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title: PrinciplesforDeterminingtheAirForceActive/reserveMix
author: Robbert,AlbertA.;Williams,WilliamA.;Cook,CynthiaR.
publisher: RANDisbn10|asin: 083302762Xprintisbn13: 9780833027627ebookisbn13: 9780585247687
language: English
subjectUnitedStates.--AirForce--Recruiting,enlistment,etc,UnitedStates.--AirForce--Reserves.
publicationdate: 1999lcc: UG883.R631999ebddc: 358.4/137/0973
subject:UnitedStates.--AirForce--Recruiting,enlistment,etc,UnitedStates.--AirForce--Reserves.
Pagei
PrinciplesforDeterminingtheAirForceActive/ReserveMix
AlbertA.RobbertWilliamA.WilliamsCynthiaR.Cook
PreparedfortheUnitedStatesAirForce
ProjectAIRFORCERAND
Approvedforpublicrelease;distributionunlimited
Pageii
TheresearchreportedherewassponsoredbytheUnitedStatesAirForceunderContractF49642-96-C-0001.FurtherinformationmaybeobtainedfromtheStrategicPlanningDivision,DirectorateofPlans,HqUSAF.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Robbert,AlbertA.1944-PrinciplesfordeterminingtheAirForceactive/reservemix/AlbertA.Robbert,WilliamA.Williams,CynthiaR.Cook.p.cm."MR-1091-AE"Includesbibliographicalreferences(p.).ISBN0-8330-2762-X1.UnitedStates.AirForceRecruiting,enlisting,etc.2.UnitedStates.AirForceReserves.I.Title.II.Williams,WilliamA.1952-III.Cook,CynthiaR.1965-UG883.R631999358.4'137'097321dc2199-042520
RANDisanonprofitinstitutionthathelpsimprovepolicyanddecisionmakingthroughresearchandanalysis.RAND®isaregisteredtrademark.RAND'spublicationsdonotnecessarilyreflecttheopinionsorpoliciesofitsresearchsponsors.
©Copyright1999RAND
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformbyanyelectrnicormechanicalmeans(includingphotocopying,recording,orinformationstorageandretrieval)withoutpermissioninwritingfromRAND.
Published1999byRAND1700MainStreet,P.O.Box2138,SantaMonica,CA90407-21381333HSt.,N.W.,Washington,D.C.20005-4707
RANDURL:http://www.rand.org/ToorderRANDdocumentsortoobtainadditionalinformation,contactDistributionServices:Telephone:(310)451-7002;Fax:(310)451-6915;Internet:[email protected]
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PrefaceThemixofactiveandreserveforcesconstitutingthetotalAirForcehasshiftedduringthelastdecade'sforcedrawdown.However,reductionsacrosstheactiveandreservecomponentsofthetotalforcehavenotbeenproportional.Moreover,decisionsaffectingonecomponentmayhavebeenmadeindependentlyofdecisionsaffectingothercomponents.Recentforcereductionsandtransfersamongcomponentsmaynothavebeenguidedbyaclearandacceptedsetofprinciplesfordetermininganend-stateforcemix.
Theshapeandsizeoftheforcemixcanhaveimportantimplicationsforthecost,effectiveness,sustainability,andpopularandpoliticalsupportofmilitaryforces.However,forceplannersandprogrammersmaynotbefullyawareoftheseimplicationsandmaythereforemakeoradvocateforce-structuringdecisionsthatdonotoptimallysupportnationalinterests.Thisreportassembles,examines,andrationalizesasetofprinciplestohelpforceplannersandprogrammersrecognizetheseimplications.
Forthemostpart,fundamentalprinciplesapplicabletocontemporaryactive/reserveforcequestionshavebeenhammeredoutinpastpolicydeliberations.Ourcontributionwastoassembletheprinciplesinacoherentframeworkandtoelicitareviewandcritiqueoftheframeworkbycurrentstakeholdersandcommentators.Towardthatend,ourresearchincludedaforum,heldinMay1998,ofleadersandthinkersfromanumberofmilitary,civilian,academic,legislative,andinterest-grouporganizations.
ThisresearchwasundertakenfortheDirectorofStrategicPlanning,HeadquartersUnitedStatesAirForce.Itrespondedto,andbenefited
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from,interestonthepartoftheAirNationalGuardandAirForceReserveadvisorstotheDirector.
ProjectAirForce
ProjectAIRFORCE,adivisionofRAND,istheAirForceFederallyFundedResearchandDevelopmentCenter(FFRDC)forstudiesandanalysis.ItprovidestheAirForcewithindependentanalysisofpolicyalternativesaffectingthedeployment,employment,combatreadiness,andsupportofcurrentandfutureairandspaceforces.Researchisperformedinfourprograms:AerospaceForceDevelopment;Manpower,Personnel,andTraining;ResourceManagement;andStrategyandDoctrine.
Pagev
Contents
Preface iii
Figures ix
Tables xi
Summary xiii
Acknowledgments xxi
Acronyms xxiii
ChapterOneIntroduction
1
Background 1
ObjectivesandApproach 3
Perspective 4
Scope 4
OrganizationoftheReport 5
ChapterTwoForce-MixPrinciplesAnOverview
7
SixFactorsinMakingActive/ReserveMixDeterminations
7
SocialandPoliticalConsiderations 7
ReadinessandAvailability 8
PersonnelFlowConsiderations 9
Cost 9
IntegratingtheSixFactors 10
Pagevi
ChapterThreeSocialandPoliticalConsiderations
13
Introduction 13
TheoreticalFramework 14
SocialandPoliticalFactors 15
Militia-NationConsiderations 15
PublicAwareness/TrustofMilitaryInstitutions 18
LinkingForceEmploymenttoPublicSupport 23
RepresentativeForceIssues 24
InfluenceofVeteransinSociety 29
PoliticalInfluenceoftheRC 30
StateMissionsoftheANG 31
HowSocialandPoliticalConsiderationsConstraintheForceMix
33
ChapterFourReadinessandAvailability
35
Readiness 35
PeacetimeReadinessIndicators 36
UnderlyingFactorsExperience,Training,andOperationalIntegration
38
Availability 40
AvailabilityWhenMobilized 40
AvailabilityWhenNotMobilized 42
ImplicationsfortheForceMix 45
ChapterFivePersonnelFlow
49
EarlierViewsonPersonnelFlow 49
ModelingthePersonnelFlowConstraint 51
ForceMixBasedonStrength 53
ForceMixBasedonFighterWingEquivalents 53
UsingtheModel 56
ImplicationsfortheForceMix 57
ChapterSixCost
59
MeetingMTWDemands:Force-StructureAvailability 60
CostComparisonComplexities 60
CostComparisonResults 62
Pagevii
DifferencesinDesignedOperationalCapabilities 66
AStrategyforOptimizingForce-StructureAvailabilityandCost
66
MeetingSSC,OOTW,andOtherPeacetimeDemands 67
MeasuringPeacetimeFighterDeploymentCapacityandItsCost
67
MeasuringPeacetimeAirliftProductiveCapacityandItsCost
68
AStrategyforOptimizingDeploymentCapacityandCost
70
TradeoffsBetweentheConflictingDemands 70
ConflictingDemandsforFighterForceStructure 70
AComparativeLookatAirliftForceStructure 71
MakingTradeoffs 73
ImplicationsfortheForceMix 73
ChapterSevenConclusions
75
References 79
Pageix
Figures
S.1.AFrameworkforConsideringMultipleForce-MixPrinciplesSimultaneously
xv
S.2.NotionalValuesforForce-MixConstraints:AnANGCase
xviii
1.1.StrengthsandOperatingCosts
2
2.1.AFrameworkforConsideringMultipleForce-MixPrinciplesSimultaneously
11
3.1.ReserveComponentsAreGeographicallyDispersed
19
3.2.PercentageofFemaleOfficersandOfficerAccessionsintheTotalForceAmongThreeAFComponents,FY1996
25
3.3.PercentageofFemaleEnlistedMembersandEnlistedAccessionsintheTotalForceAmongThreeAFComponents,FY1996
26
3.4.PercentageofMinorityOfficersandOfficerAccessionsAmongThreeAFComponentsintheTotalForce,FY1996
27
3.5.PercentageofMinorityEnlistedPersonnelandEnlistedAccessionsAmongThreeAFComponentsintheTotalForce,FY1996
28
3.6.LocusofPoliticalandSocialConstraintsontheForceMix
34
4.1.AverageORIRatings,19921996
37
4.2.FY1997TDYDaysbyANGAircrews
44
4.3.FY1997DaysinUniformbyANGAircrews
44
4.4.AvailabilityofAFRAircrewsbyDurationofTDY
45
4.5.LocusofAvailabilityandReadinessConstraintsontheForceMix
46
Pagex
5.1.SustainabilityofRCFighterPilotRequirements
56
5.2.LocusofthePersonnelFlowConstraintontheForceMix
58
6.1.AlternativeEqual-CostForceMixes
72
6.2.CostConsiderationsintheForceMix
74
7.1.NotionalValuesforForce-MixConstraints:AnANGCase
76
Pagexi
Tables
3.1.TheMilitiaintheConstitutionandtheBillofRights
16
4.1.AverageFlyingHoursandCombatExperienceofPilotsinTypicalRCandACB52Units
38
4.2.ReadyAircrewProgram(RAP)AnnualTrainingMissions
39
6.1.RecurringPeacetimeCostsforSelectedUnitTypesPreviousCostComparisonStudies
63
6.2.RecurringPeacetimeCostsforSelectedUnitTypesSABLEModel
65
6.3.CostperDeployedAircraft-Day,F16Squadrons
69
6.4.CostPerProductiveFlyingHour,C141Squadrons
69
Pagexiii
Summary
Introduction
WhatshouldAirForcedecisionmakersconsiderwhenmakingforce-mixdeliberationsacrosseachelementofthetotalforceactive,AirForceReserve(AFR),andtheAirNationalGuard(ANG)?Generally,rationaldeliberationsofforce-mixdecisionshavefocusedonthreefactorscost,militaryeffectiveness,andavailability.However,thesethreefactorsmaynotbetheonlyconsiderationsthatshouldapplyindetermininganappropriateforcemix.ThereisalsotheissueunderstoodbutoftenintangibleofhowreserveforceshelptomeetcertainsocialandpoliticalobjectivesimportanttotheAirForceandDepartmentofDefense(DoD)andhowthereservecomponent(RC)capturesvaluableexperienceandexpertisethatwouldotherwisebelost.Inaddition,itisnecessarytounderstandwhytheflowofhumancapitalfromactivetoreserveforcesmustbekeptwithinfeasiblebounds.Finally,itisimportanttounderstandcostconsiderationsinadisaggregatedway;inotherwords,doesthetypeofmissiontheAirForceperformsfavoronecomponentovertheother?
