian belief structures, securities management, and the arts; and overseasstudents (eg Malaysia, Japan, Singapore, etc). Nevertheless as the breadoverview provided above suggests, limits to the capacity of the Australian stateto meet all demands for access and provision of higher education are nowapparent.

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In thus sketching the parameters for the future development of private HEIs, wefind it useful to begin with the situation for public HEIs. As that is spelt out, thepossibilities for private HEIs become more evident.

(c) Public Post-Secondary Institutions

In this sector the main developments are likely to include:

Universal access to some form of post-secondary education.

A reducing unmet demand for access to public HE.

The continued instrumental emphasis on PSE and HE (for thedevelopment of skills/expertise to assist national economic restructuring).

The upward extension of TAFE colleges to replace CAEs and a newformulation of the binary system; TAFEs to continue to provide‘applied’ and ‘practical’ training at a lower cost.

Continued fiscal limitations on the state’s ability to provide fully theneeded PSE and HE.

Increased fees (whether up-front or deferred as in HECS) for statefunded, public HE institutions, with targeted provisions for the‘disadvantaged’, and a push for up-front fees rather than HECS.

As fees become politically acceptable, some form of direct studentsubsidy (disguised vouchers) as a way in which the state can subsidizestudent fees at lower cost whilst providing them with a greater degree ofinstitutional ‘choice’.

Continued assistance with means tested student living expenses, butcriteria applied more stringently.

The restructuring of public HEIs on private corporate lines.

Increasing academic salary differentiation, with substantial loadings forsenior staff in specialist areas on a scarcity basis (eg, business,engineering, medicine).

A move from industry-based academic awards to ‘site-specific’agreements on wages and conditions, and attempts to marginalize orexclude academic and non-academic unions.

An increasing proportion of academic staff on contracts and part-timerates, and a lowering of professional status for many academics.

35


A continued press for greater participation of disadvantaged or‘minority’ groups in HE, both as students and staff women, ATSI,certain ethnic minority groups, people in poverty.

Tighter targeting in the selection and financial assistance ofdisadvantaged students.

A growing press for higher standards and ‘quality’ in HE.

Increased repotting and accountability procedures to the Federaleducation authority (Department of Employment, Education andTraining).

Increasing competition between HEIs (for students, differing feestructures, duration of courses, etc).

Public HEIs will be forced to become more entrepreneurial in raising agreater proportion of their costs--from research and development,commercial partnerships, full-fee courses, overseas students, tenderingfor courses, etc.

Growing status differentiation between HEIs.

The possibility that some public HEIs will fail and shut down.

Public HEIs will face increasing and conflicting pressures (and growinguncertainty) from government, political parties, business and industrylobbies, staff and union groupings, ethnic and religious minorities,Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders (ATSI), and a range of ‘class’ and‘interest group’ issues.

(d) Private Post-Secondary institutions

Given these sets of circumstances, the opportunities for expansion in the privatepost-secondary sector in the next decade appear promising. The dot pointsbelow, many of which are contingent on the issues outlined above for publicinstitutions, indicate our views in this regard.

Relative ease of establishment and maintenance, despite legislative andaccreditation procedures, and few or no accountability provisions vis-a-vis public providers.

Increased attractiveness and growing student demand vis-a-vis publicproviders.

Greater competitiveness with public institutions in fee structure, coursesand reduced time for completion (eg, three-semester years). (Note alsothat Austudy and Abstudy are already available to students attendingaccredited private institutions.)

36


The provision of some form of 'vouchers to assist students with privateHE fees.

* An increasing number of colleges run for profit, on commercial lines.

* Increasing range and diversity of private HE--for example, Islamiccolleges and other minority religious groupings unrepresented to date;legitimate degree granting ‘alternative medicine’ colleges; colleges basedon particular philosophies: new age, buddhist, Ayn Rand, etc.; moresingle-function institutions; more ATSI type colleges.

* Growing demand from colleges for the granting of university status bythe States.

* More private institutions affiliating or seeking to affiliate with publicHEIs (eg, SCD, or Avondale College’s attempt to affiliate withNewcastle University).

* A growing number of entrepreneurial private institutions setup by publicHEIs (eg, Monash/Mt Eliza Business School) as for-profit agencies.

* Government subsidy of some private providers for particular purposes orby contract as a cheaper alternative to public HEIs.

* The evolution of more (not all) private colleges to official universitystatus outside the UNS. This may include the first ATSI university,further Bond type institutions, and universities for particular minorityreligious groupings (cf. Avondale College).

* The viability of private HE institutions will depend on their attractivenessto the particular market/s in which they participate.

* The application of the current public HE academic levels (from juniorlecturer to professor) to private providers is likely to be highly contested,both by the religious and the for-profit institutions, as will the issue ofunion coverage for academic staff and criteria (eg religious faith) forselection.

* Attempts by individual providers to control salary costs and scales shouldbe expected. At one extreme - for profit - this is a ‘market’ issue, at theother - for God - it may be a required ‘sacrifice’.

We recognize, of course, that the notion of ‘markets’ does not adequately serveto describe, for example, the very differing situations of a commercial, forprofit, single purpose private HE and a fundamentalist college which may,ideally, be a sine qua non (a closed market?) for a particular group or sect. Itwould be easy to say that private HEIs will be more responsive to changingsocial and economic conditions. Some may well be. However, as the situation

37


of Bond University indicates, this has yet to be demonstrated. (With Bond,shorter completion times and (claimed) better/more effective teaching programsare set against a much higher fee structure. Arguably, however, its realproblem is the debt owed by its bankrupt former owner.)

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Documentation and Bibliography

Australian Qualifications Framework Taskforce, 1994, Australian QualificationsFramework Information Manual-DRAFT, Unpublished,

Bartlett L and Rowan L, 1994, From Crisis to Containment: Managing Unmet Demandfor Australian Higher Education, Australian Universities’ Review, 37,2, 24-28

Beazley K, 1993, Higher Education Budget Statement, AGPS, Canberra.

Carmichael L,1992, The Australian Vocational Certificate Training System, NBEET,Canberra.

Education Victoria, undated, Higher Education Courses Offered by Private Providers inVictoria, Department of Education, Melbourne.

Knight J, 1994, Steering at What Distance? The Political Economy of Equity, Diversityand Quality in the August 1993 Higher Education Budget Statement, AustralianUniversities’ Review, 37, 2, 41-46.

Lingard B, Bartlett L, Knight J, Porter P and Rizvi F, 1994, Equity and Diversity inMass Higher Education: Some Policy Issues, Australian Universities’ Review, 37, 2, 2-7.

Lingard B, Knight J and Porter P, 1993, Schooling Reform in Hard Times, FalmerPress, London.

Lingard B, Porter P, Bartlett L and Knight J, 1995, Federal/State Mediations in theAustralian National Education Agenda: From the AEC to MCEETYA 1987-1983,Australian Journal of Education, 39, 1, 41-66.

Northern Territory Parliament, 1995, Education Act, Government Printer, Darwin.

Office of Higher Education, undated, Current Approval/Accreditation Arrangements forHigher Education Courses at Queensland Institutions, Office of Higher Education,Brisbane.

Office of Higher Education, 1994, Procedures for the Accreditation of HigherEducation Courses, Office of Higher Education, Brisbane.

Queensland Parliament, 1987, Bond University Act 1987-1989, Government Printer,Brisbane.

Queensland Parliament, 1989, Education (General Provisions) Act 1989, GovernmentPrinter, Brisbane.

Queensland Parliament, 1993, Higher Education (General Provisions) Act 1993,Government Printer, Brisbane.

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Tanner A, 1995, Establishment of the Australian Qualifications Framework-BackgroundInformation, Office of Higher Education, Brisbane.

Western Australian Parliament, University of Notre Dame Australia Act 1989,Government Printer, Perth.

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Appendix 1: List of Institutions Providing Post-Secondary Education inAustralia

For this study, all accredited private post-secondary institutions were written to,requesting documentation of their history, courses, mission statements, etc. It will beappreciated that as this is an extensive array of materials we have not listed eachspecific brochure, etc in the bibliography. Details and the documents themselves canbe provided upon request.

Institutions are referenced as follows:

Institutions marked with * did not respond to the surveyInstitutions marked with # are member Institutes of the Sydney College of DivinityInstitutions marked with + are member Institutes of the Australian College ofTheologyInstitutions marked with are member Institutes of the Melbourne College of DivinityInstitutions marked with are member Institutes of the Brisbane College of Theology

Adelaide College of Divinity*PO Box 188BELAIR SA 5052

Auckland Consortium for TheologicalEducation Tamaki Campus

The University of AucklandPrivate Bag 92019AUCKLAND 1105 NZ

Australian College ofPhysical Education6 Figtree DriveHOMEBUSH NSW 2140

Australian College of Theology6/388 Anzac ParadeKINGSFORD NSW 2032

Australian InternationalHotel SchoolQueen Victoria TerraceBARTON ACT 2600

Avondale College

PO Box 19COORANBONG NSW 2265

Baptist Theological College+179 Goldcreek RoadBROOKFIELD Q 4068

Bible College of Queensland1 Cross StreetTOOWONG Q 4066

Bible College of South Australia+176 Wattle StreetMALVERN SA 5061

Bible College of Victoria+71-81 Albert Hill RoadLILYDALE VIC 3140

Bond UniversityUniversity DriveROBINA QLD 4229

Brisbane College of TheologyPO Box 1616

41


TOOWONG VIC 4066

Burleigh College+134 The ParadeNORWOOD SA 5067

Canberra College of TheologyPO BOX 42WARAMANGA ACT 2611

Catholic Institute of Sydney #99 Albert RoadSTRATHFIELD NSW 2135

Catholic Theological College ¶PO BOX 1302 RMDCCLAYTON VIC 3169

Centre for Strategic Leaders1 Cordelia StreetSOUTH BRISBANE QLD 4101

Christian Heritage College322 Wecker RoadMANSFIELD QLD 4122

Churches of ChristTheological College #216 Pennant Hills RoadCARLINGFORD NSW 2118

Evangelical Theological Associationc/o Whitley College271 Royal ParadePARKVILLE VIC 3952

Gibaran Action Research ManagementInstitute Pty Ltd2A Jetty RoadBRIGHTON SA 5048

Harvest Bible CollegePO Box 7MULGRAVE VIC 3170

Institute of Engineers Australia*Suite 20213-21 Bedford StreetNORTH MELBOURNE VIC 3051

Jubilee InternationalChristian CollegeCnr Springvale & Landscape StreetSTAFFORD HEIGHTS QLD 4053

United Theological College #Centre for Ministry16 Masons DriveNORTH PARRAMATTA NSW 2151

Securities Institute Education8th Floor, Pearl Assurance House32 GrenfeIl StreetADELAIDE SA 5000

Securities Institute EducationLevel 17, AMP Place10 Eagle StreetBRISBANE Q 4000

Securities Institute EducationLevel 2, Atrium530 Collins StreetMELBOURNE WC 3000

Securities Institute EducationLevel 22, Exchange Plaza2 The EsplanadePERTH WA 6000

Securities Institute Education (National Office)Level 30, Tower BuildingAustralian SquareSYDNEY NSW 2000

Sydney College of DivinityThe Woolwich Building216 Pennant Hills RoadCARLINGFORD NSW 2118

Sydney Missionary and Bible College +43 Badminton RoadCROYDON NSW 2132

Tabor CollegePO Box 564

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PLYMPTON SA 5038

Tabor College222 Oban RoadRINGWOOD VIC 3134

Trinity Theological College§47 Caldwell StreetAUCHENFLOWER Q 4102

Kenmore Christian College+41 Brookfield RoadKENMORE Q 4068

Kingsley College21 South StreetGLENROY WC 3046

KvB College of Visual Communication99 Mount StreetSYDNEY NSW 2060

Luther Campus104 Jeffcott StreetNORTH ADELAIDE SA 5006

Melbourne College of Divinity21 Highbury GroveKEW VIC 3101

Monash Mt Eliza Business SchoolPO BOX 224CAULFIELD JUNCTION VIC 3161

Moore Theological College +1 King StreetNEWTOWN NSW 2042

Morling College+120 Herring RoadEASTWOOD NSW 2122

National Institute of Health SciencesPO BOX 2056KAMBAH VILLAGE ACT 2902

Nazarene Theological College40 Woodlands DriveTHORNLANDS QLD 4164

Notre Dame University of AustraliaPO BOX 1225FREMANTLE WA 6160

Pius Provincial Seminary§Approach RoadBANYO Q 4014

Presbyterian Theological Centre +77 Shaftesbury RoadBURWOOD NSW 2134Presbyterian Theological College i-684 Elgar RoadBOX HILL NORTH VIC 3129

Reformed Theological College +55 Maud StreetGEELONG VIC 3220

Ridley College+160 The AvenuePARKVILLE VIC 3052

Royal Australian College ofGeneral PractionersCollege House1 Palmerston CrescentSOUTH MELBOURNE VIC 3205

St Andrew’s Greek OrthodoxTheological College #242 Cleveland StreetREDFERN NSW 2016

St Francis’ Theological College§233 Milton RoadMILTON Q 4064

St Mark’s National TheologicalCentre #15 Blackall StreetBARTON ACT 2600

St Paul’s National Seminary #1 Roma AvenueKENSINGTON NSW 2033

Union Theological Institute #

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Catholic Theological Union1 Mary StreetHUNTERS’S HILL NSW 2110 and

Columban Mission Institute420 Bobbin Head RoadNORTH TURRAMURRA NSW 2074

United Faculty of Theology ¶Kernick HouseQueen’s CollegePARKVILLE VIC 3052

Yarra Theological Union ¶PO Box 79BOX HILL WC 3128

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Appendix 2: Office of Higher Education, Queensland: Guidelines For TheDocumentation Sought For The Accreditation of Higher EducationCourses

BACKGROUND

In order to accredit a course as one leading to a higher education award, the Ministerneeds to be assured that appropriate consideration has been given to the following:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

the general educational practices and standards of the institution and theprocesses adopted within the institution for monitoring the operation of itseducational program;

recognition of national standards of course length and nomenclature;

the objectives of the particular course and the methods adopted to achieve thoseobjectives;

admission requirements for the course;

the duration of the course, having regard to entry requirements and courseobjectives;

the breadth, depth and balance in the course material involved and theintellectual effort required:

the methods of assessment of student progress;

the relative emphasis on the teaching of skills in relation to the study of thediscipline;

any arrangements for practical training and experience as part of the course:

the capacity of the institution to deliver the course at the appropriate tothe award (this would include an assessment of

standard

the teaching staff conducting the course including numbers, professionalqualifications and experience, educational expertise, and ability toservice the particular modes(s) of offering the course;

the accommodation and facilities including equipment, library,laboratories, workshops and other instructional resources, asnecessary for the particular course; and

the legal and financial standing of the provider as they impinge on theprovider’s capacity to offer the course. )

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To obtain this assurance, the Office of Higher Education in its “Procedures for theAccreditation of Higher Education Courses” seeks that each course assessmentcommittee prepare an assessment report providing evaluative comment as appropriate oneach of those issues and on such other pertinent matters as the committee considersdesirable.

To enable the course assessment committee to make its report, a formal coursesubmission containing all the derails of the proposed course should be prepared by theinstitution, in which all relevant matters are addressed. The format of suchsubmissions may be determined by each institution, but it is expected that thesubmission will contain at least the information detailed below for the assistance of thecommittee in the preparation of its report.

The degree of detail to be provided in the course submission relating to proposed coursecontent and to the facilities and equipment that will be needed should be sufficient forthe committee to make an informed judgment about those matters and commentaccordingly. As suggestions the following guidelines are provided.