Thisreportanswersthefollowingtwoquestions:(1)whatprinciplesshouldbeconsideredinforce-structuredecisionsthataffecttheactive/reservemix?and(2)howdotheseprinciplesinteractwithoneanother?Weaddressedthefirstquestionprimarilybyreviewingpreviousstudiesorcommentariesonforce-mixissuesandfoundthattherelevantprinciplesaregenerallyrecognizedbuthavenotbeenassembledintoacoherentframework.Inaddressingthesecondquestion,wenotedthattheprinciplesgenerallydonotpre-
Pagexiv
scribeaspecificactive/reservemix.Rather,theytendtosuggestconstraintstheproportionsofthemixshouldbeaboveorbelowsomespecifiedboundary,whichmayvaryasafunctionoftotalforcesizeorotherfactors.Whenconsideredsimultaneously,theseconstraintsmaydefineafeasibleregionwithinwhicharangeofforce-mixpossibilitieswouldbeacceptable.Ifnosuchfeasibleregionexists,force-structureplannersmustchooseorcompromisebetweenconflictingconstraints.
Inproposinganddiscussingtheseprinciples,wehaveobservedthatactivecomponent(AC),AFR,andANGrepresentatives,andtheiradvocatesoutsideoftheAirForce,tendtoseetheissuesthroughdifferentlenses.Wehaveattemptedtoavoidacomponent-specificviewpoint,basingourproposedprinciplesonanoverallobjectiveofmaximizingtheAirForce'scontributiontonationaldefense.Insomecases,thatamountstooptimizingthedistributionofavailableresourceswithintheAirForce'stotalforce.Inothercases,itinvolvesenhancingtheAirForce'spostureforclaimingresources(funds,manpower,policylicense,politicalsupport,etc.)fromthelargersociety.Inthelattercases,theworthyobjective,webelieve,isnottomaximizeAirForceresourcesthroughpoliticalmanipulationbutrathertomaximizethequalityoftheAirForce'slinkagestothelargersociety,relyingonthedemocraticprocesstogoverntheresourceoutcomes.
DesigningaForce-MixFramework
Basedonourreviewofpreviousstudiesandcommentariesontheactive/reservemix,wefoundthatsixmajorfactorsshouldbeincludedindesigningaforce-mixframework:(1)socialconsiderations,(2)politicalconsiderations,(3)readiness,(4)availability,(5)personnelflow,and(6)cost.
FigureS.1providesaschemeforintegratingthesesixfactors.Arrowsontheboundarylinesindicatetheexpecteddirectionoftheconstraint.Thefiguresuggeststhatsomeoftheseconstraintsmightvaryasafunctionoftotalforcesize.
Thefiguredepictssocialandpoliticalconsiderationsestablishinglower-boundconstraints.Politicalutilitiesdependinpartonthetotalforcemaintainingavisiblepresence,witheitheractiveorreserve
Pagexv
FigureS.1AFrameworkforConsideringMultipleForce-MixPrinciplesSimultaneously
SOURCES:FY88and89NationalDefenseAuthorizationAct(PublicLaw100-180),FY88DoDAppropriationsAct(PublicLaw100-102),FY98NationalDefenseAutorizationAct(PublicLaw100-202),andFY98DoDAppropriationsAct(PublicLaw105-56).NOTE:Thesumofmilitarypersonnelapproporationsandoperationsandmaintenanceappropriationsisusedasaproxyforop
forces,inlocalcommunities.Astotalforcesizedecreases,reserveforceswillbeincreasinglycalledontoprovidethepresenceandmustthereforeconstitute,ataminimum,alargerproportionofthetotalforce.Thus,thepoliticalconstraintisrepresentedbyaslopingline.Wesuggestthatsocialutilitiesdependonthereserveforcesaminoritywithinthetotalforceoccupyingalargeenoughproportionoftheforcetocontinuetoinfluencethevaluesandcultureoftheactiveforcemajority.
Readinessandavailabilityconsiderationssetupperboundsonreserveforces.Weassumeaconstantdemandforrapidlydeployableforcesthatmustbemetpredominantlywithactiveforces.Asthetotalforce
becomessmaller,thisconstantdemandcallsforanincreasingproportionoftheforcetobesuppliedbytheactivecomponent(representedbyaslopingavailabilityconstraintlineinthefigure).OurhypothesisisthattherearegenerallynoappreciablereadinessdifferencesbetweenAirForceactiveandreserveforces.Thus,readinessdoesnotconstrainthemix.
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Thepersonnelflowconstraintalsosetsanupperbound.TheRCdependsonacriticalflowofhumancapitalfromtheAC.AstheRCproportionincreases,itbecomessolargerelativetotheACthatthiscriticalflowcannolongerbesustained.Inthesteadystate,thisproportionwouldnotvarywithtotalforcesize.
Takentogether,theseconstraintsformafeasibleregioninwhichaforcemixwouldsimultaneouslysatisfytheprinciplesassociatedwiththeconstraints.Aspecificforcemixcanthenbetargetedonthebasisofcostconsiderations.Reserveforcesareconventionallyviewedaslesscostlythanactiveforces,indicatingthattheproportionoftheforceintheRCshouldbealongtheborderformedbytheupper-boundconstraints.However,reserveforcesmaybemorecostlythanactiveforcesinmeetingoperationsotherthanwar(OOTW)andsmaller-scaleconflict(SSC)demands,sothatthedirectioninwhichcostconsiderationsdrivetheforcedependsontheneedbeingmet.IfOOTW/SSCdemandscannotbemetwiththeleastcostlymajortheaterwar(MTW)forcestructure,itwillbenecessaryforforcestructureplannerstochoosebetweenalarger,morereserve-intensiveforcethatbettermeetsMTWdemands,andanequal-cost,smaller,moreactive-intensiveforcethatbettermeetsongoinghigh-tempodemands.
BuildingtheFrameworkWhattheAnalysisTellsUs
Inexaminingtheavailableevidence,wefoundthatthelociofsomeoftheseconstraintsarecurrentlyunknowableandthatothersaremission-orcomponent-dependent.Wherepossible,wederivednotionalresultsusingavailabledataorwhatwebelievetobereasonableestimatesthereof,focusingforpurposesofillustrationonfighterforcestructure.
Inouranalysisofhowsocialandpoliticalconsiderationsconstrainthe
forcemix,weintroduceterminologythatallowsustomorepreciselylabeltheassociatedconstraints.Wefindthatasocialidentification,embeddedness,andinvestment(IE&I)constraintissloped,sothatasthetotalforcedecreasesinsizeandismoregeographicallyconcentrated,theRCwillplayanincreasingroleinmaintainingcontactwiththelargersociety.However,thepreciselocation
Pagexvii
ofthislowerboundarycannotbedetermined.WealsofindthataminoritystatusconstraintdrivenbyresearchontheboundarybetweenatokenandminoritylevelofrepresentationforaseparatelyidentifiablesubgroupwithinaninstitutionsetsafloorfortheRCatabout20percentofthetotalforce.
Basedonouranalysisofreadinessandavailability,wefind(ashypothesized)areadinessparitybetweentheACandRC,whichleadstonoreadinessconstraint.Availability,however,islimitedfortheRCbecauseofitspredominantlypart-timeworkforce.BecauseofgreaterlimitsoncumulativedeploymenttimeanddurationofdeploymentrelativetotheAC,theRCislessavailableformeetingcontingencyrequirements.Thus,theavailabilityconstraint,likethesocialIE&Iconstraint,issloped(althoughintheoppositedirection).Inotherwords,asthetotalforcedeclinesinsize,assumingforceemploymentdemandsremainconstant,adecreasingproportionofthetotalforcecanbeplacedintheRC.
Basedonourmodelingofpersonnelflowsbetweentheactiveandreserveforces,wefindthatwecanestablisharoughupperboundontheproportionoftheRCinthetotalforce,assumingotherrelatedparametersareknown.Theseparametersvarybymissionandmissiondesignseries(MDS)andalsobydifferencesbetweenANGandAFRintheirperceivedabilitytoabsorbinexperiencedundergraduatepilottraining(UPT)graduates.
Finally,intermsofcost,ouranalysisarguesforalargerproportionofthetotalforceintheRCwhencontemplatingMTWscenariosandasmallerproportionwhencontemplatingSSCandOOTWscenarios.DecisionmakersmustweighthetradeoffsbetweenmeetingMTWandSSC/OOTWneeds.
ApplyingtheFrameworktoanANGCaseANotionalExample
FigureS.2depictstheframeworkfortheANGcaseappliedtothefighterforcestructure,wherenotionalpersonnelflowconstraintsmightallowtheRCtooccupyupto42percentofthetotalfighterforce.Thiscreatesafeasibleregiontotherightofthesocialconstraint.Thefeasibleregionmightbereducedifanavailabilityconstraintcameintoplayorifadecisionmakerweretosupplyajudg-
Pagexviii
FigureS.2NotionalValuesforForce-MixConstraints:AnANGCase
mentallocusforthepoliticalconstraint.Withinthisfeasibleregion,cost-consciousdecisionmakerswouldgravitatetowarda42percentmixiftheywereprimarilyconcernedaboutpreparednessforMTWscenariosortowarda20percentmixiftheywereconcernedwithmeetingcurrentcontingencydeploymentneeds.Itispossible,ofcourse,toweighcostmoreheavilythaneitherthepersonnelfloworsocialconstraints.Inthatcase,decisionmakersmightdrivethemixabove42percent,consciouslyacceptingadegradationinexperiencelevelsandreadiness.Alternatively,theycoulddrivethemixbelowthe20percentRCminoritystatusconstraint,possiblycompromisingRCmembers'capacitytoinfluencethevaluesandperceptionsofACmembers.
Ifpersonnelfloworavailabilitywereevaluatedusingdifferentparameters,thoseconstraintscouldconceivablylietotheleftoftheRCminoritystatusorsocialIE&Iconstraints.Therewouldbenofeasibleregion.Insuchacase,decisionmakerswouldhavetocompro-
Pagexix
misebetweenconflictingobjectives.ThemostlikelyoutcomewouldbetodeemphasizetheminoritystatusandsocialIE&Iconstraintsbecausethecaseforapplyingtheformerinthepresentcontextislesscompellingandthelocusforthelatterisunknown.
Weagainstressthatthespecificforce-mixresultsreportedherearenotional.Wherepossible,weusedinputvaluesthatwejudgedtobeapproximatelycorrect,recognizingthatwedidnothavetheresourcesinthisprojecttoobtainorderiveanalyticallyrigorousinputs,especiallywhentheinputsarelikelytovaryacrossmissions.Also,becauseofvariationsacrossmissionsorMDSs,force-mixdecisionscannotbemadeintheaggregate.TheymustbemadeforeachmissionorMDSindividually.
Conclusions
Althoughtheresultsreportedherearenotional,webelieveourresearchprovidestwoconcretecontributionstotheforce-mixdecisionprocess.Thefirstcontributionisaframeworkforintegratingtherangeofconsiderationsthatdecisionmakersfaceandgainingperspectiveontheargumentsofferedbyvariousinterestgroupshopingtoinfluencetheforcemix.Thesecondcontributionisaroadmapformoredetailedresearchintospecificmission/MDSforcemixesorageneralmodelthatincorporatesmission/MDS-specificinputs.
Perhapsourmostsignificantfindingisthatcostconsiderationscutinoppositedirectionsdependingonwhethertheforceisbeingoptimizedformajortheaterwarpreparednessorforpeacetimecontingencyoperations.Inourview,peacetimecontingencydemandsmustbegivenmoreweightinforce-mixdecisions,especiallyinMDSsexperiencinghighdeployment-relatedstress.
Pagexxi
AcknowledgmentsInspirationforthisprojectcamefromBrigGenJohnHarvey,USAFR(ret.),andBrigGenJosephSimeone,ANG,whoservedasAirForceReserveandAirNationalGuardadvisorstotheAirForceDirectorofStrategicPlansduringacriticalperiodintheproject.LtGenDavidW.McIlvoy,AirForceDirectorofStrategicPlanningattheinceptionoftheproject;hissuccessors,MajGensCharlesF.WaldandNortonA.Schwartz;andtheirdeputydirector,Dr.ClarkMurdock,supportedtheproject.LtColCalHutto,ourAirStaffpointofcontact,providedessentialcoordinationandsupport.MajCarlD.RehberghelpeduswithAirForceReserveissues,whileMajGregRiddlemoserandMr.GaryTaylorprovidedsimilarsupportregardingtheAirNationalGuard.
FortyindividualsjoinedusatRANDinMay1998foraforumthatexploredtheissuesaddressedinthisreport.Wethankalloftheparticipantsinthatforumforhelpingustofocusontherightissuesandtoplacetheminappropriateperspectives.Inparticular,wethankMr.BrianSharratt,DeputyAssistantSecretaryoftheAirForceforReserveAffairs;MajGen(ret.)RogerSandler,presidentoftheReserveOfficerAssociation;MajGenSamCarpenter,militaryexecutivefortheReserveForcesPolicyBoard;MikeHiggins,aprofessionalstafferfortheHouseNationalSecurityCommittee;andLarryKorb,aseniorfellowattheBrookingsInstitute.Otherparticipantsintheforum,towhomwealsooweourappreciation,includeseveralstateassistantadjutantgeneralsforair,seniormobilizationaugmentees,seniorstaffmembersfromtheAirStaffandseveralmajorcommands,academicians,andfellowmembersoftheRANDstaff.
Pagexxii
WithinRAND,BobRoll,ourprogramdirectorattheinceptionoftheproject,providedstrongleadershipandvaluableinsightinshapingtheproject.ColleaguesDonPalmerandCarlDahlmanprovidedhelpfulinputandadvice.PaulSteinbergandJeanneHellercontributedimmeasurablytothereadabilityofthereport.ReviewsbyJackGraserandDickBuddinsharpenedourthinkinginseveralareas.
Anyremainingerrorsare,ofcourse,ourown.
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Acronyms
AC activecomponent
AFR AirForceReserve
ANG AirNationalGuard
DOC designedoperationalcapability
DoD DepartmentofDefense
FH flyinghours
FWE fighterwingequivalent
IE&I identification,embeddedness,andinvestment
MDS majordesignseries
MTW majortheaterwar
NPS nonpriorservice
OOTW operationsotherthanwar
OPTEMPO operationstempo
ORI operationalreadinessinspection
PAA primaryaircraftauthorized
PERSTEMPOpersonneltempo
POL petroleum,oil,andlubricants
PS priorservice
QDR QuadrennialDefenseReview
RC reservecomponent
RPI ratedpositionidentifier
SAAM specialassignmentairliftmission
SORTS StatusofResourcesandTrainingSystem
SSC smaller-scaleconflict
Pagexxiv
TDY temporaryduty
UPT undergraduatepilottraining
UTC unittypecode
Page1
ChapterOneIntroduction
Background
InAirForceandDepartmentofDefense(DoD)force-structuredecisionmaking,eachelementofthetotalforceactive,AirForceReserve(AFR),andtheAirNationalGuard(ANG)hasproponentsthatoftenseektomaximizetheresourcesdevotedtoit.Proponentsincludeseniorleadershipwithinthecomponents,Congress,andstakeholdersexternaltoDoD,suchasassociationsthatadvocatetheinterestsofthevariouscomponents.Inthisoftentimescompetitiveenvironment,resourceallocationdecisionswouldbettersupportpublicinterestsiftheywereguidedbyasetofprinciplesformaximizingatotalAirForcecontributiontonationaldefense.
Moreover,theforcemixhaschangedsignificantlyduringthelastdecade.Figure1.1showsthatactivecomponent(AC)strengthreductionswereproportionallygreaterthanreservecomponent(RC)strengthreductionsduringthelastdecade(whichhasshiftedthemixtowardagreaterproportionintheRC).Infiscalyear(FY)1988,thetwoRCstheANGandtheAFRtogetherconstituted25percentoftotalAirForcestrengthand11percentoftotaloperatingcosts.InFY1998,theRCconstituted33percentofthetotalstrengthand16percentofthetotalcost.InourreviewoftheliteratureandinourinterviewswithACandRCdecisionmakers,wefoundnoevidencethatthisshiftoccurredaspartofaconsciousforce-mixstrategy.Rather,itoccurredasaresultofmanydecisions,takenindependently,regardingactivecomponent(AC)andreservecomponent(RC)forcestructure.Wearguethattherearegoodreasonsformak-
Page2
Figure1.1StrengthsandOperatingCosts
SOURCES:FY88and89NationalDefenseAuthorizationAct(PublicLaw100-180),
FY88DoDAppropriationsAct(PublicLaw100-202),FY98NationalDefenseAuthorizationAct(PublicLaw105-85),andFY98DoDAppropriationsAct
(PublicLaw105-56).NOTE:Thesumofmilitarypersonalappropriationsandoperationsand
maintenanceappropriationsisusedasaproxyforoperatingcost.Thisprovidesonlyarough
indicationofoperatingcosts,becausethemilitarypersonnelappropriationincludesthecost
ofmilitarypersonnelengagedinnonoperatinvbactivities,suchasprocurement.Other
appropriationsProcurement;Research,Development,Test,andEvaluation;Rovolvingand
ManagementFunds;MilitaryCOnstruction;andFamilyHousingareeitherunrelatedorlessclearly
relatedtotheoperatingcostsofthecomponents.
ingforce-structuredecisionsaffectingtheforcemixinanintegratedratherthananindependentway.