COURSE SUBMISSIONS

In their submissions for the accreditation of courses, institutions are asked toinclude the following information:

(a) NAME OF THE INSTITUTION PROPOSING THE COURSE

(b) NAME OF THE AUTHORITY WHICH WILL BE MAKING THE AWARDPROPOSED

(c) IDENTIFYING INFORMATION RELATING TO THE COURSE

Relevant information is as follows: the name, proposed award tide andabbreviated tide of the course; its duration; the modes of study by which it is tobe available, such as full-time, part-time, internal, external, or sandwich; wherethe course is planned to be taught; when the various modes of offering are to beintroduced; and the school or department within the institution which will beresponsible for the course.

The emphasis of the course needs to be stated. Where a course is almost whollycontained within a particular field of study, this field should be given, as, forexample, Bachelor of Engineering in the field of Civil Engineering. Where thecourse involves major studies which constitute a component such as one-third ofthe course taken to final-year level, with the possibility of secondary or minorstudies being taken as well, these major studies should be specified as, forexample Bachelor of Applied Science with major studies inBiology/Geology/Mathematics. Sometimes it may be desirable to include boththe field of study and the major studies involved as, for example, Bachelor ofArts in the field of Recreation Administration, with major studies in CommercialRecreation/Community Arts/Community Groups/Tourism.

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(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

LOCATION(S) AT WHICH THE COURSE IS TO BE OFFERED

YEAR IN WHICH THE COURSE IS PLANNED TO BEGIN

YEAR IN WHICH THE FIRST STUDENTS SHOULD COMPLETE THECOURSE

ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS FOR THE COURSE

A realistic estimate of the demand for the proposed course is sought andprojected enrollments for a six-year period should be given in the form of thefollowing table:

19.. 19..Type of Student F/T P/T Ext. Total F/T P/T Ext Total

CommencingContinuing(excl. Final Year)Final Year

Graduands duringcalendar year

The sources of the information from which the estimùates have been derived should be included

In the case of courses being reaccredited, the table of enrolments shouldinclude actual and projected enrollments. Comment on the employment history ofgraduates should also be provided.

(h) A CONCISE STATEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

The statement of the objectives of the proposed course should include broadreference to the contribution which graduates can be expected to make in theirprofessional or vocational capacity as well as provide an outline of both thegeneral and the specific objectives.

An outline should be given of career Opportunities for graduates of the courseincluding any explicit support for the proposed course by professions, industry,commerce or government. Similar or related courses available in the State andelsewhere should be listed and reasons given to explain why existing relatedcourses cannot satisfy the demand.

47


(i) ENTRY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE

This statement should outline the entry requirements to be prescribed for thecourse. Where variations from the standards proposed are to be accepted,reasons should be given.

(j) DETAILS AND TABLES OF THE COURSE STRUCTURE

The units offered in each semester or year need to be listed individually for eachseparate strand within the course so that a clear pattern is provided of the coursestructure and of what is expected of the student in terms of contact/teachinghours for lectures, tutorials, supervised laboratory or workshop experience, andother on-the-job experience such as school experience for teachers or industrialexperience for engineers. Where a wide range of electives is available, samplecourse programs should be provided.

(k) COURSE CONTENT

Overall commentary should be provided on how the various components of thecourse fit together in terms of breadth, depth and balance to achieve the courseobjectives.

Brief derails should be given of the scope of each subject/unit showing itsrelationship to the overall course objectives. A list of the major texts andreferences, an outline of the methods of teaching expected to be ‘used and of theassessment arrangements planned should be provided as well. where possiblethe name(s) of staff to be responsible for the subject should be included and,where relevant, the contact hours which each staff member may contribute toeach subject or unit should be set out.

(l) A BRIEF STATEMENT ON THE RANGE OF WORKSHOPS, PRACTICALWORK, AND OTHER WORK EXPERIENCE TO BY INCORPORATEDINTO THE COURSE

(m) A BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT METHODS TO BEEMPLOYED IN THE COURSE

(n) A LIST OF THE CURRENT AND ADDITIONAL TEACHING STAFFMEMBERS LIKELY TO BE REQUIRED FOR THE COURSE TOGETHERWITH AN OUTLINE OF THEIR QUALIFICATIONS, RELEVANT WORKEXPERIENCE, EDUCATIONAL EXPERTISE, AND CONTRIBUTIONS TOTHE PROGRAM

The information provided, preferably in tabular form, should include:

* the qualifications, experience, number and level of academic staff neededto conduct the course and an identification of the existing staff who areto be involved in the preparation and teaching of the course, and theextent of the contribution which each member is expected to make.

48


* the additional teaching staff required, including full-time and part-timeappointments.

* existing support staff and additional support staff required for thecourse.

(o) THE FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE FOR THE PROVISIONOF THE COURSE

Details should be given of existing facilities and equipment to be used, as well asof additional equipment or new facilities required. Specific reference should bemade to library and computing facilities by providing a statement on the overall

library facilities and on the holdings of monographs and serials for particularareas relevant to the course and by outlining the computer facilities available foruse in the teaching program. Where it is proposed to offer the course by externalstudies, an indication should be given of the methods to be employed and thefacilities available for such teaching.

(p) A COMMENT ON THE METHODS PROPOSED FOR CONTINUALLYMONITORING THE OPERATION OF THE COURSE

(q) A LIST OF THE NAMES, QUALIFICATIONS, MEMBERSHIP OFPROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND WORK EXPERIENCE OFCOURSE ASSESSMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

The details given in the list of members of the course assessment committeeshould make it clear that all the major studies offered in the course have beencovered. If consultants are asked to assist in the assessment of the course, theirnames, qualifications and relevant experience should be supplied as well,together with an explanation of how the consultants were used.

(r) A COPY OF ANY EXCHANGE OF CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THEGOVERNING BODIES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED WHENAREAS OF STUDY PROPOSED MIGHT OTHERWISE BE SEEN TORESULT IN UNNECESSARY DUPLICATION IN COURSE OFFERINGSOR AREAS OF STUDY

COURSE ASSESSMENT COMMITTEE REPORTS

In their reports on submissions for the accreditation of new courses, courseassessment committees are asked to include information under the followingheadings together with evaluative comments where appropriate. Observationsand suggestions relating to the committee’s discussions and findings are expectedto be included in the report in relation to some or all of items (h) - (r) below.

Course assessment committee report-s should be complete in themselves. Hencemuch of the information about a course which is contained in the coursesubmission (see previous section for explanatory details) will need to be repeated

49


in the report of the course assessment committee which the Office of HigherEducation and ultimately the Minister will consider.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

(m)

(n)

NAME OF THE INSTITUTION PROPOSING THE COURSE

NAME OF THE AUTHORITY WHICH WILL BE MAKING THEAWARD PROPOSED

IDENTIFYING INFORMATION RELATING TO THE COURSE

LOCATION(S) AT WHICH THE COURSE IS TO BE OFFERED

YEAR IN WHICH THE COURSE IS PLANNED TO BEGIN

YEAR IN WHICH ThE FIRST STUDENTS SHOULD COMPLETETHE COURSE

ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS FOR THE COURSE

A CONCISE STATEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THECOURSE

ENTRY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE

DETAILS AND TABLES OF THE COURSE STRUCTURE

DETAILS OF UNITS PLANNED, AS MAY BE OUTLINED IN THEINSTITUTION’S HANDBOOK, TOGETHER WITH ACOMMENTARY ON HOW THE COMPONENTS ARE TO BECOMBINED TO ACHIEVE THE OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

(These details will be considerably briefer than the material required incourse submissions.)

A BRIEF STATEMENT ON THE RANGE OF WORKSHOPS,PRACTICAL WORK, AND OTHER WORK EXPERIENCE TO BEINCORPORATED INTO THE COURSE

A BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT METHODS TO BEEMPLOYED IN THE COURSE

A LIST OF THE CURRENT AND ADDITIONAL TEACHINGSTAFF MEMBERS LIKELY TO BE REQUIRED FOR THE COURSETOGETHER WITH AN OUTLINE OF THEIR QUALIFICATIONS,RELEVANT WORK EXPERIENCE, EDUCATIONAL EXPERTISE,AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PROGRAM

50


(o) A COMMENTARY ON THE ADEQUACY OF THE FACILITIESAND EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE FOR THE PROVIS1ON OF THECOURSE

(p) A C O M M E N T O N T H E M E T H O D S P R O P O S E D F O RCONTINUALLY MONITORING THE OPERATION OF THECOURSE

(q) A LIST OF THE NAMES, QUALIFICATIONS, MEMBERSHIP OFPROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND WORK EXPERIENCE‘OF COURSE ASSESSMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

(r) A COPY OF ANY EXCHANGE OF CORRESPONDENCEBETWEEN THE GOVERNING BODIES OF THE INSTITUTIONSINVOLVED WHEN AREAS OF STUDY PROPOSED MIGHTOTHERWISE BE SEEN TO RESULT IN UNNECESSARYDUPLICATION IN COURSE OFFERINGS OR AREAS OF STUDY

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Chapter 3: Private Post-Secondary Education In Malaysia

Dr Awang Had bin Salleh

General Description of Private Post-Secondary Education in Malaysia

In Malaysia, as in most countries, post-secondary education means education beyondform five or eleventh grade at the end of which students take their Sijil PelajaranMalaysia which is equivalent to O-Level GCE in the UK System. Education beyondSijil Pelajaran Malaysia is post-secondary. A-Level GCE or Higher School Certificateor Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia is one of many forms of post-secondary education.This report deals with post-secondary education in the private sector in Malaysia.Included in this category are:¹

(a) Academic:

1 Matriculation or Pre-University programmes preparing students for entryinto universities abroad;

2 Pre-Professional programmes;

3 University degree programmes.

(b) Professional:

1 Accountancy;

2 Engineering;

3 Law.

(c) Vocational/Technical/Technological:

1 Architecture:

2 Building;

3 Computing;

4 Engineering;

5 Industrial Design;

6 Robotics;

¹ See Challenger Concept, Education Guide MALAYSIA, Kuala Lumpur: 1996 (Third Edition)

53


7 Media Production.

(d) Commerce:

1 Advertising;

2 Art and Design;

3 Business Studies;

4 Hotel and Catering;

5 Secretarial Scienee;

6 Communications.

These programmes are conducted at various levels:2

(a) Pre-University level.

Private post-secondary education prepares students for:

1 GCE A-Level (UK) examinations conducted by Associated ExaminingBoard; Examination Syndicates of University of Cambridge, Universityof Oxford, University of London.

2 Higher School Certificate, New South Wales, Australia

3 Ontario Secondary School Diploma (OSSD).

4 Southr Australian Matriculation Examination (SAM)

5 Western Australian Matriculation -- Tertiary Entrance Examination(WATEE).

6 Foundation Studies preparing students for direct entry into someuniversities abroad.

(b) Certificate and Diploma programmes conducted by private post-secondaryeducation institutions internally. Some are validated by national professionalbodies or foreign bodies or universities. These qualifications may be consideredby foreign universities for purposes of entry to degree programmes.

(c) Semi-Professional and Professional Levels. Private post-secondary educationinstitutions prepare students for examinations for semi-professional qualificationsconducted by bodies such as IBBM, ABE, CIM, BTEC, HND, LCCI, AIA,AAT, IAM, IDPM, BCS, CGLI, etc. They also prepare students for

2 Ibid.

54


examinations for professional qualifications conducted by ACCA, MACPA,CIMA, ICSA, etc.

(d) Undergraduate and Postgraduate Degree Levels. Private post-secondaryeducation institutions prepare their students in undergraduate and postgraduatedegree programmes for foreign universities or accrediting professional bodies.The following are modes of operations: (1) Twinning Programmes, (2) Credit-transfer Programmes, (3) Advanced Standing Programmes, (4) ExternalProgrammes for various foreign universities or professional bodies.

Not included in this category of private sector post-secondary education are:

(a) Teachers’ colleges, since the training of teachers is the total prerogative of theMinistry of Education;

(b) Specific colleges or institutes serving as in-house training outfits for specificgovernment agencies;

(c) Special government-sponsored vocational and technical education for youths.

By way of a footnote, private post-secondary education preparing students for universitydegree qualifications is a new phenomenon in Malaysia. By definition, as implied in theUniversities and University Colleges Act, universities must adopt official governmentpolicies vis-à-vis the language medium of instruction and they are supported fully by thegovernment for funding. With the introduction of the more liberal policy madenecessary, initially, by government’s attempt to minimize foreign exchange outflowduring the economic slowdown of the eighties, private institutions have been encouragedto twin with foreign universities. The question might be asked as to why these’ privateinstitutions were not asked to conduct university courses and award degrees on theirown without having to twin with foreign universities. This was not possible becausethese institutions were not charmed to award degrees since they did not fulfill theprerequisites as provided for under the said Act. That being the case, one way outwould be for the local private institutions to conduct degree courses in full or in part andthe host universities abroad would be awarding successful candidates with their relevantdegrees.

To date, there has been no twinning between these private institutions and localuniversities although theoretically this is permissible. However, there have beensuggestions to this effect coming from both sectors, i.e., public universities and private-sector post-secondary institutions. In the opinion of this writer, it is a matter of timebefore this will become a reality.

Broad Data on Private Post-Secondary Education Institutions

Complete data on private post-secondary education institutions in Malaysia is difficult tocompile. According to an official of the Education Planning and Research Division ofthe Ministry of Education, the problem is that data are obtained by way of responses tothe return or questionnaire sent by the Ministry to private education institutions and the

55


rate of return from the latter is poor, since it is not compulsory for them to oblige. Thefollowing information is compiled from the data from available sources.

The following chart shows private post-secondary education alternatives available tostudents:³

SIJIL PELAJARAN MALAYSIA/PERSAMAAN(Malaysia Certificate of Education or equivalent)

IAcademic I Non-academic I

‘1–1PRE-UNIVERSITY /- GCE A-Level- Matriculation I- Preparatory Program

T'NICAL/V'CTIONALI

I -BTEC

II I

PROF’L SEMI-PROF'LCOURSES COURSES- ACCA - AAT- CIMA - LCCI- ICSA -C & C- BCS - MLVK- MACPA - NCC

II_

UNIVERSITYPROGRAMME- Twinning- Credit Transfer- Distance Learning

I

-TAFE - EC/IEM - Pitman-Others/Equivalent - AIA - IPRM

- ABE - others- IAM-Others

ITransfer I

I PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

–1 I_DEGREE QUALIFICATIONS

In 1995, seventy-seven private education institutions in the country provided coursesranging from HSC or GCE A-Level and university matriculation qualifications touniversity degree education. Some of them have branches which are counted asseparate institutions.4

According to the Ministry of Education, as at 30 November 1995, the number of privatepost-secondary education institutions in the country are 280 in numbers They arenaturally urban-centred. Of the total number, 89 are in the Wilayah Persekutuan (theFederal Territory), 70 in the state of Selangor and 28 in Pulau Pinang (better known toforeigners as Penang) making a sub-total of 187. The more rural states (Kelantan,Terengganu, Pahang, Sabah, Sarawak) share a total of only 25.In 1988, there were only 86 such institutions. In seven years, it has increased by morethan 300 per cent. It may be said that private post-secondary education has made ifspresence felt in the nineties.

As described abowe, there are four options available to students immediately beyondtheir secondary education:

3 Adapted from chart in Education Directory 1995 published by National Association ofPrivate and Independent Educational Institutions, January 1995, p.28.4 Source: ibid. Computed from lists given on pages 87-95.5 Adapted from Table 1 on Private-Sector Education Institution given in EducationPlanning and Research Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia, Data TerminiKementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 23 January 1996, p54.

56


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

To study for two years beyond Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia and at the end of thesecond year sit for Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia or STPM which is equivalentto the Cambridge .Examinations Syndicate’s Higher School Certificate or HSC.

There are twenty-nine private colleges that run such classes. However, somestudents study on their own and take the examination as private candidates.