Generally,rationaldeliberationsoftheforcemixhavefocusedonthreefactorscost,militaryeffectiveness,andavailability.AsthedatainFigure1.1suggest,andaswillbedemonstratedinmoredetaillaterinthereport,forcestructurecostslessintheRCthanintheAC.Additionally,AirForceRCunits,incontrasttosomereserveforcesinotherservices,generallymeetorexceedAClevelsofmilitary
Page3
effectiveness.However,reserveforcesarelessavailablethanactiveforcesexceptinsmallnumbers,theycannotbedeployedasrapidlyasactiveforces;therearestrictstatutorylimitsonhowandforhowlongtheymaybecalledupinvoluntarilyforactiveduty;andtherearepracticallimitsonhowlongandhowoftentheycanbeemployedvoluntarily.
Theseconsiderationscanbecombinedtoformanimplicitprinciplefordeterminingacost-effectiveforcemixmaximizetheRCproportion,subjecttosatisfyingavailabilitydemandsthatgenerallyrequireactiveforces.
However,unitoperatingcosts,militaryeffectiveness,andavailabilityarenottheonlyconsiderationsthatapplyindetermininganappropriateforcemix.ThereisalsotheissueunderstoodbutoftenintangibleofhowreserveforceshelptomeetcertainsocialandpoliticalobjectivesimportanttotheAirForceandDoDandhowtheRCcapturesvaluableexperienceandexpertisethatwouldotherwisebelost.Inaddition,itisnecessarytounderstandwhytheflowofhumancapitalfromactivetoreserveforcesmustbekeptwithinfeasiblebounds.Finally,itisimportanttounderstandcostconsiderationsinadisaggregatedway;inotherwords,doesthetypeofmissionbeingperformedfavoronecomponentovertheother?
ObjectivesandApproach
Inpreparingthisreport,wesoughttoanswerthefollowingquestions:
Whatprinciplesshouldbeconsideredinforce-structuredecisionsthataffecttheactive/reservemix?
Howdotheseprinciplesinteractwithoneanother?
Inreviewingpreviousstudiesorcommentariesonforce-mixissues,wefoundthattherelevantprinciplesaregenerallyrecognizedbut
havenotnecessarilybeenassembledintoacoherentframework.Wealsofoundthatsomeprincipleshavebeenarticulatedformilitaryforcesingeneral,andthusneedtobetailoredtotheAirForcecase.
Inaddressingthesecondquestion,wenotedthattheprinciplesgenerallydonotprescribeaspecificactive/reservemix.Rather,they
Page4
tendtosuggestconstraintstheproportionsofthemixshouldbeaboveorbelowsomespecifiedboundary,whichmayvaryasafunctionoftotalforcesizeorotherfactor.Whenconsideredsimultaneously,theseconstraintsmaydefineafeasibleregionwithinwhicharangeofforce-mixpossibilitieswouldbeacceptable.
Perspective
Inproposinganddiscussingtheseprinciples,wehaveobservedthatAC,AFR,andANGrepresentatives,andtheiradvocatesoutsideoftheAirForce,tendtoseetheissuesthroughdifferentlenses.Wehaveattemptedtoavoidacomponent-specificviewpoint,basingourproposedprinciplesonanoverallobjectiveofmaximizingtheAirForce'scontributiontonationaldefense.Formostoftheprinciplesweadvocate,thatamountstooptimizingthedistributionofavailableresourceswithintheAirForce'stotalforce.
Whenexaminingsocialandpoliticalissues,wefindthattheoperantobjectiveistoenhancetheAirForce'spostureforclaimingresources(funds,manpower,policylicense,politicalsupport,etc.)fromthelargersociety.Thepossibilityexiststhatsuccessinthisendeavorcouldcomeattheexpenseoftheotherservices,ofdomesticprograms,orofothersocialinterests.Evaluatingthesewelfareeconomicimplicationsisbeyondthescopeofourstudy.Consequently,theperspectiveweadoptinevaluatingsocialandpoliticalissuesisnotaneconomicone.Rather,wetakeanorganizationalecologyperspectivemilitaryorganizationswillnotobtainneededresourcesiftheyfailtocultivateappropriatelinkagestothelargersociety.Theworthyobjective,webelieve,isnottomaximizeAirForceresourcesthroughpoliticalmanipulationbuttomaximizethequalityoftheAirForce'slinkagestothelargersociety,relyingonthedemocraticprocesstogoverntheresourceoutcomes.
Scope
Theendproductinthisresearchisnotaspecificforcemix.Asweshalldemonstrate,theappropriateforcemixiscontingentonanumberofvariablefactors.Ourobjectiveistoidentifytherelevantprinciples,leavingtodecisionmakersandtheirstaffsthetaskofapplyingtheprinciplesinspecificforce-structuringactions.
Page5
OrganizationoftheReport
ChapterTwodescribesingeneraltermsthebroadfactorswehavefoundtobeimportantinforce-mixdecisionsandprovidesamodeltoenablethefactorstobeconsideredsimultaneously.InChaptersThreethroughSix,wediscusstheimplicationsofthesefactorsingreaterdetail,showingbasedonouranalysiswherethelocusofeachfactororconstraintisinthemodel.ChapterSevengivesourconclusionsandrecommendations.
Page7
ChapterTwoForce-MixPrinciplesAnOverviewBasedonourreviewofpreviousstudiesandcommentariesontheactive/reservemix,wefoundthattherelevantissuescanbeaggregatedintosixmajorfactors.Inthischapter,webrieflydescribethosefactorsandindicateingeneraltermshowtheyinfluencetheidealforcemix.Wealsopresentourframeworkforconsideringthefactorssimultaneously.Subsequentchaptersexaminetheindividualfactorsmorethoroughly.
SixFactorsinMakingActive/ReserveMixDeterminations
Thesixfactorsweidentifiedare(1)socialconsiderations,(2)politicalconsiderations,(3)readiness,(4)availability,(5)personnelflow,and(6)cost.Sincesocialandpoliticalconsiderationsarecloselyrelated,wediscussthembelowtogether;thesameholdstrueforreadinessandavailability,whicharealsodiscussedtogether.
SocialandPoliticalConsiderations
Reserveforcesmayhavesocialandpoliticalutilitiesthatdifferfromorcomplementactiveforceutilities.Torealizetheseutilities,wesuggestthattheproportionofthetotalAirForcesuppliedbytheRCmustexceedsomecriticalmass.
Theseutilitiesarerelatedtoanumberofconsiderations.Thereisastronghistoricalandconstitutionalpresumptionthatatleastpartofthenation'smilitaryforcesshouldbeprovidedbycitizen-soldier
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militiasratherthanregularforces.Althoughrootedinpoliticalconcernsprevalentinthenation'srevolutionaryperiod,relianceonmilitiaforcesmayhavecontemporarybenefits.
Reservistsaremorefullyintegratedintothelargersocietythanactive-dutymembers,enablingthemthroughpersonalcontacttoextendpublicawarenessandtrustofmilitaryinstitutions.
Call-upofreservistsforreal-worldemploymentissubjecttostrongerpoliticalchecksandbalancesthantheemploymentofactive-dutyforces,thusdiscouragingmilitaryinvolvementthatlackspublicsupportandbroadeningsupportforemploymentsthatareundertaken.
Reserveunits,especiallythoseoftheANG,arelessgeographicallyconcentratedthanactiveunits.(OnemightexpectthatthegreatergeographicrepresentationoftheRCwouldmakeitmoredemographicallyrepresentativethantheAC,butouranalysisinChapterThreedidnotfinditmarkedlyso.)Representativenessinanyformcontributestopublictrustingovernmentinstitutions.
Byincreasingthenumberofveteransinthesociety,reserveforcesincreasetheproportionofkeypublicpolicydecisionmakersandinfluencerswhohavemilitaryexperienceandarethusmorelikelytotakeinformedpositionsaboutmilitaryissues.
ANGunitsprovideanefficientandeffectivesourceofdisciplinedmanpowertosatisfystatemissions(disasterrelief,civildisturbance,etc.).
ReadinessandAvailability
Becausereserveforcesrelyheavilyonpart-timeparticipantswhohavefull-timeoccupations,theyarelessavailablethanactive-dutyforces.Theymayalsobelessreadythanactive-dutyforcesbecauseoflimitedopportunitiesfortraining,particularlyunit-sizedtraining
exercisesthatcannotbeeffectivelycompressedorsegmentedintoweekenddrillperiods.Inpractice,theselimitationsapplymoretoArmy,Navy,andMarineCorpsreserveforcesthantoAirForcereservists,manyofwhomcaneffectivelytraininsmallaggregations(individualsorcrews)andwhocanalsobereadilyintegratedinto
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activeforceswithoutinvoluntaryunitcall-ups.Nonetheless,activeforcesmustremainlargeenoughtomeetrapid-deploymentneedsandtoprovidesustainedinvolvementinoperationsthatexceedstatutorylimitationsonthedurationofcall-ups.
Activeforcesalsofacesomereadiness-limitingconditions.Turnoverinactive-dutyflyingsquadronsishigherthaninreservesquadronsbecauseofrotationsintoandoutofcockpitdutiesandtopermitgreaterabsorptionofnewpilotsenteringtheratedforce.RCpilotsoftenhavepreviousACexperience.Asaresult,ACpilotshaveonaveragelessweaponssystemexperiencethantheirRCcounterparts.
PersonnelFlowConsiderations
Tomeettheirmanpowerneeds,reserveforcesrelyheavilyonaflowoftrainedandacculturatedpersonnelfromactive-dutyforces.Itisunlikelythatreserveforcescouldfindsufficientqualifiednonpriorservice(NPS)recruitstomeetalltheirneeds,giventhatnonpriorservicerecruitsgenerallymustagreetoaninitialperiodofactivedutyfortraininglengthyenoughtocompleterecruitandinitialskilltraining.Ifthemaximumacceptablenonpriorserviceinputtoreserveforcescanbedeterminedandifactive-forceseparationandreserveaffiliationratesareknown,anupperlimitontheratioofreservetoactiveforcescanbedetermined.
Cost
Activeandreserveforceoperatingcostshaveoftenbeencomparedonaper-unitorper-aircraftbasis.Thatis,theoperatingcostsofreserveunitsarecomparedwiththoseofsimilaractiveunits.Thiscostcomparisonapproachassumesequalavailabilityandemployabilityofactiveandreserveunits.Suchanassumptionisappropriateforemploymentofforcesinmajortheaterwar(MTW)orsomelarge-scalemilitaryoperationsotherthanwar(OOTW)scenarios,where
call-upofreserveforcescanmakethemfullysubstitutableforactiveforcesformanyrequirements(thosethatarecompatiblewithstatutorycall-uplimitations).
However,inmostOOTWorsmaller-scalecontingency(SSC)scenarios,thiscostcomparisonapproachisnotappropriate.
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Sustaineddeployments,suchasthoserelatedtopeacekeepinginBosniaorenforcementofno-flyzonesinIraq,generatedemandsthat,givenacceptabledurationsandfrequenciesofdeployment,aredifferentfromMTWdemands.Shortofcall-up,reserveforcesfacealimitonacceptablefrequencyanddurationofemploymentthatismuchtighterthanthatofactiveforces.Thus,inmeetingthesedemands,reserveforcesarenotfullysubstitutableforactiveforces.AnappropriatecostcomparisonforOOTWandSSCscenariosmustbebasedonoutputsusefulinthesescenarios.Arelevantoutputisthenumberofdaysperyearthatanaircraftwithappropriateaircrewsandlogisticsupportcanbedeployed.Thecostperoutputisthencomputedasannualaircraftoperatingcostsdividedbydeployableaircraftdaysperyear.
IntegratingtheSixFactors
Figure2.1providesaschemeforintegratingthesixfactorsdiscussedabove.ThefiguredepictsasetofconstraintsontheproportionofthetotalforcethatisintheRC.Arrowsontheboundarylinesindicatetheexpecteddirectionoftheconstraint.Thefiguresuggeststhatsomeoftheseconstraintsmightvaryasafunctionoftotalforcesize.Insubsequentchapters,wewillindicatewhatwebelievetobetheapproximatelocioftheseconstraintsinsomecontexts.
Thefiguredepictssocialandpoliticalconsiderationsestablishinglower-boundconstraintsontheproportionofthetotalforceintheRC.Politicalutilitiesdependinpartonthetotalforcemaintainingavisiblepresence,witheitheractiveorreserveforces,inlocalcommunities.Astotalforcesizedecreases,reserveforceswillbecalledupontoprovidethepresence,andtheymustthereforeconstitute,atminimum,alargerproportionofthetotalforce.Thus,thepoliticalconstraintisrepresentedbyaslopingline.Thesocialconstraintsuggeststhatthereserveforcesmustoccupysomeminimumconstantproportionofthe
forceinordertoinfluencethevaluesandcultureofthetotalforce.
Readinessandavailabilityconsiderationssetupperboundsonreserveforces.Weassumeaconstantdemandforimmediatelyandcontinuouslyavailableforcesthatmustbemetprimarilybyusingactiveforces.Asthetotalforcebecomessmaller,thisconstantde-
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Figure2.1AFrameworkforConsideringMultipleForce-Mix
PrinciplesSimultaneously
mandcallsforanincreasingproportionoftheforcetobesuppliedbytheactivecomponent(representedbyaslopingavailabilityconstraintlineinFigure2.1).Asdiscussedaboveandinmoredetaillater,therearegenerallynoappreciablereadinessdifferencesbetweenAirForceactiveandreserveforces.Thus,readinessdoesnotconstrainthemix.
Thepersonnelflowconstraintalsosetsanupperbound.TheRCdependsonacriticalflowofhumancapitalfromtheAC.ThereissomeratioofACtoRCsizebeyondwhichthiscriticalflowcannolongerbesustained.Inthesteadystate,thisratiowouldnotvarywithtotalforcesize.
Takentogether,theseconstraintsformafeasibleregioninwhichaforcemixwouldsimultaneouslysatisfytheprinciplesrepresentedbytheconstraints.Aspecificforcemixintheregioncanthenbetargetedonthebasisofcostconsiderations.Asmentionedabove,re-
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serveforceshavebeenconventionallyviewedaslesscostlythanac-tiveforces,indicatingthattheforcemixshouldbealongtheborderformedbytheupper-boundconstraints.However,ifreserveforcesarefoundtobemorecostlythanactiveforcesinmeetingOOTWandSSCdemands(seeChapterSix),thedirectioninwhichcostconsiderationsdrivetheforcewilldependontheneedbeingmet.Itmaybenecessaryforforce-structureplannerstochoosebetweenalarger,morereserve-intensiveforcethatbettermeetsMTWdemands,andanequal-cost,smaller,moreactive-intensiveforcethatbettermeetsOOTW/SSCdemands.
Notethatwedepictnofeasibleregionatsmallerforcesizes.Inthisforcesizerange,thegoalofkeepingreserveforceslargeenoughtoobtainpoliticalutilitiesmightconflictwiththegoalofkeepingenoughactiveforcestomeetrapiddeploymentdemands.Similarly,itispossiblethatinsomecontextstheupper-boundpersonnelflowconstraintwilllietotheleftofthelower-boundsocialconstraint,sothatthereisnofeasibleregionatanyforcesize.Whenthereisnofeasibleregion,force-structuredecisionmakersmustmaketradeoffsbetweenconflictingprinciples.
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ChapterThreeSocialAndPoliticalConsiderations
Introduction
ThearmedforcesoftheUnitedStatesdonotandcannotoperateinisolationfromthelargerAmericansociety.Theyarepartofapolitywhoseneedstheymustserve.Moreover,towinthetrustandsupportofthelargerpolity,thearmedservicesmustbewidelyperceivedasservingimportantsocialneeds.Withoutthistrustandsupport,thearmedforceswillnotgettheresourcestheyneedtofunctioneffectively.
WearguethattheAirForcecansecuresupportbyunderstandingandmanagingthreekindsoflinkagesbetweenthemilitaryandsociety(Kestnbaum,1998).Theselinkagestaketheformofasharedvaluesystem,asharedsocialstructure,andsharedinterestsandattachments.WefurtherarguethatbecausetheRChasconsiderablymoreopportunityforinteractionwithciviliansociety,itisbettersituatedthantheACtodevelopthesethreelinkages.TheRCcancommunicatethedesiresandexpectationsofciviliansocietytothetotalforceandcan,inturn,communicatethemissionsandneedsofthearmedforcestociviliansociety,thuslimitingoverallisolationofthearmedforcesfromsociety.
Inthischapter,wefirstexplainthetheoreticalframeworkofhoweachoftheselinkagesworkstoincreasetheattachmentbetweenthearmedforcesandsociety.Wethenexamineanumberofsocialandpoliticalfactorsthathaveabearingonthestrengthoftheselinkages.Finally,weassesshowthesesocialandpoliticalconsiderationsshouldoperatetoconstraintheforcemix.
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TheoreticalFramework
Thefirstpotentiallinkagebetweenthearmedforcesandsocietyisasharedvaluesystem.Sharedvaluesinademocraticsocietymightrelatetosuchissuesasdiversityandinclusion,citizenshiprightsinrelationtoobligations,closenessofthemilitarytothepeopleitissupposedtoprotect,responsivenessofthegovernmenttoitspeople,theprotectionofdemocracyfromcentralismandtyranny,andlimitationsonadventurism.Theoperativemechanismtoestablishthislinkageisidentification,wherebypeoplecanlookacrossinstitutionaldividesandfindotherswhosharetheirvaluesorideals.Citizenswhoidentifywiththeirarmedforcesaremorelikelytosupportthem.
Thesecondpotentiallinkageisanetworkofsharedsocialstructuresthroughwhichmilitarymembersareintertwinedwiththeirciviliancounterparts.Sharedsocialstructurescanbefoundintheworkplace,schools,churches,communityserviceorpoliticalorganizations,oreventhroughbeingincommonsocialpositions,suchasmiddle-classtaxpayersinasmalltown.ComparedwiththeAC,membersoftheRCarelikelytohavemanymoresuchsharedstructureswiththeciviliancommunitiesofwhichtheyareapart.Theoperativemechanismtoestablishthislinkageisembeddedness,wherebypeoplewhoareseparatedbyinstitutionalboundariesinonesphere(militaryversuscivilian)arelinkedwithcommoninstitutionsinotherspheres.Anarmedforceembeddedintolargersocietywillhavemoreopportunitiestounderstandandbeunderstoodbycivilians.