To skip further two years of academic programme above and go straight topolytechnics or technical colleges to follow certificate or diploma courses.

To enter private colleges that prepare students for matriculation programmes foruniversities abroad.

To enter other educational institutions such as religious schools.

In the 1991/1992 session6, there was a total enrolment of 42,722 students pursuingdegree, diploma and certificate levels of education. Their proportions according tolevels of courses were:

14 per cent (or approximately 5981) at degree level46 per cent (or approximately 19652) at diploma level, and40 per cent (or approximately 17089) at certificate level

These figures did not include those studying for pre-university A-level courses in morethan 52 private institutions.’

In 1988, the total number enrolled in 86 private post-secondary education institutionswas 15,025. In a space of four years, the enrolment rose by about 300 per cent in1992.

No student and staff numbers are available. Without these figures, the student: staffratio cannot be established. Educational statistics published annually by the Ministry ofEducation give data on student enrolment and reaching staff of private secondary schoolsas a whole and no breakdown of statistics for post-secondary education in the privatesector is given.

One directory’ classifies post-secondary education institutions by course offering by wayof disciplines. They are as follows: Art and Design, Business Studies, ComputerStudies, Engineering, Hotel, Catering and Tourism Management, Languages, Law,Mass Communication, Post-Graduate Studies. A number of these establishments havebeen in existence for some years, although data on this is not complete. However, a

6 Educational Planning and Research Division of the Ministry of Education, Education inMalaysia, Kuala Lumpur: 1993, second printing 1993, pp 72-73.7 Ibid,8 WENCO, Malaysian Higher & Vocational Education 1995, Kuala Lumpur: 1995, p p120-162.

57


closer look at the 56 institutions listed in one directory9 with their year of establishmentincluded, reveals the following pattern:

Those established in the 50s . . . . . . 05Those established in the 60s . . . . . . 05Those established in the 70s . . . . . . 07Those established in the 80s . . . . . . 29Those established in first half of the 90s . . 10

From the limited data above it looks as though the growth of the private post-secondaryeducation in Malaysia began to take place in a big way in the 80s and continues todominate in the 90s.

Institutional Mission and Reasons for Establishment

The growth of this sector of education is in response to the government’s liberal policyof inviting private-sector participation in post-secondary education since the publicsector are incapable of meeting the human resource needs as the country embarks on itsindustrialization policy. It is also a response encouraged by government’s liberal policyon language medium of instruction, notably, on the use of English as a medium ofinstruction in the private-sector education.

It is also the nation’s policy to check the indiscriminate outflow of foreign exchangesince government alone spends about three billion Malaysian ringgit annually onstudents studying abroad for post-secondary education. Allowing private post-secondaryeducation to grow within the country will help provide more places of study forMalaysian students and reduce the foreign exchange outflow.

One of the nine challenges posed by the 2020-Vision is for Malaysia to reach a stagewhere it contributes to the expansion of knowledge to the world community rather thanto remain 100 per cent recipients of knowledge. Consistent with that Malaysia strives tobecome a regional Centre of excellence for education. To that end, the private sector isencouraged to participate. The belief among the leadership in Malaysia is that theengine of future national growth of the country rests with the private sector. Consistentwith that belief, more and more of education is to be placed in the hands of the privatesector.

As more and more corporations grow in numbers, given the high economic growth rareof the nation for the past eight years or so, government is now instilling in them thevalues of being responsive and responsible corporate citizens. Consistent with this,corporations like Petronas, Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional have been invited bythe government to setup universities.

Private-sector participation in post-secondary education seems to be opting for providingeducation for which there is no large capital outlay. Hence, concentration on subjects

‘National Association of Private and Independent Educational Institutions, EducationDirectory 1995, Kuala Lumpur: 1995, pp 99-112.

58


like management education. High-end engineering and medical courses that involvehigh capital outlay are not readily taken up by the private sector. However, there isbeginning to be an interest in providing this type of education. The three corporationsmentioned above are providing specialized engineering education such as petroleumengineering, telecommunications engineering.

To-date two private medical colleges have been established. One is in Petaling Jaya, asuburb of Kuala Lumpur, and another in Ipoh in the state of Perak. A press reportshows that plans are afoot for another to be established in the state of Pulau Pinang(Penang). Perhaps this is the beginning of private-sector participation in providingcapital intensive higher education.

Government Law and Private Post-Secondary Education

There are no restrictions on the establishment of private post-secondary education aslong as the institutions satisfy the following authorities:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The Registrar of Companies for purposes of establishing the company as abusiness venture into education. This is quite a straightforward process.

The Fire Department for purposes of ensuring safety of the building from allforms of hazards.

Health Authority to ensure that the premises and theirfacilities do not pose any health threats.

The Registrar of Schools at the Ministry of Education.

location as well as

The success of theapplication depends on criteria such as:

1 Qualifications and quality of staff.

2 Soundness of the curricula.

3 Meeting the minimum physical requirement of the campus fromeducation, health and safety standpoints.

All these are considered necessary in order to safeguard the interest of the public.

Relevant rules and regulations for the establishment of private higher educationinstitutions are:

(a) Peraturan-Peraturan Perlu (Yayasan Pelajaran Tinggi), 1969. (Essential(Higher Education Institution) Regulations, 1969).

Under the rules:

1 Establishment of private higher education institutions must be with priorwritten approval of the Minister of Education.

59


2 New courses to be introduced or added must also be with prior writtenconsent of the Minister.

(b) Akta Pelajaran, 1961. (Education Act, 1961).

Under the Act, there are provisions for:

1 Registration of schools or educational institutions (Part V, Section 1).

2 Registration of Teachers or Teaching Staff (Part VI, Section 2).

3 Registration of Board of Governors or Management Board (Part V,Section 3).

4 Teaching Permit (Part VI, Section 2).

5 Requirements regarding premises or buildings (Part XIV).

6 Examination and Supervision of schools or education institutions byRegistrar of Schools (Part V, Section 5).

(c) Akta University dan Kolej Universiti, 1971 dan pindaan-pindaan kemudiannya.(Universities and University Colleges Act, 1971 and amendments.) The latestamendment being Akta Universiti dan Kolej University (Pinadan) 1995.

Previously, prior to the introduction of the acts and regulations above, private post-secondary education institutions were registered as business companies under theCompany Act. Their accountabilities are those specified under the said Act. Under therecently introduced Education Act of 1995, there are provisions to ensure greateraccountability on the part of the officials, teachers, board directors, in the event of therebeing neglect and non-conformity to the laws and regulations.

From time to time these institutions may be checked to see if the standards on whichapproval was given fall or are violated. These exercises are to be carried out by theRegistrar of Schools. The Ministry of Consumer Affairs also has the authority to checkon the institutions to see if there have been any cases of fraud, for instance, cases inwhich clients have been misled into believing, through advertisements, that they wouldget something far superior in quality than what the institutions, in reality, do provide.

As a rule, private post-secondary education institutions are not classified as charityorganizations. However, they may benefit indirectly from other existing laws andregulations. For instance, goods such as computers, laboratory equipment, etc. may begranted educational discounts and tax exemptions. If the institutions conduct fund-raising activities, they may seek tax-exemption for the donors and thereby encouragedonors to come forward with donations.

Together with the new Education Act of 1995, three other acts relevant to the ownershipof private post-secondary institutions have been passed by Parliament recently. They

60


are an act for the setting up of Higher Education Advisory Council, a NationalAccreditation Council, and a Private Higher Education Act. The last two certainly havebearings on private post-secondary education. From these two, rules and regulationsare formulated. At the moment these are in the process of being so formulated. As forthe ownership of a private education institution, the rules say that it must be fully-ownedby Malaysians with a minimum equity of 40 per cent held by Bumiputra (literallytranslated: sons of the soil) shareholder(s). Permission may be granted for a maximum20 per cent equity to be held by foreigners if justifiable. The rules also say thatauthorized and paid-up capital of the company owning a private education institutionmust reflect some measure of capability to run such an institution.

Forms of Reporting and Controlling Private Post-Secondary Education

Some prescribed forms are required to be tilled and completed at various stages. Onesuch form is for application for a licence to operate an education institution. Anotherform is for application to start a new course of study. Yet another form is used for amandatory annual return. Teachers, in order to teach in a private education institution,need to apply for a teaching licence from the Ministry of Education. This is one of themeasures for maintaining quality control.

By way of illustration, a form for an application to start a new course of studyprogrammes contains the following items:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

Name of the institution

Address of the institution

Ownership structure of the institution

Information on the institution’s Board of Governors

Information on the Principal

Date of approval for the establishment of the institution

Registration Certificate Number

List of courses that have been approved previously and dates

List of courses that have been approved but have not been implemented

Information about new course/courses for which approval is sought:

1 Course title

2 Discipline

3 Certification

61


4 Course content

5 Length (years) of study

6 Entry qualification

8 Rationale

Additional Information

1 Buildings

2 Facilities

Since private initiatives on post-secondary education, more so those offering universitycourses under the twinning programme for instance, are new to the Ministry ofEducation, approval for new courses or programmes of study are regarded by thoseprivate education institutions as a slow process. It may generally take at least a yearbefore the approval is obtained by which time, they argue, curriculum content mayrequire updating given the rapid changes in technology these days. Being in the privatesector, these institutions are naturally cost conscious. A delay in getting the approvalwould mean that the new course cannot be started in the year being planned for it. Ithas to be deferred to the following year and the cost incurred in the planning year willhave to be absorbed unnecessarily by the institutions.

On the other hand, the Ministry of Education feels it cannot and should not rush throughthe application quickly because it has to be first satisfied with the quality and relevanceof such a course or programme. The risk from the standpoint of the Ministry officialsis a real one.

One other problem faced by the Ministry is the non-compatibility of some of thoseacademic and professional programmes from universities abroad with the Malaysianmodels. In the public sector, attempts are always made to provide education that isrelatively more broad-based. Time duration for each programme is fixed. Acomponent of the curriculum consists of character building and citizenship education,etc. Co-curricular activities are given their due importance. Contrary to this emphasis,the private-sector post-secondary education seems to offer shorter duration courseprogrammes going direct to the course content proper and playing down on the co-curricular programmes. This is seen as an advantage for their students. An ability tooffer a most direct-route to higher education qualification seems to be regarded as acompetitive advantage by these private education institutions. All these factorscontribute to the difficulty faced by the Ministry in reaching a more responsibledecision,

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There is no direct government support for private post-secondary education. However,under the Education Act, 1995 (Part 10, Section 52), the Minister of Education isempowered to provide financial aids, in the form of grant from an allocation approvedby Parliament, to Islamic religious education institutions10 not established by theMinistry of Education nor by the state government.

Other forms of financial support are indirect in nature. One such indirect support is byway of obtaining tax exemption for the donors in any fund-raising campaign. Anotheris by way of application for import-duty exemption on machines and instruments usedfor direct purposes of teaching.

Under tuition fees (para 6.12 in Buku Panduan Penubuhan dan Pendaftaran InstitusiPendidikan Swasta)¹¹ there is no hard-and-fast rule pertaining to maximum allowablefor private-sector education to impose on their students except that the “tuition feescharged must be reasonable and consistent with the curriculum and facilities providedfor. n

Private post-secondary education institutions charge tuition fees at very much higherrates compared to those charged by state-run post-secondary education institutions. Atthe Diploma level, the fees charged by private post-secondary education average aboutRM2,000. At the degree level, they average about RM10,000 per year. One privatecollege charges about RM17,000 per year for a degree programme in architecture undera twinning arrangement. One medical college charges a fee of RM110,000 for threeyears of study in the country. A different rate will be charged for the period of studyabroad. University of Malaya, faculty of medicine charges less than RM10,000 peryear.

Although the private sector figures are above average, it could be misleading since thereis great variability between colleges and also between disciplines of study.

By and large loans, bursaries and scholarships provided by government or statutorybodies apply only to those intending to study in government education institutions in thecountry and recognized education institutions abroad. However, such assistance is alsoextended to some selected courses in the private sector. Students studying in privateeducation institutions may apply for scholarships and loans from various private andsemi-public foundations.

Students in both public and private post-secondary education may also take advantage ofstudy loans offered by various banks.

10 Under the Federation of Malaysia Constitution, Islamic is the religion of the state andthere is a freedom of practise of all other religions.11 Bahagian Pendaftaran Sekolah dan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, BukuPanduan Penubuhan dan Pendaftaran lnstitusi Pendidikan Swasta, Kuala Lumpur: 1994.

63



The Ministry of Education is currently in the process of setting up a NationalAccreditation Council. Once established, it will become the authority on the wholerange of academic, professional and vocational qualifications. At the moment there aretwo examination bodies, namely, The Examination Syndicate of the Ministry ofEducation that conducts all public examinations up to the Sjil Peperiksaan Malaysia orMalaysia Certificate of Education (equivalent to O-Level examination. )

There exists another body, called Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia or MalaysianExamination Council whose sole responsibility at the moment is taking charge of thenational exam i nation at A-Level called Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia or the Malaysianversion of the Higher School Certificate examination. It is not known what will happento these two bodies once the Accreditation Council is established. Of course, theAccreditation Council will not be implementing and conducting examinations. Rather,they will be involved in establishing and maintaining standards. They will also be giventhe authority to grant recognition to, and of course to withdraw it from, variousqualifications under certain circumstances.

It is also not known what will be the position of the existing Accreditation Committeechaired by the Minister of Education and serviced by the Public Services Departmentfor purposes of recognizing, or otherwise, various qualifications for purposes of entryinto public services.

Professional bodies established under an act of parliament, such as legal, health,engineering, accountancy, etc., do have their own respective accreditation committees.Probably they will be given a consultative status by the Accreditation Council.

There are no separate accreditation bodies for state and private post-secondaryeducation. Accrediting function at state universities rests with individual universities’Senates which have the power to appoint external examiners and assessors. Privatepost-secondary education institutions rely on their partner institutions abroad tomoderate examination procedure and ‘results in cases of twinning programmes.Similarly, in the case of certificate, diploma and advanced diploma for vocational andprofessional examinations, accreditation committees of those associations will beresponsible for quality control and standards maintenance.

Internal quality control/assurance depends on pretty much the initiatives of the privatepost-secondary education institutions. However, there is no reason to believe that theseinstitutions will not adopt their respective quality control, since they are judged by thepublic on their outcome by way of their students’ performances in examinations.Internal quality control/assurance in state education institutions is more established dueto their longer tradition and is built into the system where the external examiner systemhelps maintain quality. In the case of private post-secondary education institutions, thequality control function is assumed by the professional and vocational bodies for whosequalifications these institutions prepare their students.

64


At another level and dimension, under the Education Act, the Registrar of Schools isempowered to inspect private-sector education institutions from time to time. Thosestate education institutions come under the inspection of the Federal Inspectorate.

Future Plans

There are various ways the government plans to encourage private-sector initiatives toprovide quality private post-secondary education. These are:

(a) Incorporation of a provision in the new Education Act to enable government roinvite selected foreign universities to establish their branch campuses inMalaysia.

(b) A new act called Akta Instituti Pendidikan Tinggi Swasta (Private HigherEducation Institution Act) is specially created in order to enhance thedevelopment of private higher education in the country.

(c) A new department called Department of Private-Sector Higher Education hasbeen created recently to act as a machine for systematic growth of private-sectorhigher education. Rather than appointing a senior education officer of theMinistry of Education to head it, the Ministry appointed a deputy vice-chancellor of one of the universities to head it on secondment basis. Theappointment was well-received as it indicates a recognition of the fact thatbureaucracy of higher education is rather different from the bureaucracy of therest of the Ministry of Education.

Some state post-secondary education institutions are up for privatization. The list is notavailable. One of them, IKRAM (Public Works Department’s Training Institute) is atthe final stage of negotiation for privatization. A few of the 30 teachers colleges areplanned to be upgraded to the stat-us of university colleges and one of them is to becomea fully-fledged university. It is quite likely some of them will be offered by thegovernment for privatization. It is also being talked about that government polytechnicsare also likely to be in the pipeline for privatization. Private-sector initiatives indistance learning are also emerging.

At the present time, only about 7 per cent of each age cohort reach tertiary level ofeducation. It has been announced a few times already that the intention is to raise thispercentage to about 30 per cent by the end of the century. To this end, local universitieshave been directed to double up their intake this year. Three corporations, namely,Petronas (National Petroleum), Telekom Malaysia (Telecoms of Malaysia), and TenagaNasional (National Energy) have very recently been ‘invited’ to set up their respectiveuniversities.

To provide guidance to government and the Ministry of Education in particular, aNational Higher Education Council will soon be established. It will review from time totime the state of the art of higher education in both public and private sectors. It isexpected to identify areas and propose measures to be taken to address inadequacy

65


and/or absence of education programmes and facilities deemed important for variousindustries and the future of the nation.

These developments must be set within the political dimensions of private post-secondary education in Malaysia which is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-culturalnation. Of the many ethnic groups, three are major, namely, the Malays constitutingabout 55 per cent of the population, the Chinese constituting about 38 per cent, and theIndians about 8 per cent. In efforts to build a united Malaysian nation, the governmenthas committed itself to restructuring of society. Through education, the governmenthopes to redistribute wealth to make it equitably shared between various groups and alsoto diffuse the classification of ethnic groups that overlaps with job classification.

The initial fear on the part of the Chinese that redistribution of wealth would be at theexpense of their economic well-being including wealth and property ownership waseased by virtue of the expanding Malaysian economic cake brought about by expandingeconomy of the country. Reflecting the government efforts through education is thequota system of student intake by ethnicity to public universities. Students of Chineseorigin find their way to higher learning institutions overseas since their parents canafford the cost of overseas education. With the liberalisation policy of governmenttowards private post-secondary education one major unintended consequence emerges.Less than 5 per cent of student population in private post-secondary educationinstitutions are represented by the Bumiputra students. This is one urgent issue that thegovernment will have to address.

66


Documentation and Bibliography

Bahagian Pendaftaran Sekolah dart Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, BukuPanduan dan Pentadbiran Institusi Pendidikan Swasta, Kuala Lumpur: 1994.

Bahagian Pendaftaran Sekolah dan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, PermitMengajar, Kuala Lumpur. A pamphlet. Undated.

Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, Kementerian PendidikanMalaysia, Data Terkini Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (kemaskini pada Disember1995), Kuala Lumpur: 23 Januari 1996.

Bahagian Pendaftaran Sekolah dan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, PasPenggajian, Kuala Lumpur. A pamphlet. Undated.

Challenger Concept, Education Guide Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: 1996. Third Edition.

National Association of Private and Independent Educational Institutions, EducationDirectory 1995, Kuala Lumpur: 1995. First Edition.

Rang Undang-Undang Akta Universiti dan Kolej Universiti (Pindaan) 1995.

Rang Undang-Undang Majlis Pendidikan Tinggi Negara 1996.

Rang Undang-Undang Pendidikan 1995.

67

-.


Chapter 4: Developments in Private Post-Secondary Education inNigeria

Monica Barrow

Introduction

Various private post-seeondary institutions at a tertiary level are starting to develop inNigeria, although as yet no private universities have been established. This study willtherefore concentrate on the approved private polytechnic and two colleges of education,and in addition will review the new national context in which private institutions mayoperate. The new polytechnic is a technical institution with progammes leading to theaward of National Diploma (ND) and Higher National Diploma (HND) with a focus ontraining middle level manpower. Programmes in the colleges of education lead to theaward of National Certificate of Education (NCE) which is the minimum entryqualification into the teaching profession with focus on training of middle levelprofessional teachers for primary schools, and lower forms of secondary schools.

The history of higher education in Nigeria dates back to 1948 when the first universitywas established as University College, affiliated to University of London, until in 1962when it was converted into an autonomous university; and in 1965 when the YabaTechnical Institute established in 1948 was upgraded to the status of polytechnic as YabaCollege of Technology. The development of college of education occurred with theestablishment of advanced teachers training college later renamed College of Educationin Zaria in 1962. Since then, the growth of universities, polytechnics and colleges ofeducation has been phenomenal. Within a period of 3 decades, thirty seven universities,thirty six polytechnics, and fifty nine colleges of education were established.

General Description of Private Post-secondary Education in Nigeria

The three categories of post-secondary education institutions owned either by the state orindividuals are shown in Table 1. The only approved existing private polytechnic isOur Saviour’s Institute of Science, Agriculture and Technology (OSISATECHPolytechnic) in Enugu, and key details include:

(a) Date of Establishment: The Institute which is owned by the Congregation ofSisters of Jesus the Saviour Elele Rivers State was established by law of the thenAnambra State Government in 1991.

(b) Institutional Mission: The Institute has a religious mission to train young menand women with special interest in the handicapped who get automaticscholarship on admission, and to promote academic and moral excellence ineducation through the production of technical middle manpower personnel aswell as professional (NCE) teachers.

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Table 1: Categories of Institution by Ownership in 1995

Type of institution Federal state Military Private

University 24 12 1

Polytechnic 14 21

Colleges of 20 37Education

Source: National Universities Commission, National Board for Technical Education,National Commission for Colleges of Education,

(c)

(d)

(e)

Student/Staff numbers: It has three thousand students and staff number of twohundred. The staff number include both teaching and non teaching staff.

Subject breakdown: The institution is approved to run OND/HND courses aswell as NCE courses. Available diploma courses are at ND levels now andthese are Business Administration and Management, Marketing, Purchasing andsupply, Co-operative Studies, Public Administration, Accountancy, Banking andFinance, Insurance, Science Laboratory Technology, Computer Studies, MassCommunication, Secretarial Studies, and Food Technology.

The Nigerian Certificate of Education courses are Business Education,Agricultural Science Education, Physical and Health Education, TechnicalEducation, Home Economics, Computer Science Education, PrimaryEducation/Social Studies, Special Education/Christian Religious Studies, andEnglish Language/Christian Religious Studies.

The first set of OND graduates received their awards in the 1992-93 session, while the.first set of NCE graduates were turned out in 1994-95.

There are two new private approved colleges of education are: the Institute ofEcumenical Education in Enugu, and The National Institute of Moral and ReligiousEducation Akoka Lagos, and details concerning their operation areas follows:

The Institute of Ecumenical Education in Enugu

(a)

(b)

Date of Establishment: The Institute which is owned by the Catholic Diocese ofEnugu was established with the permission of the then Anambra Stategovernment under the Anambra State of Nigeria Law No.6 of 1983. It wasaffiliated to the Anambra State University of Technology to run programmesleading to the award of Nigerian Certificate of Education, and became a full-fledged College of Education in 1994.

Institutional Mission: The institute has a religious mission to produceecumenically oriented teachers in the area of religious and moral education incombination with other subjects.

70


(c) Student/Staff numbers: It has three hundred students and staff number of onehundred and twenty.

(d) Subject breakdown The Institute is approved to run the national certificate ofeducation courses and these are English/Christian Religious Studies,Ecumenics/English, Ecumenics/Mathematics; Ecumenics/Agricultural Science,Ecumenics/Social Studies, Ecumenics/Igbo, Ecumenics/Political Science,Ecumenics/Business Education.

The National Institute of Moral and Religious Education (Project TIME) AkokaLagos.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Date of Establishmernt: The institute which is owned jointly by the CatholicBishop’s Conference of Nigeria and Christian Council of Nigeria was founded in1971 under the Land Act Chapter 98, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria dated17th November 1975. It is a joint Project of the Nigeria Conference of CatholicBishops (representing the Catholic Church in Nigeria) and the Christian Councilof Nigeria (representing notably the protestant groups). Project TIME is anexperiment in training teachers in Moral and Religious Education. The nameTIME means Teachers Institute of Moral and Religious Education.

Institutional Mission: The Institute has a religious mission to provide a flow offully trained teachers of morality and religion especially for primary andsecondary schools and to ensure their professional recognition as specialists.

Student/Staff numbers: Number of students is four hundred and thirty six ofwhich total number of staff is forty five.

Subject breakdown: The Institute is approved to run the national certificate ineducation courses in these combinations: Christian Religious Studies/Economics,Christian Religious Studies/English, Christian Religious Studies/Igbo, ChristianReligious Studies/Yoruba, Christian Religious Studies/Political Science,Christian Religious Studies/Accounts, Islamic Studies/Economics, IslamicStudies/Political Science, and Islamic Studies/Yoruba.

Government Law and Private Post-Secondary Education

Education especially at post-secondary level in Nigeria is a Federal Governmentmonopoly and a huge venture that has witnessed an evolution of government’s completeand dynamic intervention (Nigerian National Commission for UNESCO, 1989). TheFederal Government has through its legislative decisions and policies continued toensure uniform educational practice throughout the Federation. It has through theFederal Ministry of Education carried out its laws and policies of ensuring uniformity ofstandard and quality control of education in Nigeria. Although private individuals havebeen involved in the provision of pre-primary, primary and secondary schools inNigeria, the salutary role played by these private institutions in bringing about varietyand quality in the education system cannot be over-emphasised. This is not the case for

71


post-secondary schools whose development has been slow because of rigid governmentcontrol and regulation.

The first attempt by individuals at developing private universities was when the 1979Constitution put higher education on a concurrent list. The provisions of theConstitution allowed only the Federal and State governments to operate universities, butto some, the provisions implied a right to establish private universities. When thelegality of starting a private university was challenged in court in 1983 in the case of DrBasil Ukegbu and Attorney General for Imo State, the Supreme Court ruled that it wasperfectly legal_ for individuals or private concerns to establish private universities.Within 6 months of the ruling of the supreme court, twenty six private universities wereestablished in Nigeria, and even then it did not appear as if the trend was about to stop.Quite a number of the institutions were established without due regard to quality,adequate planning and funding. Only a few of them were serious in their intentions andexhibited a degree of planning towards their objectives (Yahaya Aliyu 1984).

Alarmed at the indiscriminate proliferation of private universities and the fear that suchuniversities may train students who would graduate into unrecognised and unemployablestatus, the then Military Government felt it was not in the public interest to allow suchmushroom institutions to continue to exist. The Government therefore in 1984abolished the existing private universities and prohibited the establishment of new onesby Decree 19 of 1984 titled “Private Universities (Abolition and Prohibition) Decree1984”. Although the decision tried to restore some order in the educational system, itwas not as if private universities were not viable or desirable then. Even with thetwenty seven existing Federal universities in 1984, it was not possible to absorb into theuniversities all the qualified candidates who applied for admission, thus forcing a goodnumber of potential undergraduates to other pursuit-s. What was required then was nottotal prohibition of the establishment of private universities but regulations to control theestablishment and operations of private universities in order to ensure quality educationin the universities.

With the downturn of the economy it became clear that the government could no longercope with challenges posed by increasing demands for post secondary education,deteriorating facilities, and exodus of academic staff because of poor conditions ofservice. The Commission on Review of Higher Education in its Report recognised thatthe pressure to establish new institutions would be great and therefore recommended aset of criteria for the establishment of new institutions of higher learning. This and theneed for variety of education and for competition between state and private persons inthe provisions of quality education informed the legislation of the establishment ofprivate post secondary education institutions by a Decree known as National Minimumstandards and Establishment of Institutions (Amendment) Decree No.9 of 1993. TheDecree amended the Education (Minimum National Standards and Establishment ofInstitutions) Decree 1985 and also repealed Decree No. 19 of 1984 titled “The PrivateUniversities (Abolition and Prohibition Decree 1984”) and allowed not only the Federaland State governments to establish higher education institutions but also 1ocalgovernment, companies incorporated in Nigeria, and even individuals or association ofindividuals who are citizens of Nigeria and who also satisfy the criteria for theestablishment of higher education institutions.

72


The Decree provides that application for the establishment of an institution of highereducation shall be made to the Minister of Education through its regulatory agencies,namely:

(a) The National Universities Commission in the case of a university.

(b) The National Board for Technical Education in the case of a polytechnic.

(c) The National Commission for Colleges of Education in the case of a college ofeducation.

The Decree emphasised that “no person shall be granted approval to establish aninstitution of higher education unless the criteria set out in the schedule to the Decreehave been satisfied”. These criteria require:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

That the academic structure and spread of discipline of the institution should besuch that would cater for areas of felt needs.

A well articulated mission and a set of objectives which must be in consonancewith the socio-economic and political aspirations of Nigeria.

Adequate funds and enabling assets, that is, funds, land, movable andimmovable assets appropriate to the type of institution envisaged. Morespecifically that the applicant has supplied guaranteed source of financial supportfor the institution to the tune of two hundred million naira in the case of auniversity, one hundred million naira for a polytechnic, and fifty million nairafor a college of education over a period of five years.

A clearly spelt out masterplan for infrastructural and programme developmentfor at least twenty to twenty five years.

Availability of municipal services, including water, transportation, privateaccommodation and communication and a clear policy on student and staffaccomodation and catering services to pre-empt the inadequacy of municipalservices.

Adequate library, laboratory and workshop facilities, including instructionaltools and consumables and long range plans for sustaining them.

An adequate enrolment base and administrative structure not radically differentfrom the established norm.

Arrangements for contacts and affiliation with existing similar institutions andplans for cooperation and interaction.

Various processes are involved in the establishment of post secondary institutions whichinclude the completion and submission of application forms accompanied by feasibilitystudy which are forwarded to the regulatory Bodies. This is followed by inspection,verification and preparation of evaluation reports for submission to the Honorable

73


Minister of Education who will take them to the Federal Executive Council for finaldecision.

These criteria and procedures are comprehensive enough and if rigidly applied wouldensure quality in the private post-secondary institutions to be established.

Forms of Repotting and Controlling Private Post-Secondary Education

As earlier mentioned, the Federal Government has through its policies and laws ensureduniform education practice in the Nigeria’s education system. One of the requirementsor criteria for establishment of post-secondary institutions is that the administrativestructure and forms of reporting and control should be similar to those in existingFederal and State owned post secondary institutions. The management of post-secondary education institutions are at institutional and national levels.

At the institutional level, the internal administrative structure of polytechnics in generalare as follows:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

The Visitor: is the proprietor of the institution.

The Governing Board: is responsible for the general direction of the affairs ofthe institution. The Board consists of a chairman, representatives of theproprietor, education authorities, employers and professional registrationcouncils and associations related to the disciplines offered by the institution. TheBoard is answerable to the proprietor.

The Rector: is the chief academic and administrative officer of the institutionresponsible to the Governing Board.

The Academic Board: the Board is responsible for the planning, co-ordination,development and supervision of academic work in the institution. Thecomposition includes the Rector as Chairman, the Dean or Directors of Schoolsor Heads of Departments, and the Librarian. The Academic Board isresponsible to the Governing Board.

The Principal Officers: these consist of the Registrar, the Bursar, the Directoror Dean of eaeh schools, the Chief Librarian, the Director of Works. Theseofficers are responsible to the Rector.

For. the Colleges of Education, the same structure as the above applies except that thehead of the institution is known as the Provost.

At the national level, the private post-secondary institutions like their state counterpartsare controlled at the national level through Federal government agencies that areresponsible to Federal Ministry of Education. The need to co-ordinate developments ofthe various institutions of higher education in order to ensure quality and uniformity ofstandards throughout the education system led to the establishment of the followingbodies:

74


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board(JAMB) was established in 1972to conduct entrance examination into various universities. In 1989 the Boardwas also empowered to undertake the general control of the conduct ofmatriculation examination into polytechnic and colleges of education.

The National Universities Commission (NUC) was created in 1962 to co-ordinate the development of Nigerian universities. It was empowered by DecreeNo.49 of 1988 to lay down minimum standards for all universities in Nigeriaand to accredit their degrees and other academic awards. Similar powers wereconferred on the NBTE.