Finally,theRCpromotesgreatersharedinterestsandattachmentsbetweenthoseinthearmedforcesandciviliansociety,thethirdlinkage.Forexample,veteransmaintainaninterestinthemilitary;thenumberofveteransinsocietyisarguablygreaterwithalargerRC.Also,themobilizationofreservistsgeneratesinterestamongothersintheircommunities.Theoperativemechanismtoestablishthislinkage
isinvestment,throughwhichpeoplebecomeinterestedinpersonsandinstitutionsbyvirtueoftheirconnectionsandattachmentstothesepeople.Acitizenryinvestedinitsarmedforcesismorelikelytosupportthem.
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SocialandPoliticalFactors
Anumberofsocialandpoliticalfactorshavebeenofferedasargumentsforreserveforces:
ThemaintenanceofstatemilitiasasentitiesseparatefromanationalarmedforceiswrittenintotheConstitution.
TheRCincreasesthepublic'sawarenessandtrustofmilitaryinstitutions.
Publicreactiontoreservecall-upsprovidesacheckonexcessiveuseofthemilitary.
TheRCismorerepresentativeofsocietythantheAC.
TheRCincreasespoliticalsupportforthearmedforces.
TheNationalGuardservesspecificstateroles.
Eachofthesesocialandpoliticalfactorswouldworkthroughthemechanismsofidentification,embeddedness,and/orinvestmenttoincreasetheconnectionsbetweensocietyandthemilitary.
Beyondthefactthatsuchfactorsarguefortheexistenceofthereserves,itisalsoreasonabletoconsidersuchfactorsinforce-mixdecisions,supplyingdecisionmakerswithcompellingreasonstomaintainsomeminimumproportionoftheforceintheRC.Itmaybemoredifficulttoquantifyhowthesesocialandpoliticalconsiderationsshouldaffecttheforcemixthanitwouldbetoquantifyhowotherfactorssuchascost,effectiveness,orpersonnelflowshoulddoso.Yetwithoutthelinkagesandsupportthatthesesocialandpoliticalconsiderationsembody,themilitarywillbelessabletogathertheresourcesitneeds.Perhapsmoreimportant,theconsiderationsoffersomethingofabasisformaintaininganRCwithinademocraticsociety.
Militia-NationConsiderations
ThetraditionofcitizensoldiersintheUnitedStatesdatesbacktobeforethenationwasborn,andthenfurtherbackintoAnglo-SaxontraditioninEngland.PartofourromanticunderstandingoftheRevolutionaryWaristhatoffarmerslayingdowntheirplowsand
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pickinguptheirmusketstodrillandthentoserve.TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesreflectsthistraditionandclearlylaysthegroundworkfortheexistenceofpart-timesoldiers,astheexcerptsinTable3.1demonstrate.
Section8ofArticleIgivesCongressthepowertofederalizethemilitiaasameanstoachievebroadergovernmentobjectivessuchassecurityandstability.However,themilitiaisclearlynotafederalforcesincetherearecertainrightsandresponsibilitiesreservedtothestates,suchasofficerappointmentsandtraining.Infact,Section2ofArticleIIdistinctlyseparatestheregularforces,whichnowin-
Table3.1TheMilitiaintheConstitutionandtheBillofRights
ArticleI,Section8
TheCongressshallhavePowerTolayandcollectTaxes,Duties,ImpostsandExcises,topaytheDebtsandprovideforthecommonDefenseandgeneralWelfareoftheUnitedStates;butallDuties,ImpostsandExcisesshallbeuniformthroughouttheUnitedStates;ToprovideforcallingforththeMilitiatoexecutetheLawsoftheUnion,suppressInsurrectionsandrepelInvasions;Toprovidefororganizing,arming,anddiscipliningtheMilitia,andforgoverningsuchPartofthemasmaybeemployedintheServiceoftheUnitedStates,reservingtotheStatesrespectively,theAppointmentoftheOfficers,andtheAuthorityoftrainingtheMilitiaaccordingtothedisciplineprescribedbyCongress;AndTomakeallLawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperforcarryingintoExecutiontheforegoingPowers,andallotherPowers
vestedbythisConstitutionintheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,orinanyDepartmentorOfficerthereof.
ArticleII,Section2
ThePresidentshallbeCommanderinChiefoftheArmyandNavyoftheUnitedStates,andoftheMilitiaoftheseveralStates,whencalledintotheactualServiceoftheUnitedStates.
AmendmentII
AwellregulatedMilitia,beingnecessarytothesecurityofafreeState,therightofthepeopletokeepandbearArms,shallnotbeinfringed.
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cludetheAirForceaswellastheArmyandNavy,fromthemilitia,orNationalGuard.
Thisconstitutionallanguagewasacompromisebetweentwofactionsofthedocument'sdrafterstheFederalists,whowantedastrongnationalgovernment,andtheAnti-Federalists,whowantedtoensurestates'rights.TheFederalistsinsertedtheclausethatgrantsCongressthepowertocallforththemilitia.TheAnti-Federalistswantedtomakesurethestateswouldhaveaccesstothemilitiatobalancethepowerfulcentralgovernment,sotheSecondAmendmentwasincorporatedintotheBillofRights.Thelanguageinthisamendmentisoftenunderstoodinalimitedsenseastherighttobeararms.However,therighttobeararmsshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextofmaintainingalocalmilitiathatcanbeusedbythestates.
ThemilitiawasunderstoodbydraftersoftheConstitutiontobeacrucialmeanstocertainendsthatcannotbebetterservedbyenlargingthestandingarmybecausethetwoinstitutionsarefundamentallydifferent.Kohn(1997)suggeststhatthemilitiaisanarmedcountervailingpowertopreventtheregularmilitaryfrombecomingtoostrongandtoensurethatcivilianshavecontrolovermilitaryaffairs.Heseesthiscountervailingpowerasnecessarytopreventtyrannyofastrongcentralgovernmentbasedonmilitarycontrolandtheadventurismofsuchagovernmentattemptingtoincreaseitsspanofcontrolbytryingtoconquerothernations.ThefoundingfatherssawexamplesoftheserisksalloverEurope.
Anotherendthatthemilitiaservesisoneofcitizenship,assuggestedbyKestnbaum(1997).Democraticsocietyisstrengthenedwhenrightsofparticipationinthedemocracyareearnedinthedefenseofthenation.Also,ademocraticarmedforcemustremainrootedinthepeoplebymakingsurethatasubstantialportiondonotseethemselvesstrictlyascareermilitarybutinsteadidentifywithciviliansandplan
toreturntocivilianlife.
ThoughtheConstitutioncallsforamilitia,itdoesnotofferdirect,specificpurchaseonthequestionofsizingtheNationalGuard.Atitsheart,theConstitutionisadocumentembodyingthesharedvaluesofoursociety,andtheexistenceoftheRCisanexpressionofthesevalues.ThefunctionoftheRCinthisinstanceistohelpmaintain
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thedemocracyandenhanceitsvalue.Decisionmakersneedtobeawareofthisfunctionwhensizingthetotalforce.
PublicAwareness/TrustofMilitaryInstitutions
TheRCservestopromotepublicawarenessandtrustofmilitaryinstitutionsbyprovidingcivilianscontactwiththemilitaryandbyprovidingmilitarymemberscontactwithciviliansociety.
CivilianContactwiththeMilitary
Thecontacthypothesissuggeststhatonerolereservistsplayiscommunicatingtheculture,structures,andgoalsofthemilitarytoawiderpublic.ThisrolehasnotgoneunrecognizedwithintheRCcommunity.McDonald(1996)exhortsreserveofficerstodeveloplinkswiththecommunityandtotrytoenhancetheimageofthereservesthroughthemedia.''Youngofficersrepresentanimportantlinkbetweenthearmedforcesandtheciviliansocietyandarefirst-classmilitaryambassadors.Theyarekeyplayersinpromotingabroaderunderstandingoftheimportanceofourmilitarydefense"(p.34).
Contactbetweenthemilitaryandsocietyprovidesanentranceforpositivemilitaryvaluesintothebroaderculture.Forexample,militarysociologistCharlesMoskosandhisassociates(e.g.,MoskosandButler,1996)havelongmadetheargumentthatthemilitaryhasahigherpercentageofAfricanAmericanmanagersthananyotheremploymentsectoroftheU.S.economy.Thesemanagersare,ofcourse,themembersoftheofficercorps.Inthemilitary,whitesaremuchmorelikelytoreportto,andtakedirectordersfrom,blacksthantheyareinthecivilianeconomy.RCmemberswhoaremanagedbyminorityofficersinthemilitarywillbeabletorecognizeandcommunicatethevalueofdiversityintheircivilianjobs.
CiviliancontactwiththemilitaryisenhancedbythefactthattheRC,
particularlytheANG,isbydesignfarmoregeographicallydispersedthantheAC.AsindicatedinFigure3.1,75percentoftheAirForceACisconcentratedin13states,whereas75percentoftheRCisspreadover25states.Foroperationalreasonsrelatedtoheavydeploymentdemand,theACcanbemademoreefficientandlessstressedbyconcentratingitonasmallernumberoflarger-scaleinstallations.IfsuchrebasingweretooccurwithintheAC,theRC'srelativelygreatergeographicaldispersalwouldtakeonevengreater
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Figure3.1ReserveComponentsAreGeographicallyDispersed
importanceasanavenuetoincreaseopportunitiesforcontactbetweenciviliansandthemilitary.