National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) established in 1977 to co-ordinate the development of polytechnic and technical education generally.

National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) established in 1989 toco-ordinate the development of the colleges of education.

The NUC, NBTE and NCCE prescribe the minimum departmental requirements foradmission of students, course and credit requirements for each discipline. The basicmanagement structure for private colleges of education is shown in Figure 1,

Financing Private Post-Secondary Education in Nigeria

The three private post-secondary institutions claim that they are non-profit organisationsrendering essential social service and that the fees charged are quite minimal and heavilysubsidized by their proprietors in order to cover the full costs particularly staff salarieswhich are as approved for Federal and state post-secondary institutions.

The Federal Government does not give any grants to private post-secondary institutions,and neither will the institutions benefit from the tax fund that was established by theEducation Tax Decree of 1993. The Decree imposes a 2 per cent tax chargeable on allassessable profit of any company registered in Nigeria. It provides for the tax collectedto be disbursed to all levels of education by allocating fifty per cent to higher education,forty per cent to primary education and 10 per cent to secondary education. The fiftyper cent allocated to higher education is to be shared between higher educationinstitutions in the ratio of 2:1:1 between universities, polytechnics, and colleges ofeducation. The primary objective of the fund is to facilitate the restoration,rehabilitation and consolidation of Federal and States owned education institutions in thecountry which are already in a state of decay.

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Table 2: Fee Levels Per Academic Session

Fees charged peracademic session

Tuition fee

H o s t e l F e eExamination feeSports FeeLibrary FeeLaboratory/

Studio/workshopIdentity cardCaution DepositEndowment feesMedical ServicesRegistration FeeGeneral Services

Privatepolytechnic (inNaira)

N

2,000.003,000.00900.00250.00150.00150.00150.00

100.00

100.00

FederalPolytechnic (inNaira)

N

90.00100.0020.0030.0050.03

20.00150.00

20.00

State Polytechnic(in Naira)

N

400.00*4,500.00**1,600.00

300.0080.00

200.00200.00

200.00

100.00160.00200.00

[* Regular students; ** In-service training: manpower development programme.]

Source: OSISATECH Enugu (Private), Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, and the Institute ofManagement and Technology, Enugu (State owned)

Like their state counterparts, the existing private post secondary institutions derive theirrevenues from various fees charged and mainly from funds allocated to them by theirproprietors. A comparison of fee levels between the Federal, State, and the threeexisting private post-secondary institutions is shown in Table 2. It is however pertinentto mention that while the Federal Government controls the levels of fees charged in itsinstitutions, it does not impose restrictions on the minimum and maximum fees chargedby private education institutions.

A modified loan scheme to be operated by the newly established Nigerian EducationBank will enable students in both state and private post-secondary institutions withoutany form of sponsorship to obtain loans to fund their educational pursuits. Modalitiesfor the operation of the loan are still being worked out by the Bank.


The monitoring, control and accreditation of academic programmes rakes place in threemain ways: by coordinating agencies; by external examining; and by professionalbodies, and each approach is considered below.

76


Assessment of Programme Quality through Accreditation by Co-ordinating Agencies

As mentioned in the earlier sections of this study, the powers to lay down minimumstandards and accredit the programmes in post-secondary institutions are conferred onthe National Universities Commission for degree programmes offered in theuniversities, the National Board for Technical Education for national diploma and highernational diploma programmes offered in the Polytechnics, and the National Commissionfor Colleges of Education for the national certificate of education programmes offeredin the colleges of education by the Education (National Minimum Standards andEstablishment of Institution Decree of 1985 and Decree No. 9 of 1993.

The Decree was promulgated in order to ensure quality education and uniformity ofeducation practice in all post-secondary education in Nigeria. There is therefore nodifference in accreditation systems for state and private post-secondary institutions sincethey are producing the required manpower for the same market. The private post-secondary education institutions as well as state post secondary education institutions arebound by the same internal control/assurance procedures.

For uniformity of practice and effective quality control, minimum academic standardsfor all programmes and guidelines have been drawn up by each of the supervisoryBodies in collaboration with staff of their various institutions and submitted to theFederal Ministry of Education for approval. This was prior to the commencement ofthe accreditation exercise. The academic standard document provides for eachprogramme minimum requirements for areas such as admission, course content,student/staff workloads, floor space for lectures, minimum laboratory and libraryfacilities, and student/staff ratios for effective teaching, in any particular discipline. Thisis with the hope that a student in any particular field of study would at the end of yearsof training have attained certain minimum level of competency in that discipline.

Although there are specific requirements for each discipline, there are general basicrequirements that cut across all disciplines. These are:

(a) Student Admission Requirements. Students wishing to enrol in any post-secondary institutions must have the basic senior secondary school certificate(SSC) or general certificate of education (GCE) with relevant subjectcombinations. In addition, candidates must write the selection examinationorganised by Joint Admissions Matriculation Board. The minimum number ofstudents required to start a new programme is thirty for colleges of educationand forty for polytechnics.

(b) Teaching Staff: Teaching staff are expected to possess a minimum of a goodfirst degree in a relevant discipline. Student/Staff Ratio (SSR) for polytechnic is1:20, while those of colleges of education is 1:15. For polytechnics the NBTEtargets for academic staff are chief/principal lecturers (twenty percent), seniorlecturers (twenty-five percent), lecturers (Fifty-five percent), with the ratio oflecturers to technologists at 3-4:1. The NCCE target for academic staff is notavailable. The head of department should at least be a senior lecturer in both thepolytechnics and colleges of education.

’77


The accreditation process is guided by the provisions of the minimum academicstandards for each programme. Accreditation visit to the institutions by accreditationpanels whose membership is drawn from institutions of higher education, andprofessional Bodies are carried out to confirm that the resources listed against eachprogramme are on site for immediate use. Deficiencies detected during accreditationare made known to the proprietor who is expected to take appropriate action to correctthe deficiencies. Non-accredited programmes are subjected toreasonable time intervas to enable the proprietor to meet uprequirements in a particular discipline.

Quality Control Through External Examiners

periodic visits atwith accreditation

External examiners are used in state institutions in the final year of the programme toassess final year courses and projects, and to certify the overall performance ofgraduating students as well as quality of facilities and teaching. They send their writtenreports to the Academic Board of the institution concerned. Private institutions have toimplement a similar system to their state funded counterparts, and it is likely that manyof the external examiners will come from state institutions.

Quality Control Through Professional Bodies

As in many post-secondary systems, professional bodies have a role in a number ofacademic disciplines, and within both public and private post-secondary sectors theyregulate the teaching and practice of certain professions. Relevant bodies include theInstitute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, the Institute of Medical LaboratoryTechnology, and the Council of Registered Engineers in Nigeria. Relevant professionalBodies are also represented on the governing councils of post-secondary institutions.

Future Plans for the Development of Private Post-Secondary Education

In keeping with its national policy of deregulation of its economic and social activities,the Federal Government will pursue the implementation of Decree No. 9 of 1993,which repealed the private universities (Abolition and Prohibition) Decree No. 19 of1984 and conferred power to establish higher education institutions not only ongovernment but also on companies or individuals who are citizens of Nigeria.

The Government for now is concerned about the deteriorating situation in its existinghigher education institutions and plans to use its limited resources on the rehabilitation,restoration, and consolidation of the institutions in order to bring them up to theacceptable standard and thereby set the tone for emerging private institutions(Nwabueze, 1995). In order to further encourage the development of private post-secondary education institutions, the Federal Government has not imposed anyrestrictions on the number of private institutions to be established and neither has itimposed restrictions on the fees chargeable by private institutions. The establishment ofprivate institutions as earlier mentioned will depend on meeting the criteria already inplace. The promulgation of this Decree is a positive and a welcome development in thenation’s education system. It will introduce variety in education and competition whichmany educationists believe will bolster higher standards in the nation’s education

78


system. The qualified students who have been denied entry into post secondaryinstitutions because of limited places in existing state institutions see the development ofprivate institutions as an opportunity for them to further their educational pursuits. Thecoordinating bodies, namely NUC NBTE, NCCE and JAMB will continue to dischargetheir responsibility of ensuring quality education in all tertiary institutions, including theprivate ones in Nigeria. Although the development of private tertiary institutions willcreate additional responsibilities for these co-ordinating Bodies, there is no governmentpolicy yet as to how the procedures of NUC and other Bodies will cope with the largeamount of additional accreditation work that might exist.

So far, as earlier mentioned, only three private post-secondary institutions have beenapproved. Some companies and individuals have collected and forwarded theircompleted application forms to the regulatory agencies mentioned in the earlier sectionsof this study. The proposals are at various stages of meeting the criteria for theestablishment of post-secondary education and their establishment hopefully will beapproved in the next one year or two by Government. These are:

(a) A proposal for the establishment of Lagos City Polytechnic. The proposal isreceiving the attention of the National Board for Technical Education.

(b) The proposals for the establishment of private universities which are beingprocessed by National Universities Commission are: Madonna University,Babcock University, Beulah University, Igbenedion National University, andChristian Faith University.

The reasons for establishing the private universities according to the proprietors is basedon the need to provide opportunities for more Nigerian youth to acquire universityeducation over and above the existing facilities in the Federal and state universitieswhich enable only about twenty two per cent qualified students to obtain universityentry. They therefore want to supplement the efforts of the Federal and stategovernments in the development of nationally relevant, qualitative and developmentoriented higher education in Nigeria.

The stated major goals of the proposed private universities cart be summarised asfollows:

(a) To provide opportunity for tertiary education, technological and professionaltraining for the growing number of Nigerian youths that will enhance theirpersonal development and self fulfillment, employability and contribution tonational progress.

(b) To promote academic and moral excellence in education

(c) To provide an example of a model private university that will encourage otherpersons and organisations to establish more of such private institutions.

(d) To create, evolve and provide a healthy atmosphere and opportunity forinternational co-operation, through academic interaction and joint or other forms

79


of research endeavors, for the promotion of national development andinternational understanding.

Some of the expected problems enumerated by the proprietors of the proposedinstitutions include:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

The location and acquisition of undeveloped and contiguous land of at least 100hectares for the proposed university, although in some cases this initial problemhas now been resolved as proprietors have now acquired enough land andcertificates of occupancy have been issued by the state governments concerned.

High demand for university places as the few private universities may not beable to admit all the qualified candidates who cannot gain entry into the existingFederal and state universities because of limited facilities.

Difficulty in meeting some of the requirements for establishing universities hasdelayed the take-off of the institutions. In particular, problems have been facedover the formulation of academic brief and a physical master plan that will beacceptable to NUC. This problem has been exacerbated by the absence suchplans of previous private universities that could be used a some kind of example.

Promoting the image and credibility of the proposed institutions. It is a problemto ensure that it can attract highly qualified staff and students, and that itsacademic awards are unquestionably accepted not only in Nigeria but alsoabroad. It is hoped to tackle this problem by entering into cooperation andexchange arrangements with older universities in Nigeria which will alsomonitor the effectiveness of teaching and examining to meet NUC minimumacademic standards. Various forms of cooperation and exchange arrangementsare also proposed with overseas universities.

Problem of recruitment of high quality staff which some institutions hope totackle with high remuneration and welfare schemes.

The problem of staff and student accommodation which is particularly acute fornon-residential private universities located in rural areas where there are limitedadequate residential facilities. Some of the proposed universities intend to tacklethis problem by developing estates where students and staff can obtain modemaccommodation at reasonable rates.

The likely major disciplines in the proposed private universities are: Arts and Socialsciences, Education, Business and Management studies, Law, Natural and AppliedSciences, Health Sciences and Engineering Technology. The projected enrolment ofnew entrants in the proposed private universities is:

1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2020 2000/20312,340 3,845 4,005 4,240 4,420

80


While the projected total student enrolment in tHe proposed private universities is:

1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/200l2,340 6,185 10,190 14,430 17,530

The likely participation rate of private higher education institutions based on 1996/97 is2.2 percent. There is no Government pronouncement as to the number of privateinstitutions needed. According to NUC sources twenty six applications for theestablishment of private universities have been collected, out of which only five werereturned and these are the ones now being processed.

High quality academic standards are intended to be met by the proposed privateuniversities through the following strategies:

(a) Appointment of the most qualified and experienced academic staff in alldisciplines.

(b) Enrolment of highly qualified students, through the University MatriculationExamination conducted by JAMB.

(c) Gearing standards of teaching and practical work to not less than theminimum academic standards of the NUC.

(d) Involving older universities (local and overseas) in moderating the syllabuses andcontents of courses as well as teaching and examination encouraging visits byNUC staff and university academics for academic evaluations once a year atleast, for the first five years.

(f) Ensuring high-level research in the institutions and co-operation in research withother universities, special public research institutes, and the private sector.

The proposed institutions report that the bulk of the amount required to finance theproposed universities will be provided by the proprietors. Also other sources ofrevenue will be derived from students fees, investments, donations from community,commercial ventures, and consultancies. Student fees range from one thousand and fivehundred Naira by some mission oriented universities to thirty five thousand Naira byindividuals and non- voluntary organisations. Some proprietors reported that theircharges are quite minimal and compare favorably with fees currently charged byprivate secondary schools, and that they decided not to charge students full economicfees after a careful study of economic and social status of candidates seeking admissionwhich showed that only a very few can afford to pay full fees. Clearly in such a contextthere must be significant reservations about the financial stablity of some proposedinstitutions, and the extent to which proposed initiatives can be undertaken. Inparticular, it is unlikely that any significant research can be developed within suchinstitutions unless a more favorable funding climate is developed.

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Basic Organisational Structureof Private and Public Colleges of Education


References

A1iyu Y, 1984, NUC Speaks on the Emergence of Private Universities, NationalUniversities Commission Bulletin March

Education (National Minimum Standards and Establishment of Institution) (Amendment)Decree 1993, Official Gazette Extra Ordinary No 1 Vol. 80 of 20th January 1993

Education Tax Decree No. 1 1993 in National Universities Commission 1993 AnnualReport

Higher Education in the Nineties and Beyond, 1991, Report of the Commission on theReview of Higher Education in Nigeria

National Policy on Education, 1981, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

Report of the Standing Committee on the Establishment of Private Universities,National Universities Commission Annual Reports 1993 and 1994

The Development of Education 1986-1989: National Report of the Nigeria NationalCommission for UNESCO, Federal Ministry of Education 1989

Nwabueze B O, 1995, Crises and Problems in Education, Spectrum Books LimitedIbadan

Oladapo I O, 1983, Emergence of State and Private Universities, in Twenty-five Yearsof Centralised University Education in Nigeria.

Taiwo C O, 1980, The Nigerian Education System Past, Present and Future, ThomasNelson (Nigeria) Limited, Lagos

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Chapter 5: Private Post-Secondary Education in Pakistan

Professor W M Zaki

Post-secondary education in Pakistan is catered for by three main categories ofeducational institutions:

i) Colleges of Arts and Science:

a. Intermediate Colleges/Higher Secondary Schools

b. Degree Colleges

ii) Professional and Technical Colleges/Institutes

iii) Universities

A private university can be established only under an Act of the Parliament/ProvincialAssembly as the case may be. The privately managed colleges have to get themselvesregistered with the Provincial Education Department concerned. The requirements ofsuch registration are:12

Definitions

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

College means an institution which provides instruction at the post-secondarylevel in arts and science or for a profession through courses prescribed by aBoard of Intermediate and Secondary Education or by a University.

Managing Committee means a body of persons having financial and generalcontrol of a privately-managed college.

Private College means a college under the management and control of a privateenterprise and registered by the government, recognized by a Board or affiliatedby a university as such.

A college is said to be registered when it is allowed by the Department ofEducation to function as such.

A college is said to be recognized when it is allowed by a Board to send itsbonafide students for its public examination.

A college is said to be affiliated when it is allowed to send its bonafide studentsfor its public examination.

12 Punjab Education Code, 1982.

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The Establishment of a College

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

vii)

viii)

ix)

The power to grant a Certificate of Registration to a college rests with theDirector of Public Instruction and Appellate Authority is the government. It is apre-requisite to run or to establish a privately managed college to obtainCertificate of Registration from the competent authority.

The privately managed college shall function in conformity with the objectivesof the national education policy and shall follow curricula and syllabi asprescribed by the Board or the University concerned and the instructions issuedby the government from time to time.

All such colleges shall be open to periodical inspection by the inspecting staffauthorized by the Education Department to ensure that the provisions of thenational education policy and the curricula and syllabi are followed asprescribed.

The management, staff and students of the college shall not take part in activitiesprejudicial to the integrity and solidarity of the State or disseminate opinionstending to excite feelings of disloyalty towards the State or religion (Islam).

The authority concerned shall issue the Certificate of Registration or intimate therefusal thereof to the applicant within three months of the receipt of theapplication.

Registration may be refused or withdrawn by the competent authority of anagency or association/anjuman which fails to abide by the prescribed rules andregulations and/or fails to fulfil the conditions laid down by the authority for thepurpose of registering privately managed colleges. The private college whoseregistration is refused or withdrawn shall cease to exist.

Government may provide funds to be expended by a private college as grant-in-aid for the purpose of encouraging private enterprise in education. Such grantswill be admissible to such colleges run by private management as have beenaccorded formal recognition by the competent authority and satisfy theconditions laid down in this respect.

Colleges which are outstanding in terms of their organisation, efficient andeffective instruction, guidance and counselling services, adequate libraryfacilities, science teaching, and co-curricular activities may be considered forgrants up to 50 per cent of their approved expenditure subject to the availabilityof funds.

The conditions governing payment of maintenance grants to recognized collegesshall be as follows:

a. There is a managing committee approved by the recognizing authority.

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b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

k.

A college for the purpose of grant-in-aid shall admit students not lessthan 60. Average daily attendance shall not be less than 70 per cent.

The premises of the college are healthy, well ventilated and are suppliedwith suitable laboratories and workshops and suitable accommodation foroffices, and are sufficiently commodious to provide floor space asprescribed.

The college has sufficient and suitable furniture and equipment.

The staff is adequate, qualified, of good character and firmly believes inthe ideology of Pakistan.

The organisation, discipline and tone are satisfactory, the instructionimparted is up to the standard as judged from the methods of teachingand examination results and is also in accordance with the approvedcurriculum.

The college provides reasonable recreational facilities for its students

The fees and funds levied and concessions allowed are in accordancewith the rules laid down in this respect by the Education Department.

A provident fund is established and properly administered.

The aequittance rolls of teachers shall show the exact amount paid to andreceived by them as pay and allowances.

The college in respect of its classes, subjects, etc. shall be open toinspection by the competent authority..

Basic Data and Numbers

International Comparison

The frustrating failure of the government in providing additional facilities has reducedthe ranking of the country to one of the lowest in the world in student enrollments at thehigher education level. In 1965, the rate of participation at post-secondary level was 2per cent of the relevant age group. By 1990 it had increased only to 3 per centindicating just a slight enrolment even over a period of 25 years. It is interesting toobserve that in Thailand the participation rate of 2 per cent in 1965 increased to 16 percent by 1990. There were similar jumps in other countries as reflected in Table 1.

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Table 1: Comparative Position in Participation Rates at Higher EducationLevel (% of the age group)

country 1965 1994

PakistanThailand_Turkey

IndiaKorea, Rep.Egypt

PhilippinesIsrael

2 32 194 15

5 867 46

19 3020 35

Source: World Bank: 1 World Development Report, 1992; 2 Human DevelopmentReport, 1994

Rates of Increase

The average annual rate of enrolment increase (%) at the post-secondary level inPakistan is set out in Table 2:

Table: 2

Period Inter Degree UniversitiesLevel Level

1948-58 16 16 171958-68 10 10 18

1968-78 4 4 61978-88 5 5 6

The Table 2 indicates the annual rate of increase in the enrolment of post-secondaryeducation. During the decade 1948-58, the rate of increase was 16-17 per cent perannum and during the decade of 1958-68 it was 10 per cent per annum in the ease ofcolleges and 18 per cent in universities. As a result of nationalization of colleges, in1972, the rate of their enrolment increase dropped to 4 per cent per annum during thedecade of 1968-78. The government did not and could not provide the additional

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facilities required to keep up the momentum and the private sector was left with noreason to make any contribution in this respect.

Numbers in 1970 and 1995

The number of post-secondary private colleges/institutes, their total enrolment, numberof teachers and the budget provisions in 1995, as compared to 1970, are reflected inTable 3.

Table 3: Private Post-secondary Institutions in Pakistan

Number of InstitutionsColleges of Arts and ScienceProfessional collegesUniversities

EnrolmentColleges of Arts and ScienceProfessional collegesUniversities

Number of TeachersColleges of Arts and ScienceProfessional collegesUniversities

Budgets (Rs. in million)Colleges of Arts and ScienceProfessional collegesUniversities

1970

2005

140,0005,000

4,000400

5020

1995

6608

4,00026,400

1,400

1501,500

260

10100240

There were 200 private colleges of Arts and Science in 1970. These were allnationalized. In spite of providing encouragement since 1980 the private sector hasbeen able to establish only 6 colleges of Arts and Science. The “professional” privatecolleges, however, increased from 5 in 1970 to 60 in 1995. But most of them are in thefields of law, commerce/business management and computer sciences and none in basicengineering, as was in the case of 5 colleges operating in 1970. An innovation has beenthe establishment of 8 private universities. But only 2 of them are in actual operation.The other six are at various preparatory stages. The figures for enrolments, number ofteachers and budgets of colleges reflect the same corresponding position as the numberof colleges.

There are the following eight privately-managed universities in the country:

1 The Aga Khan University, Karachi.

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2 Lahore University of Management Sciences.

3 Hamdard University, Karachi.

4 A1-Khair University, Muzaffarabad.

5 G.I.K. Institute of Science and Technology, Topi.

6 Sir Syed UET, Karachi.

7 Z.A.B. Institute of Science and Technology.

8 Ziauddin Medical University.

In fact, only the first two universities are in full operation. The Hamdard University ispartially operative and the rest are at various stages of preparation and launching.

Subject Breakdown

As far as the present private colleges are concerned, they concentrate mainly onoccupational subjects of Law, Business Management/Commerce, Education, Medicineand Computer Science; their combined enrolment making 84 per cent of the total. Theremaining 16 per cent being in Arts and Science. The following table gives thebreakdown.

Table 4: Student Enrolment by Subject/Field in Private Colleges

Subject/Field Enrolment Percentage

Arts & Science 4,900 16.1Law 7,901 25.9Business/Commerce 9,950 32.9Computer Science 1,500 4.9Medicine 3,800 12.5Education 2,350 7.7

30,401 100

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Government Law

Intermediate Colleges

No private Intermediate College/institution can be established and run except under thelaw requiring them to get recognized by the Department of Education and affiliated withthe Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education concerned. Such affiliation isrequired to enable them to send their students for the examinations conducted by theBoards. The aim of such recognition and affiliation is to ensure:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

i)

that the college is under the management of a regularly constituted governingbody;

that the financial resources of the college are such as to enable it to make dueprovision for its continued maintenance and efficient working;

that the strength and qualifications of the teaching and other staff, and the termsand conditions of their service, are adequate to make provision for the courses ofinstruction, teaching or training to be undertaken by the college;

that the college has framed proper rules regarding the efficiency and disciplineof its staff and other employees;

that the building in which the college is to be located is suitable, and that”provision will be made in conformity with the status and the regulations of theuniversity for:

i. the supervision and physical and general welfare of students; and

ii. the residence of students, not residing with their parents or guardians, inthe hostels established and maintained by the educational institution or inhostels or lodgings approved by it;

that provision has been made for a library and adequate library services.

that, where affiliation is sought in any branch of experimental sciences, ortechnology, due arrangements have been made for imparting instruction in thatbranch of science or technology in a properly equipped laboratory, museum orother places of practical work;

that due provision will, so far as circumstances may permit, be made for theresidence of its Principal and members of the teaching staff in or near theeducational institution or the place provided for the residence of students; and

that the affiliation of the college will not be injurious to the interests of theeducation or discipline of any other college in its neighbourhood.

The application contains an undertaking that, after the college is affiliated, anytransference of, and changes in, the teaching staff, shall forthwith be reported to the

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(University, and that the teaching staff shall possess such qualifications as are, and maybe, prescribed. If the Affiliation Committee recommends that affiliation shall begranted to a college, the report of the Affiliation Committee shall be considered by theAcademic Council. The affiliation shall be granted by the University on therecommendations of the Academic Council. The affiliation is not refused unless thecollege has been given an opportunity to show cause in writing why affiliation should berefused.

Inspection and Report

Every college affiliated to the University furnishes suchinformation as the University may require to enable it to

reports, returns and otherjudge the efficiency of the

college. The University causes every such college to be inspected from time to time byone or more competent persons authorized by it in this behalf. The University may callupon any college affiliated to it to take, within a specified period, such action as mayappear to the University to be necessary in respect of any of the matters referred toabove.

Disaffiliation

If a college affiliated to the University fails to observe any of the conditions of itsaffiliation, or its affairs are conducted in a manner which is prejudicial to the interest ofeducation, the right conferred on the college by affiliation may, on a report made by theAffiliation Committee be withdrawn in whole or in part or modified. The Universitymay on a reps-t of the Affiliation Committee, and after considering such representationas the college may wish to make, restore to it such rights either in whole or in part.

Degree Colleges

In the case of privately managed Degree Colleges as well, the recognition is given bythe Education Department concerned but affiliation is awarded by a university. The aimof such affiliation is the same as that of Intermediate Colleges derailed above.

Reporting and Control

The recognition and affiliation of the privately managed colleges/institutions are carriedout under the Acts of the Parliament/Provincial Assembly. These Acts provide theprocedure and details as to their reporting and control. Detailed forms have beenprescribed for applying for affiliation, renewal of affiliation and annual returns to ensuresound management and direction of the intermediate colleges.13

An intermediate college is to be affiliated for the purpose of college examination whenthe Board is satisfied that the following conditions are fulfilled:

13 FBISE, Affiliation/Renewal of Affiliation of Colleges: Islamabad,Ministry of Education.

92.


that the College is needed in the locality on educational grounds,

that the Managing Committee is properly constituted, registered and regularlyfunctioning,

that it teaches the prescribed subjects with reasonable efficiency maintainingdiscipline and provides for curricular and recreational activities to ensurephysical, moral and mental growth of pupils,

that the curricula, syllabi and text books prescribed by the Board are followedand no books are used for any subject in any class which are not approved bythe Board,

that the strength of any class or section of a class is not more than 40,

that the college is housed in a building which is suitable as regardsaccommodation, sanitary arrangements and location, and conforms with theprescribed standards,

that due provision will, so far as circumstances permit, be made for theresidence of the principal of the college,

that provision has been or shall be made in conformity with the rules andregulations laid down by the Board/principal of the college for the residence inthe hostels or in lodgings approved by the college, of students not residing withtheir parents or guardians, and for the supervision and physical and generalwelfare of the students.

that the college maintains a library containing the minimum number of booksrequired and undertakes to spend such amount as may be fixed by the Boardfrom time to time for purchase of library books,

that the rates of fees are approved by the competent authority,

that the accounts of the college are properly maintained and regularly audited bythe qualified auditors,

rhat the salary paid to the teachers is in accordance with the government ratesprescribed from time to time,

that the college maintains a general provident fund and or a pension or both or acontributory provident fund and individual accounts in the name of eachsubscriber in the post office/bank.

that the college shall have either a regular guaranteed income from immovableproperty or a separate endowment fund deposited in a scheduled bank,

that a new institution has a reserve fund equivalent to 6 months salary of thestaff and other expenditures,

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that the candidate(s) is/are not prepared and sent up for examinations conductedby any other university or board when the examination of the same nature/statusis held by the Board,

that the college maintains such registers and records as may be prescribed by theBoard,

that the college undertakes to observe rule(s) that may be framed by the Boardfrom time to time and other information the Board may require to judge theefficiency of the school,

that the college management agrees to make available to the Boardaccommodation and furniture for holding the Board examinations and forconducting the sports activities.

Similarly, the University Grants Commission has presented a format for feasibilityreport and annual returns for the Universities and Degree Colleges. The information soreceived is used by the Inspection Teams to determine the degree to which therequirements of affiliation are met.

Finance

So far as the two private universities actually in operation are concerned, their positionis as under:

University Enrol- No. of Annual unit cost Tuition Teacher/ment Teachers Budget (Rs. 000) Charges Student

(RS. 000) (Rs. 000) Ratio

Aga Khan 500 200 150 1500 103 2.5(M.B.B.S)

LUMS 200 50 50 250 200 4.0(MBA)

In case of government colleges and universities students pay around Rs. 2,000 and3,000 respectively as against Rs. 1,500,00 in case of Aga Khan University and Rs.200,000 in case of Lahore University of Management Sciences. In public universitiesthe cost per student-year ranges between Rs. 15,000 and Rs. 50,000 depending upon thelevel of education and the subject studied.

The government does not provide any financial support either to the private colleges anduniversities or to the students studying therein. Student scholarships are awarded on thebasis of their achievements in the public examinations. Such students normally prefer tostudy in government colleges and public universities. Student loans are also availedmostly by the students studying in public institutions. Private colleges do not normallyprovide any financial relief to their students. The two private universities, however,reduce their charges for students of limited means.

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In the public sector universities, the government expenditure per student-year comesto around Rs. 20,000 on average. For engineering students it is about Rs. 200,000.As the average university student charges are only Rs, 3,000, most of the cost is metby the government, It has been one of the reasons ‘for the government’s inability toopen more universities and provide for badly needed additional higher educationfacilities in the country.

Modern university education, especially in science and technology, is highlyintensive. As the scarcity of public finance, apart from consolidation of existinguniversities, will not allow desired expansion of university education, a deliberateeffort is being made to attract the private sector to come forward. The governmenthas therefore adopted a policy of encouraging the private sector to establish collegesand universities.

The private universities are not supposed to be profit-earning institutions at par withindustry. For the enterprising individuals and groups starting private colleges oruniversities, this value of service has to be borne in mind before starting the venture.The government therefore, encourages philanthropists, business community andvarious NGOs to come forward and establish private colleges and universities,particularly for the disciplines of science and technology, subject to legislativerequirements and monitoring by the University Grants Commission.

Mobilization of Funds

Educational institutions established in private sector and recognized by theGovernment may seek:

grants and loans from Educational Foundations established atFederal/Provincial levels, subject to fulfillment of their requirements;

possibility of interest-free loans from banks;

rebate on income tax as per government rules.

Funds can also be mobilized from business community and philanthropists

Self-financing

Efforts have also been initiated through enrolling students on a self-financing basis.Under the programme such students are charged at the following average rates oftuition in the existing universities:

Engineering and Technology Rs. 200,000

Computer Science Rs. 100,000

MBA Rs. 100,000

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The programme has not been much of a success. In all the public universities, thenumber of self-financing students is around 1,000 against the total university enrolmentof 100,000, thus forming only 1% of the total. Further, as it is beyond the reach ofstudents from low income families, it works against the basic principle of equity ofaccess.

Given the right incentives, some assistance from the government, and a much simplifiedand yet more effective regulatory framework, there is scope for growth in privatecollege education. But at present, there are serious barriers to entry into the privatecollege education market. Significantly these barriers are not associated withmonopolists but are created by the public sector itself and those who want to “control”or discourage private college education initiative. The result is less equity, efficiencyand quality. There are also financial problems associated with the running of privateinstitutions.