MilitaryContactwithCivilians
Theflipsideofpublicsupportformilitaryinstitutionsismilitarymembers'understandingofthelargersociety.Althoughactive-dutymembersofthemilitarymayhavesignificantcontactwithciviliansintheirdailylivesandjobs,theymayalsobeisolatedfromthem,especiallyifstationedonaremotebaseorabroad.Themilitarybrancheshavetakenconsiderablecaretodevelopculturesthatreflectcertainvalues,withaneyetowardmakingabetter,stronger,andmorecohesivefightingforce.Thesevaluesmaynotbesharedor,ifshared,followedbylargersociety.Ricks(1997)tellsofMarinesafterbootcampbeingfacedwithakindofcultureshockwhentheygohomeonleave.Civiliansare"abunchoffreaks"(p.233);"overweight,andalittlesloppy"(p.228);"self-destructive,nottrying,justgoofingaround"(p.229);''losers"(p.229);"peoplewithobnoxiousattitudes,nopolitenesswhatsoever,nasty"(p.231).OneMarine,freshoutofbootcampsays"Defendingmycountry?Well,it'snotreallymy
country.ImayliveinAmerica,buttheUnitedStatesissoscrewedup"(p.236).
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Thequotations,althoughnotarepresentativesample,aretellingandareacauseforconcern.Membersofthemilitaryaresworntoprotectandservethelargersociety.Thepotentialdangerliesinanarmedforcethatdecidesthatitisabovesocietyorthatsocietyisnotworthyofprotection.Whilewedonotconsiderthisalikelyoutcome,itistheworst-caseconsequenceofamilitarythatbecomestooremoteanddisconnectedfromthegeneralcitizenryandtheirvalues.
Infact,membersofthemilitaryareverydifferentfromciviliansintermsoftheirpoliticalaffiliation.Ina1997OlinInstitutepaper(alsocitedintheWallStreetJournal,1997),Holstifoundthatthemilitaryisnotablyconservativeandpartisan.In1976,33percentofthemilitaryand25percentofthecivilianopinionleaderssurveyedidentifiedthemselvesasRepublicans.1By1996,67percentofthemilitaryopinionleaderswereRepublicans,whereasonly34percentofthecivilianleaderswere.Thissignificant,radicalshifttotherightisevenmorepronouncedamongyoungermilitaryopinionleaders:92percentofthosebornafter1954areRepublican.TheWallStreetJournalarticlecitesanunnamedthree-stargeneralwhoclaimsthatthe"singlegreatestdangerfacingtheU.S.militarytoday[is]thepossibilitythatapoliticizedmilitarywillstaythatway,growinglessandlessresponsivetociviliancontrolovertime."
Reservistsofferabridgebetweenthemilitaryandlargersocietybecause,asfull-timeemployeeswithinandgenerallylonger-termresidentsoftheirrespectivecommunities,theyenjoygreaterembeddednessinsharedsocialstructuresthantheirACcounterparts.WhereasACairmenandofficersmayalsohavecontactwithcivilians,theircontactsaregenerallylessextensiveandlesswelldevelopedthanthatoftheirRCcounterparts.TheRCisbettersituatedthantheACtomakeknowntheAirForce'smissionsandneedstocivilians
1Inthisstudy,asurveysamplewasdrawnfrom4000opinionleaders
whosenameshadbeenderivedfromsuchgeneralsourcesasWho'sWhoinAmericaandWho'sWhoofAmericanWomen,aswellasmorespecializeddirectorieslistingleadersinoccupationsthatareunderrepresentedinWho'sWho,includingmedialeaders,politicians,militaryofficers,laborleaders,StateDepartmentandForeignServiceOfficers,andforeignpolicyexpertsoutsidegovernment.ThemilitarysampleincludedstudentsattheNationalWarCollegeandasmallernumberofsenioruniformedPentagonofficerswhosenamesweredrawnrandomlyfromtheCongressionalDirectory.
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andinabetterpositiontounderstandthevaluesandinterestsofciviliansandconveythesebacktothetotalforce.
ImplicationsfortheForceMix
Theforce-miximplicationsofincreasedopportunityformilitary/civiliancontactarerelatedtohowtheviewsandideasofaminoritygrouparerespectedbythemajority.Inthiscase,theissueiswhetherabetterappreciationofthevaluesandinterestsofthelargersocietyfoundamongmembersoftheRC(aminority)canbeeffectivelycommunicatedtomembersoftheAC(amajority).Insightcanbefoundintheliteratureonorganizations.Kanter(1977)offersatypologyofminoritygroupsbasedontheirlevelofrepresentationinanorganization.Herworkfocusesonwomenintheworkplace,butthereasoningcanbeextendedtoanysituationwhereless-representedindividualsaretryingtomakeanimpactinalargergroup.
InKanter'ssystem,auniformgroupisonewheremembersareallinonecategory.Askewedgroupisonewheremostofthepeopleareofonetype,perhapsmakingup85percentofthewhole.Membersoftheminoritygroupwouldberareenoughtoappearastokensandwouldfaceheightenedperformancepressures,sincetheirsuccessesmaybediscountedbuttheirfailureshighlypublicizedandscrutinized.Moreseriously,socialisolationwouldmakeit"difficultfor[thesemembers]togenerateanalliancethatcanbecomepowerfulinthegroup"(p.209).Intiltedgroups,thesplitislesssevere,withperhaps65percentofmembersinonegroupand35percentintheother.Kantercharacterizesthelargergroupinthisrangeasamajorityandmembersofthesmallergroupasaminorityratherthanastokens.Here,"minoritymembershavepotentialalliesamongeachother,canformcoalitions,andcanaffectthecultureofthegroup.Theybegintobecomeindividualsdifferentiatedfromeachotheraswellasatypedifferentiatedfromthemajority"(p.209).Atratiosof60:40through
50:50,themajorityandminoritymembersarebalancedandcanbecomedistinctive"subgroupsthatmayormaynotgenerateactualtype-basedidentifications''(p.209).
FortheRCtobetakenseriouslytobeabletoformacoalitionthatcanbeheardthisanalysiswouldsuggestthatmaintainingthestatusofminorityratherthantokenisnecessary.Kanterisnotclearontheproportionatwhichmembersofasubgroupceasetobetokens
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andachieveminoritystatus.2Indeed,thiscanbeexpectedtovarybysituation.However,onepossiblereadingoftheworkisthatasubgroupacquiresminoritystatuswithaslittleas20percentorasmuchas40percentofthepopulation.ThisindicatesthattheRCshouldconstituteaminimumproportionofthetotalAirForceinthe2040percentrangestoensureithassufficient"voice."ThisassumesthattheANGandAFRcanjointogetherinacoalitiontorepresenttheviewpointsofthecitizen-soldier.
Kanter'sargumentsabouttokenismandhowproportionsofminoritiesaffecttheirperceivedinfluencewerebasedonobservingfemalesintheworkplaceintheearly1970s.Inherexample,companymanagementdidnotprovidetheleadershiprequiredtoreducediscriminationagainstwomenwithintheorganization.Inmanycases,womenfounditdifficulttodotheirjobseffectivelybecauseofeffortstosubvertthematalllevelsoftheorganization.Thelevelofminorityrepresentationsheoffersasapointatwhichminoritiescanbeheard(35percent)isprobablyafunctionofthisproblematicsituation.
Incontrast,RCmembersperformingtheirjobsamongACmembersmightnotbeasnoticeableasfemaleswouldbeinapredominatelymaleenvironment.Indeed,itisquestionablewhetherACofficersandairmeninfactviewRCindividualsasbeingofdistinctandlowerstatus.Also,theAirForcedoeshaveexperienceintegratingaminoritygroupintoitsranks.ThehistoryofremovingracialbarriersblockingAfricanAmericanparticipationinthearmedservicesoffersafascinatingexampleofhowstrongleadershipenabledanorganizationtogivelietotheargumentthatsocialcohesionresultingfromracialsimilarityisacriticalfactorinunitperformance(RostkerandHarris,1993).StrongcivilianandmilitaryleadershipthatfocusedonlegislatingacceptablebehaviorsofwhitesratherthanonchangingattitudeshelpedcreatetheintegratedAirForcethatweobservetoday.
2Otherresearchongendertokenismfindsadifferentrangeofeffects.Southetal.(1982)findthat"tokenwomenarenotfoundtofacemoresevereorganizationalpressuresthannontokens"(p.587).Yoder(1991)findsthatthestudiedpressuresonwomen"occuronlyfortokenwomeningender-inappropriateoccupations,"whereasintheAirForce,RCmembersarenotininappropriateoccupations.Izraeli(1983),however,generallysupportsKanter'sworkontokenism.
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ItisextremelydoubtfulthatmembersoftheRCareinapositionanalogoustothatofAfricanAmericansbeforeintegration(orofwomeninKanter'sstudy).Incontrast,theRCiswellintegratedintothefunctioningofthetotalforce.Moreover,themessageremainsthatastrong,effective,andeducatedleadershipcanensurethatmembersoftheRCaretreatedwithrespect.Thus,webelievethataconstrainttowardtheminimum(20percent)ofKanter's"minoritystatus"rangeofthresholdswouldbesufficienttoensurethattheRChaseffectivevoiceinthetotalforce.
LinkingForceEmploymenttoPublicSupport
AftertheVietnamWar,themilitarydevelopeditstotalforcepolicy,whichithasmaintainedtothepresentday.Binkin(1993,pp.110111)offersaconsidereddiscussionofthebasisforthispolicyanditsviability.