Capital Investment

To begin with, the capital costs of establishing a university or college are enormous.Private educational establishments usually start out in rented accommodation, often in aseries of houses in residential areas never intended for educational use. They paycommercial rents which have become very high in most urban locations and utilities atcommercial rates. Operating out of residential accommodation, in a residential area isclearly unsatisfactory beyond the short term necessity. But how to raise the funds tobuild appropriate facilities remains an unanswered question.

Raising a loan through the domestic financial system is very difficult, and should it beppssible, the terms of the loans are likely to be short-term and bearing the maximuminterest rate. Although there are no regulatory restrictions preventing lending to privatecolleges and universities, commercial banks operate under credit ceilings. Within theoverall credit ceiling there are sub-ceilings which allocate credit to the various sectors.Education is not a recognized separate category and competes within the private sectorcredit category with all other private initiatives not provided for elsewhere. Wherethere are more traditional or more credit worthy borrowers, and investments with ashorter gestation period, education stands little chance. As a result, as far as it could beascertained for this study, there has been no lending to private educational institutions bythe commercial banks.

The sector would clearly benefit from confessional credit - long term low interest loans- of the type that agriculture and small scale industry have enjoyed. However, this runscounter to current macro policy which: (1) for the time being, has to restrict credit tothe private sector in order to finance the fiscal deficit; (2) is striving to make interestrates positive; and (3) and seeks to deregulate the financial sector. To the extent thateducation could be considered a special case, a line of confessional credit from anexternal financing source might be possible. But the extent to which the banking systemrepresents the appropriate intermediary would have to be carefully scrutinized.

In any event, the amount of capital necessary to establish a new college or universitywould be very large and it is not likely that any educational venture could raise andservice a loan of the necessary size. Other sources of capital are therefore, critical. In

96

-.


the case of the two existing private universities. both got grant funds from outsideagencies as well as benefiting from private benefactors. In this respect, there may besome interest among industrialists, the State bank and other banks/financial institutionsin establishing, or having a stake in, private colleges and universities, especially ifexpenditures for this purpose receive favorable tax treatment. Foreign investors mightalso be attracted into the sector. But there needs to be confidence that the governmentwill not repeat the actions of 1972 and nationalize private colleges and universities,Also, the easing of certain restrictions and regulations would help encourage potentialinvestors. Most importantly, the treatment of private colleges and universities,especially those established as charitable/non-profit institutions, for tax purposes shouldbe reviewed.

Unless they had charitable/non-profit status (which is perhaps to be encouraged), it isprobably unrealistic to think of the public sector making grants to private colleges anduniversities to help meet capital costs of new facilities. But even if a college or auniversity is operated on a for-profit basis, public facilities could reasonably be leased(or sold) to them. This would be enormously beneficial to those private colleges anduniversities which are unable to raise funds elsewhere to establish proper facilities.

In addition to facing problems in raising capital to build facilities, would-be privatecolleges and universities face enormous problems in getting access to suitable land. Insome residential areas, amenity plots are provided. But these are often allocated foruses other than education, or indeed, public amenities. Amenity plots sell at a fractionof the market price and are in high demand; in some newer residential schemes, theyare not provided at all. To purchase land on the open market is not only very costly butalso very difficult; there just is not much urban land on the market. Rapid urbangrowth, uncoordinated and complex land allocation systems, recently conceivedambitious housing schemes and land speculation have all contributed to the scarcity ofurban land and to the high price. Public and private education institutions alike, as wellas many other potential users, are all faced with the similar problem of an acute landshortage.

To become a degree granting institution, it is currently necessary either to obtain aCharter which permits the granting of own degrees, or to obtain affiliation with auniversity whose degrees are then granted. Much could be done to simplify the stepsnecessary to gain accreditation and perhaps lower the financial costs. The key here is toestablish criteria on aspects of the output of the colleges and universities (by contrast tocriteria on inputs such as teacher qualifications and facilities standards), and to keep thenumber of criteria reduced to the bare minimum necessary to ensure that parents andpupils are not exploited.

Operating Costs

With fees set at Rs. 100,000 per year, the Lahore University of Management Sciences(a post-graduate institution) meets about 60% of operating cost. The rest comes fromendowment grant-s, scholarship funds and loans. This pattern is typical of privateuniversities elsewhere, as well. The L.shore College of Arts and Sciences (currentlyoffering only F. A/F. Sc. and “A levels”) is completely dependent on fee income, but atroughly Rs. 20,030 per year, fees provide insufficient income to meet all outgoings.

97


The college has had no success in raising a bank loan or overdraft facility and therunning deficit is currently being financed by the founding members. Obviously, thissituation cannot be sustained indefinitely. Edwards College (an under graduate collegefounded in Peshawar more then 80 years ago and one of the few to escape privatizationin 1972) is an independent autonomous college affiliated to the University of Peshawar;it benefits from substantial (provincial) government grant-in-aid to supplement its feeincome. This is a model worth serious exploration elsewhere, since it reduces the coststo the state of extending access to quality higher education. As a result, fees are in theorder of only Rs. 3,000 per annum for day pupils.

These three institutions reflect a set of arrangements, problems and solutions that facethe operating budgets of private universities and colleges. It is not easy to raise a bankloan, unless the institution is well established and financially secure. The basis on whichthe institution is founded and the founder/Board members evidently are importantfactors in whether loans are forthcoming or not. The Banking sector naturally favourscorporations/limited companies over consortia of private individuals. The problems thatprivate colleges and universities face in even running a bank overdraft are in starkcontract with public universities which reputedly run large overdrafts with a number ofbanks.

The conclusion is sobering. Although fees can be set to cover the bulk of operatingcosts, the market is not everywhere able to bear the full cost at the upper end of the feespectrum. Part of the fee problems is the lack of student finance; but the cost-benefitequation associated with returns to the investment is also important. Particularly at thepost-graduate university level, cost structures are in part international (since hiring ofstaff with international mobility is an essential ingredient of quality) while benefitstreams are largely domestic and the gestation period on the investment may be long.Other sources of non-fee revenue are important.

Government grant-in-aid on a selective basis -- to certain institutions, for certaincourses, for scholarships, for particular academic courses and so on -- could be a veryimportant source of support to private institutions. However, the extent to whichgovernment grant equals government controls and cumbersome regulations andunnecessary restrictions would have to be clearly stipulated at the outset. Privateinstitutions are very wary of government interference and private demand of qualityhigher educational services in Pakistan today are surely sceptical about the value ofpublic controls. Similar lines of financial support as suggested from the public sectorcould be sought from the industrial and business communities - indeed from any sectoror institution with a direct interest in higher education outcomes. Further, academicstaff in private institutions should be encouraged to undertake sponsored researchassignments and consultancies under which a significant portion of the earnings accruedto the institution and not the individual.

Student Loans and Scholarships

Private higher education can only be viable if fees are set at, or reasonably close to, fulleconomic costs. As noted above, fees at private tertiary institutions are high ie, far inexcess of average per capita income of Rs. 15,000 per year. Even at these levels,private higher education is clearly within the reach of a great many more middle and

98


upper income families than currently have access to such opportunities. However, togive lower and lower/middle income groups access to private higher education, andindeed to ensure that these groups are not kept out of higher education altogether,student loans and scholarship programs are essential. Most private institutions aretrying to have their own scholarship programmes, but in the absence of privateendowments or externally financed scholarship funds, this implies cross subsidizationwith fee payers, which is never easy. Clearly more needs to be done to establishscholarship funds.

Student loans are highly underdeveloped in Pakistan. The only scheme that appears toexist is the Qarze-e-Hasna Scheme for Education, which is run by the Pakistan BankingCouncil. The equity in this scheme is 50% from the Federal Government and 50%from the five member banks. Loans are made to students of insufficient means and ofoutstanding calibre who are unable to pursue their studies due to financial difficulties.Loans are interest free, for a specified range of subjects to be pursued either in Pakistanor abroad, up to a specified annual maximum. A grace period of two years is grantedafter completion of studies, after which the loan is repayable in monthly installmentsover a 10 year period.

The scheme is still in its early stages (it began in 1981). Repayment experience thus faris not very good. But here the problem seems most acute when the student has studiedabroad and thus contracted a large loan. Salaries in Pakistan are such that the amount ofloan relative to potential earnings is very high; students are sometimes forced to stayabroad in order to earn sufficient to pay off their loan. This outcome is detrimental toPakistan. The same problem, albeit perhaps in less serious proportions, is likely to fatsthose students who raise a loan to attend one of the high cost private universities. Forexample, four years at the LUMS would run up a debt of about Rs. 500,000. AnAssociate Professor in a Pakistani university will earn no more than Rs. 100,000 peryear. Thus, over a ten year repayment period without any interest charge at all,repayments would account for upward of 50% of gross salary. Graduates of such highcost universities must be confident of highly paid jobs after graduation in order for theinvestment to pay off.

Accreditation

The general policy of the universities is to allow only those organizations to enter thefield of higher education who are able to provide at least basic minimum teaching andresearch facilities in terms of qualified teachers, lecture rooms, well equippedlaboratories and libraries. The private colleges are accredited by the concerneduniversities and the private universities are controlled by the University GrantsCommission in terms of offerings, that is selection of subjects, number of students to beadmitted, etc. The minimum initial investment expected from a private organization isRs 5 million. The organization would be required to maintain a bank deposit equivalentto 6 months salaries of the teaching faculty and other related costs.

The private universities are established only under the Act of the Parliament or theProvincial Assembly as the case may be.

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Accreditation Requirement

The accreditation requirements for the establishment of a private college or a privateuniversity are:

1 The establishment of a private University is a multi-step process. The provisionof infrastructure and availability of required physical, human and financialresources is a first step, followed by fulfilling the legal formalities andregistration under Societies Act or as a Trust. The next step is to meet theacademic and other requirements and submission of feasibility report to theUGC. Subject to satisfactory clearance of inspection, the institution concernedshall submit the case to the Education Department of the province concerned andeventually to the Provincial Assembly for a charter.

2 The organizational, legal financial and other related formalities andrequirements, including the submission of feasibility report are outlined by theUGC. These guidelines pertain to registration, availability of infrastructure andadequate financial resources, proposed programme of study, development ofacademic programme, teaching staff, admission criteria, fee structure, qualityassurance, student supervision, assessment and examination etc.

The procedure for processing the application at the UGC is follows:

1

2

3

4

Any individual/agency interested in establishing a university in private sectormay approach the Education Department of the concerned Provinces or godirectly to the University Grants Commission, giving an outline of the proposaland submitting a formal application. The UGC will send the prescribedguidelines for preparing the feasibility report of the project.

Following the completion of preliminary requirements, the agency shall submit acomprehensive feasibility report in accordance with the guidelines of the UGC,along with a non-refundable bank draft of Rs. 15,000 in the name of the UGCas a fee for the evaluation of the feasibility report. An application shall beconsidered only when the fee is credited to the UGC account and the agency hasfulfilled all the formalities.

The feasibility shall be thoroughly examined by the UGC. After the clearanceof the feasibility report, the UGC will conduct a site-visit of the institution forphysical verification of the infrastructure and available facilities to satisfy itselfthat the institution has the ability and capacity to run the academic programmes.An inspection fee of Rs. 20,000 shall be charged and has to be paid in advancethrough a non-refundable bank draft in the name of the UGC by the institutionconcerned.

in case of a satisfactory report of inspection, the institution will be asked tosubmit a draft charter based on the Model Act prepared by the UGC. After itsvetting by the UGC, it will be referred to the Ministry of Education,Government of Pakistan as well as to the concerned Provincial Education


Department, for its further processing. If approved by the competent authority.the matter will then go to the concerned Provincial Assembly for a charter forthe institution. If granted the charter, the institution shall be empowered toinstitute degree programmes and award degrees.

5 In no case can the institution concerned conduct admissions to any course ofstudy and impart instructions, nor it will be permissible to start any classes inany subject in anticipation of the acceptance of application until it receives acharter. The name of the UGC will also not be used. Clearance by the UGC orby the Education Department may not mean an NOC or tantamount toacquisition of degree awarding status.

Objectives for Having Private Universities/Colleges

The main objectives for having private universities and colleges in private sector are:

(i) to increase access ability to higher education particularly in view of thepopulation increase and the emerging needs of the society; and

(ii) to develop a spirit of competition and provide challenge to institutions of highereducation established in the public sector.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Every such institution established in the private sector will submit annual report to theUniversity Grants Commission and shall also subject to monitoring and visitation as theUniversity Grants Commission/Ministry of Education may determine from time to time.

Present and Future Plans

Before 1972. the private post-secondary institutions, particularly Colleges of Arts andScience, played a significant role in providing education facilities. Although there wereno private universities and only a couple of professional/technical colleges. The numberof private colleges was more than those run by the government. Some of them,particularly established by the Christian Missions - Formen Christian College Lahore,Kinnard College Lahore, Murrey College Sialkot, Edwards College Peshawar, GordenCollege Rawalpindi - were of high standing and enjoyed international repute.

In 1972, all the privately managed colleges were “nationalized”, that is taken over bythe government, under the new education policy.

Nationalization

i) “As from the first day of September 1972, all privately-managed colleges shallbe nationalized. No compensation shall be payable to any person because of hisbeing divested of any privately-nmnaged college or of any property attachedthereto. No person who owns or manages a privately-managed college shall

101


close such college or in any manner alienate, sell or otherwise transfer anyproperty attached thereto”.

ii) “From 1st October 1972, the scales of salary and the service conditions ofteachers in all privately-managed colleges will be brought at least at par withthese of the government colleges. No person who owns or manages a privately-managed college shall:

a. employ or engage any person for the purpose of the college, other than aperson who was so employed or engaged immediately before the 15th ofMarch, 1972; or

b. save as otherwise provided, change the terms and conditions of serviceof any person in his employment immediately before the 15th day ofMarch, 1972. “

iii) “The Central Government may exempt from the operation of all or any of theprovisions of the Regulation any privately-managed college in relation to whichit is satisfied that it is run on a genuinely benevolent, philanthropic and non-commercial basis”.

The nationalization of the private colleges was carried out more as a political rather thanan educational measure. The majority of these colleges were run by Islamicorganizations and the Pakistan People’s Party’s government that came into power withsccialist/secular ideology, was keen to knock out this power-base of the oppositionparties professedly espousing the cause of Pakistan’s basic ideology, Islam. Themeasure, however, proved counter-productive. The public financial resources gotexhausted in meeting the expenses involved in the process of nationalization as theorganizations running these colleges previously washed their hands of anyresponsibilities in this respect. Further, the commitment to bring the enrollments of thestaff in the nationalized colleges level with those working in the government collegeswas also to be fulfilled. No financial resources were thus available in the subsequentyears to expand and improve post-secondary education in the country. A chaoticsituation has since prevailed and the secondary school graduates have not been gettingplaces in the post-secondary education institutions.

To meet the situation the government again allowed the establishment of private collegesand universities in 1978. Various steps were taken to encourage the private individualsand organizations to come forward and start privately managed institutions but withoutmuch success. The jolt received by the nationalisation of private education institutionsin 1972 had not been forgotten and was still a cause for concern.

To give legal coverage and projection to an Ordinance was issued by the PunjabGovernment in 1984 to provide for the promotion and regulations of private educationinstitutions. A similar Ordinance for the promotion, regulation and control of privateeducational institutions in the Federal Capital Area was considered by the Cabinet in1985. The Cabinet, however, directed that:

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“The Ministry of Education, in consultation with the ProvincialGovernments, should formulate a Model law which would be applicablethroughout the country and which would enable the government tomonitor the activities of private educational institutions withoutsubjecting them to unnecessary bureaucratic interference and control.Such a model law has been produced by the University GrantsCommission and is awaiting enactment by the Parliament. ”

Plans and Programmes

Private sector provision of post-secondary education continues to be extremely limited.There are only two currently operational excellent, though very experienced, privateuniversities and only six colleges of Arts and Science of varying quality. There are,however, another 54 colleges giving training courses in law, Commerce/businessmanagement, computer technology, etc. This has not been always the case. Prior tonationalization of 1972, there was a vibrant sector of private colleges. There werearound 200 privately-managed colleges against only 150 run by the government. All ofthese private colleges were nationalized.

Demand for quality private post-secondary education, even at a high price, is apparentas witnessed by the large number of well qualified applicants for admission in thecolleges and the sizeable number of young Pakistanis going abroad for higher studieseven at much greater cost. One important way forward in post-secondary education isto give every encouragement to the creation of new private colleges and universities,and also to encourage the privatization of existing public colleges of arts and science.

In the second half of 1995, the government started considering favorably the request ofthe Christian Missions to denationalize their colleges which were nationalized in 1972.In fact orders have been issued to denationalize some of these colleges in pursuance ofthe Prime Minister’s observation that their nationalization in the first place was not acorrect step.

The process of denationalization has received a set back because of its opposition fromIslamic Scholars and Principals and academic staff of the colleges. The mainbeneficiary of such denationalization at this stage would be the Christian missions andtheir formerly nationalized colleges. It has also been argued that denationalizationwould lead to sharp increases in student charges, thus taking secondary education out ofreach of relatively low income segments of the society. Denationalization would also goagainst the principle of equity (access), efficiency (maximum return on parent’sresources) and the objective of quality education. It is true that in most of the casesprivate colleges in the past have been exploitative. There has been constant publiccriticism of private colleges, especially of their fees and other charges.

The present government, under the National Education Policy has spelled out thedirectives and plans for the establishment of private colleges and universities.Unfortunately no significant and meaninful private initiative is forthcoming.

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Appendix 1: Private Colleges in Pakistan

EnrollmentN ame

Kashmir Law College 101

Raees-ul-Ahrar College ofBusiness Administration

3-A Sector. F-1.Kotli Road. Mirpur. AJK

100

Raees-u-Ahrar College ofEducation

Helper Postgraduate Institute forOpthalmology

3-A Sector. F-3, Kotli Road.Mirpur. AJK

50

Quetta 100

Bahawalnagar Law College Imam Bargah Road, ModelTown-A, Bahawalpur

200

Islamia College of Commerce 6-B Ghaznavi road. ModelTown-A. Bahawalpur

200

Islamia College of Commerce l-New Officers ColonyHospital Road. Rahim YarKhan

150

Baqai Medical College 51 Deh Ter. Godop, SuperHigh Way, Near Tool Plaza.Karachi

1500

BCCI-FAST Institute of 23.D/6, PECHS, Karachi

126-F. Block-F. NorthNazimabad. Karachi

500

2000

Computer Sciences

Elite’s College

Karachi Medical and DentalCollege

Block- 16. F.B. Area. Karachi 1000

100Kulsom Bai Valika SocialSecurity Site Hospital

Manghopir, Karachi

Notre Dame Instt. of Education St. Patrik School, Saddar,Karachi

Plot No. 253/C, 35-A ZamanTown. Korangi No. 4 Karachi

800

1500Rehan College of Education

75-Jinnah CHS No.2, Block7/B Off Sharah-e-Faisal,Karachi

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Name Address Enrollment

Kohat Law College Kohat 400

Mardan Law College Mardan 400

Muslim Law College I Swat 300

Peshawar College of Commerce I Sthm Zeryeb Colony, 400 ]]and Business Administration Peshawar

Peshawar Law College 89/A, Saddar, Lane Road. 400Peshawar, Cantt

Urdu Law College 62-65 Chauburji Park, Riffle 800Range, Multan Road. Lahore

A1-Hajvery College of 43 Industrial Area, Gulbert- 900Commerce and Business 111, Lahore I

Allama Iqbal Law College I Jail Road, Sialkot 800 II

Chenab College of Commerce Chowk Akhtar Plaza, Jinnah 800Road. Gujrat

City Law College 19-Birdwood Road, Lahore 700

Fatima Jinnah College for Faisalabad 500Women

Garden College I Ferozepur Road, Lahore 400 II

Himayat Islam College for 4 Sher Shah Block, New 400Women Garden Town. Lahore

Jinnah Islamia College of 99-D, Satellite Town, 300 1Commerce I Rawalpindi I II

Jinnah Islamia College of 16-A, Main Ferozepur Road, 400Commerce Near Mozang Chungi, Lahore 1

L.G.S. College for Women 31-F.C.C. Gulberg-IV, I 500Lahore II

Lahore College of Commerce 132-G.T. Road. Baghbanpura. 1300 Lahore II

Lahore Law College I 6/13-B, Waris Road. Lahore I 400

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Law 309-A, Model Town. 300College Gujranwala

Muslim College of Commerce Waris Road, Lahore 200

105


Name Address Enrollment

Muslim Law College Kotthi No. 74, Block-A 200Satellite Town, Rawalpindi

National College 5-D, Main Gulber, Lahore 200

National Law College 71-Jail Road, Opposite 300Services Hospital, Lahore

Pakistan Islamia Higher P.O. Box No 1493 Sharjah 800Secondary School/College (U.A.E.)

Professional’s College of 2-S, Gulberg-11, Lahore 700Commerce

Punjab College of Commerce 29-Noon Avenue, Lahore 300

Punjab College of Commerce 23-A, Peoples Colony No. 2 400Faisalabad

Punjab College of Commerce D-464, 6th Road, Satellite 300Town. Rawalpindi

Punjab Institute of Computer 61-Main Gulberg, Lahore 500Sciences

Punjab Law College D-464, Satellite Town 200Rawalpindi

Punjab Law College 90-B/2, Gulberg-111, Lahore 500

Punjab Law College 23-A, Batala Colony 600Faisalabad

Quaid-e-Azam College of 3-Shahra-e-Aiwan-e-Tijarat 700Commerce Lahore

Quaid-e-Azam Law College 13-F, Model Town, Lahore 400

106


The Division of Higher Education of the UNESCO Secretariat produced, during 1983-1989, thirty-six titles in the series Papers on Higher Education (a complete list of titlesappears on the last page), From 1990, this series will continue in a new form New Paperson Higher Education with two sub-titles: one, Studies and Research and the other, MeetingDocuments.

Studies published in the series New Papers on Higher Education: Studies and Research:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Evaluation Procedures used to Measure the Efficiency of Higher Education Systems andInstitutions, A study conducted by the International Association for EducationalAssessment. Coordinator: W.B. Dockrell.

Study Service in Adult Education: Analysis of an Experience. A study conducted by theFaculty of Education, University of Lujan, Argentina. Coordinator: SylviaBrusilovski, UNESCO 1990. ED-89/WS-103 (English/French).

L‘Enseignement supérieur et le monde du travail. A study coordinated by Noë1 Terrotfor the World Federation of Teachers’ Unions. UNESCO 1990. ED-89/WS-40(French only).

Africa: A Survey of Distance Education 1991, A study conducted by the InternationalCouncil for Distance Education and the International Centre for Distance Learning.Coordinator: Keith Harry. UNESCO 1991. ED-91/WS-42 (English only).

Latin America and the Caribbean: A Survey of Distance Education 1991. A studyconducted by the International Council for Distance Education and the InternationalCentre for Distance Learning. Coordinator: Keith Harry. UNESCO 1991. ED-91/WS-44 (English only).

Conceptual Analysis and Methodological Results of the Project: Management andAssessment of Interdisciplinary Training at the Post-university Level. A studyconducted by P. Metreveli et al. UNESCO 1992. ED-92/WS-7 (English only).

Asia and the Pacific: A Survey of Distance Education 1992. 2 Volumes. A studyconducted by the National Institute of Multimedia Education, Japan. UNESCO 1992.ED-92/WS-7 (English only).

Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific: Country Papers. 3 Volumes. A studyconducted by the National Institute of Multimedia Education, Japan. UNESCO 1993(English only).

Patterns of Governance in Higher Education: Concepts and Trends. A studyconducted by Frans van Vught, Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, theNetherlands. UNESCO 1993. ED-93/WS-18 (English only).

Les universités communautaires. Une expérience brésilienne. Par Prof. GeraldoMagela Teixera. UNESCO 1993. ED-93/WS-26 (French/English).


11. La Educación permanente y su impacto en la educación superior. Por CarlosTünnermann Bernheim. UNESCO 1995. ED-95/WS-18 (Spanish only).

12. Strategic Planning in African Universities. A study conducted by John Farrant andJohn Fielden within the framework of the UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Planin Higher Education Management. UNESCO 1996. ED-96/WS-28 (English only).

13. Strategic Planning in African Universities: Good Practice Guidelines for ViceChancellors. A study conducted by John Farrant within the framework of theUNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Plan in Higher Education Management.UNESCO 1996. ED-96/WS-29 (English only).

14. African Universities: A review of Information Systems. A study conducted by DavidMason within the framework of the UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Plan inHigher Education Management. UNESCO 1996. ED-96/WS-30 (English only).

15, Strengthening the Skills of Middle Management in Universities. A study conducted byAllan Schofield within the framework of the UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint ActionPlan in Higher Education Management, UNESCO 1996. ED-96/WS-31 (English only).

16. The Management of International Cooperation in Universities: Six Country CaseStudies and an Analysis. A study conducted by Geoffrey Caston within the frameworkof the UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Plan in Higher Education Management.UNESCO 1996. ED-96/WS-32 (English only).


Other studies published in the series Papers on Higher Education: 1983-1989

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André Salifou, Perspectives du développement de 1‘enseignement supérieur en Afriquedans les prochaines décennies (English & French versions). UNESCO 1983,ED-83/WS/76.Michel Carton, Tendances et perspectives de développement de l’enseignementsupérieur dans la région Europe. UNESCO 1983, ED-83/WS/77.Juan Carlos Tedesco. Tendencias y Perspectivas en el Desarrollo de la EducaciónSuperior en América Latina y el Caribe (English & Spanish versions). UNESCO1983, ED-83/WS/75.Omer M. Osman, Perspectives of the Development of the University in the Arabregion from the present to the year 2000 (English & Arabic versions). UNESCO1983, ED-83/WS/78.S.C. Goel, Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific : A Perspective Study.UNESCO 1983, ED-83/WS/99.Study Service : a tool of innovation in higher education. (English & Frenchversions), UNESCO 1984, ED-84/WS/101.R. Goodridge, A. Layne, A Digest of Unesco Studies and Documents on theDemocratization of Higher Education. UNESCO 1984, ED-84/WS/52.L.P. Laprévote, Pour un bilan social de 1‘Université, instrument d’intégration de lacommunauté universitaire. UNESCO 1984, ED-83/WS/58.C. Rakowske-Jaillard, A. Rochegude, H. Acoca, La problématique de la pédagogiede l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche pédagogique dans la perspective de laréforme globale de l’éducation en Afrique francophone. UNESCO 1985,ED-84/WS/85.G. Berger, T. K. Thévenin, A. Coulon, Evaluation des expériences novatrices sur ladémocratisation dans l’enseignement supérieur. UNESCO 1985, ED-85/WS/l.Prof. Dr. M.L. Van Herreweghe, Étude préliminaire sur la nature et l’importance del’enseignement relatif aux sciences de l’éducation dans les établissementsd’enseignement supérieur. UNESCO 1986, ED-86/WS/34.Mme E. Rakobolskaya, André Salifou, D. Lustin, Trois études de cas sur la formationpédagogique des enseignants d’enseignement supérieur. UNESCO 1986.Georges Thill, Xavier Marbille, Christiane Coene, François Hurard, Structuresde fonctionnement de la recherche et perspectives de coopération. UNESCO 1986,ED-86/WS/63.Marcel Guillaume, Georges Thill, Formation et recherche universitaires : leursinterrelations. UNESCO 1986, ED-86/WS/64,Annotated Bibliography of Selected Unesco Publications and Documents relative toTraining and Research. UNESCO 1986.Stocktaking of Needs and Resources relative to Training and Research : Volume 1 :Australia, Hungary, Kenya, Syrian Arab Republic. UNESCO 1987.César A. Aguiar, Análisis de las Necesidades y Recursos relativos al Adiestramientoe Investigación.Formación Superior y Desarrollo Cientifico en América Latina : Indicacionespreliminares sobre la integración de sistemas. Volumen 2 : América Latina.UNESCO 1987.Inventory of Educational Research on Higher Education Problems Undertaken byHigher Education Institutions (Preliminary Version). UNESCO 1987,ED-86/WS/122 Rev.


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Jagbans K. Balbir, Aspects of Training and Research in Higher Education with CaseStudies on India and Venezuela. UNESCO 1987.L’Enseignement supérieur et le Monde du Travail.Table ronde UNESCO-Fédération international syndicale d’enseignement (FISE).Mobilité et échanges universitaires en vue de favoriser la formation et la coopérationinternationals.Table ronde UNESCO-Association des universités partiellement ou entièrement delangue française (AUPELF).Fonctions et tâches, condition et statut du professeur d’université dans les sociétés deprogrès.Table ronde UNESCO-Association international des professeurs et maîtres deconférences des universités (IAUPL).René Ochs, The Recognition of Studies and Diplomas of Higher Education : theContribution of Unesco. La Reconnaissance des études et des diplômes del’enseignement supérieur : l’apport de l’Unesco.Enseignement supérieur et interdisciplinarité : problèmes et perspectives.Table ronde UNESCO-Fédé²ration international des universités catholiques (FIUC).La Responsabilité des femmes dans la conduite de leur carrière et Enseignementsupérieur.Table ronde UNESCO-FIFDU. UNESCO 1987.R. Lallez, C. Tahiri-Zagret, A. Robinson, L. D‘Hainaut, Perspectives de l’évolutiondes systèmes de formation et des pratiques pédagogiques dans le cadre de lacoopération international.Table ronde UNESCO-Association international de pédagogie universitaire (AIPU).UNESCO 1988, ED-88/WS/31.Braga, Meyerson, Noguchi, Nemoto, Serafimov, The Impact of SatelliteTechnology on University Teaching and Research. UNESCO-IAU, UNESCO 1988.ED-88/WS/44.Higher Level Distance Education and the Needs of Developing Countries.Round Table UNESCO-International Council for Distance Education (ICDE).UNESCO 1988, ED-88/WS/46.The Challenge for the University : providing education and meeting economicrequirements.Round Table : UNESCO-International Union of Students (IUS). UNESCO.Les Responsabilités internationales du professeur d’Université.Table ronde : UNESCO-IAUPL, UNESCO, 1988.Higher Education : Problems and challenges for what future ? Final Report,UNESCO-NGO Collective Consultation 1988. (English & French versions),UNESCO 1988.Project Copernicus : Co-operation Programme in Europe for Research on Nature andIndustry through Co-ordinated University Study.Round Table : UNESCO-Standing Conference of Rectors, Presidents and Vice-Chancellors of the European Universities (CRE), UNESCO 1989.Enseignement supérieur scientifique et technique : Nouvelles technologies del’information et de la communication.Table ronde : UNESCO-Association des universités partiellement ou entièrement delangue française (AUPELF), UNESCO 1989.


34. R. Aspeslagh, D. Chitoran, A. Nastase, Educational and Research Programmes ofUniversities and Research institutes in the Europe region devoted to internationalunderstanding, co-operation, peace and to respect for human rights. UNESCO 1989,ED-89/WS/76.

35. L’enseignement supérieur entre démographie et sociologie : diversificationsinstitutionnelles et variations sociales - Polymnia Zagelka.

36. Higher Education Learning Resource Materials, Books and Journals : the Needs ofUniversities in Developing Countries.Round Table : UNESCO-Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU).