AsrelatedbyBinkin,GeneralCreightonAbrams,afterthearmedforces'Vietnamexperience,advocatedacloseoperationalassociationbetweentheactiveArmyandtheRCtokeeptheACfrombeingsenttoawarwithouttheinvolvementoftheRC.TheRCwouldbridgethegapbetweentheactivemilitaryandAmericancitizens,sothattheactivemilitarywouldbelessisolatedincaseofwar.Hence,"ifreservesmustbeactivatedinordertosustainactiveforcesinanythingmorethanlimitedcontingencies,presidentswillbelessinclined(andpoliticallylessable)tobecomeinvolvedinmilitaryactionswithoutextensivenationaldebateandpoliticalconsensus."(Lacy,1986;alsocitedinBinkin.)
Thetotalforcepolicyincreasesthepossibilitythatcivilianswillbeacquaintedwithsomeonewhoisservinginthetheaterofwar,andpossiblysomeonewhobecomeswoundedorkilled.Inshort,sincemembersoftheRCareembeddedinsociety,theirfriendsandcoworkerswillhaveahigherprobabilityofbeingdirectlytiedto
someonemakingasacrificeforthecountry.Thetotalforcepolicybringsthewarhometoalargernumberofcivilians.Ifonlymilitarycareerprofessionalswereinvolved,theboundariesaroundwhogetskilledorwoundedcouldkeepthewaronanintellectualandless-emotionallevelforthosecivilianswithoutfriendsorcoworkerswhoareservingandsacrificing.Thus,usingtheRCensuresaninvolvedsociety.
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Binkin(pp.149151)teststhispropositionusingdatafromthePersianGulfconflict,reachingmuchthesameconclusionsasaRANDreport(RAND,1992,pp.9597).(Infactthetwoauthoritiesciteeachotheronthistopic.)BinkinplotsGalluppolldataonpublicsupportforthewaragainstreservemobilizations,showingthatsupportforthewardeclinedasreserveswerebeingcalledup.Hedoesnotdefinitivelystatethattherewasacause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenthetwofactors,buthesuggeststhatsupportmighthavedeclinedfurtheriftheconflicthadbeenlongerandthenumberofAmericancasualtieshadincreased.Publicopiniondidnotnecessarilyactasabrakeintheshortandrelativelyunbloody(forAmericans)conflict.RANDcitesanecdotalevidencethat"mobilizationofreservesalsomobilizedsupportofthewar"andthatemployerssupportedtheirreservistemployees(p.96).However,thereisnostrongevidenceeitherwaythatintegratingthereserveswiththeactivemilitaryhelpsmaintainsupportordiminishesit.
RAND(1992)concludesthatifdecisionmakersconsiderthatintegrationofthecomponentsoftheforceisimportantandnecessary,thenthisisapoliticalreasontoshapetheforceinsuchaway.Theresultinginteractionproducesacitizenrythatknowsandcaresmoreaboutthemilitaryandtheinstitutionandmaybemorelikelytoparticipateknowledgeablyinanypublicdebateaboutforceemployment.Peoplemaybemorelikelytosupportfundingforthearmedforcessothatthosetheyknowwillbebetterpreparedintheeventofmilitaryaction.
However,theseanalysesofferlittleornopurchaseontheproportionofthetotalforcethatmustbeintheRC.IfthethesisunderlyingthetotalforcepolicyisvalidthatusingtheRCimposesacheckoninappropriatemilitaryactionandcreatespublicsupportforthoseactionsthatareundertakenresearchershaveofferednohypothesesonhowmanypeoplemusthavecontactwithRCmemberstoobtainthose
effects.
RepresentativeForceIssues
Krislov(1974)suggeststhatonemethodofsecuringbroadsocialsupportforgovernmentpolicyandactionistodrawarepresentativesegmentofsocietyintothegovernment.Doingsopromotesbothinvestmentinthevaluesofandidentificationwiththeinterestsofthe
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governmentonthepartofallsegmentsofsociety.AppliedtotheAirForceforce-mixquestion,thisperspectivewouldarguetoincreaseproportionsoftheforcethataremoredemographicallyrepresentativeanddecreasethosethatarenot.Todeterminetherelativerepresentativenessofthevariouscomponents,wereviewedDoDdemographicdataonofficersandenlistedpersonnelbothatcurrentstrengthsandamongnewaccessions(DoD,1997).
GenderDiversity
Figure3.2showsthepercentageofwomenintheofficercorpsaswellasnewofficeraccessionsinfiscalyear1996.Figure3.3doesthesamefortheenlistedranks.
Ofthethreebranches,theAFRhasbyfarthehighestpercentageofactivefemaleofficers,atover24percent,whiletheANGhastheleastdiverseofficercorpsofthethreecomponents,beingonly13.4percentfemale.
Allthreecomponentsareattractingfemaleofficersatahigherpercentagethantheircurrentrepresentation,withnewfemaleofficers
Figure3.2PercentageofFemaleOfficersandOfficerAccessionsinthe
TotalForceAmongThreeAFComponents,FY1996
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Figure3.3PercentageofFemaleEnlistedMembersandEnlistedAccessions
intheTotalForceAmongThreeAFComponents,FY1996
intheAFRmakingupalmost28percentofthetotal.Ifthetrendismaintained,itwillleadtoagradualincreaseinthepercentageoffemaleofficersinthethreebranches.Thus,thelevelofgenderdiversityamongofficersintheAirForcecouldbeincreasedbymakingtheAFRlargerrelativetotheothertwocomponents.
Fortheenlistedcorps,theAFRisagainthemostgender-representativecomponent.Infiscalyear1996,19.1percentofthemembersoftheAFRwerefemale,whereaswomenmadeup16.9percentoftheACand15.1percentoftheANG.TheANGagainhastheleastgenderdiversityintheAirForce.
However,ofthethreecomponents,theACisrecruitingthelargestpercentageofenlistedfemales,at26percent.Ifthistrendcontinues,theACshouldsurpasstheAFRasthemostgender-representativecomponent.TheAFRlagsbehind,with21.4percentofitsnewrecruitsbeingfemale.Again,theANGattractsthesmallestproportionofnewfemalerecruits,at17.7percent.However,allthreecomponentsarerecruitingfemalesathigherlevels,whichovertime
willincreasethepercentageoffemaleenlistedairmen.Thus,thelevelof
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genderdiversityamongenlistedpersonnelintheAirForcecouldbeincreasedbymakingtheAFRandAClargerrelativetotheANG.
Wenotethatouranalysesofgenderrepresentationwereconductedatanaggregateratherthananoccupationallevel.Someoccupationshavebeen,historically,morefemale-intensivethanothers.Thus,itispossiblethatgenderdifferencesamongthecomponentsreflectdifferencesintheoccupationalmixamongthecomponents.
Racial/EthnicDiversity.Figure3.4breaksdownthenumbersfortheofficercorpsandforofficeraccessionsofthethreecomponentsinfiscalyear1996intermsofracial/ethnicdiversity.Figure3.5providesthesameinformationforenlistedpersonnel.
Asthefigureshows,therearefewmajorracial/ethnicdifferencesamongACandRCofficers.TheANGhasthehighestpercentageofHispanicofficers,whereastheACleadsinpercentageofblacks.However,thedifferencesarenotgreat.
Figure3.4PercentageofMinorityOfficersandOfficerAccessionsAmong
ThreeAFComponentsintheTotalForce,FY1996
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Figure3.5PercentageofMinorityEnlistedPersonnelandEnlistedAccessions
AmongThreeAFComponentsintheTotalForce,FY1996
Forofficeraccessions,thereareagainonlyslightdifferencesinrecruitmentpatternsofminorities.TheANGexceedstheothertwocomponentsinitsrecruitmentofHispanics.TheAChasthehighesttotalproportionofminorityaccessions.
AsshowninFigure3.5,theenlistedranksaremarkedlymoreracially/ethnicallydiversethantheofficercorps.Inparticular,theAFRhasahighpercentageofblacks,at18percent.DifferencesamongthecomponentsregardingparticipationbyHispanicsarelessmarked,withtheANGhavingthehighestproportioninitscurrentstrengthandtheACrecruitingthelargestproportion.TheANGleadsinthe"other"category,whichincludesAsians,NativeAmericans,andPacificIslanders.Wecannotdrawclearconclusionsaboutwhichcomponentdoesthebestjobofrecruitingandretainingminorities.
ImplicationsfortheForceMix
WefoundthattheRCismorediversethantheACinsomegenderandracial/ethniccategoriesandlessdiverseinothers.Thus,representativenessdoesnotargueforshiftingtheproportionofthe
forcetowardeithertheRCortheAC.
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InfluenceofVeteransInSociety
Holdingforcecostsconstant,alargerRCproportionresultsinalargertotalforceand,arguably,producesmoreveterans(memberswithsomemilitaryservice).3Theinfluenceoftheseveteranscanbepositiveindefense-relatedmatters.Inaddition,veteranshavetiestoothersinsocietyandcanthusincreaseunderstandingofthemilitaryamongthosewithwhomtheycomeintocontact.
ButlerandJohnson(1991)studiedhowAmericansfeltaboutfiscalsupportforthemilitary(spendingonarmsandforeignaid,inparticular),theobligationtoserve,theoverallqualityofthemilitary,andminoritiesinthemilitaryandopportunitiesforminoritiesserving.TheyanalyzeddatafromtheGeneralSocialSurvey,abiennialnationalsurveyofadultsnotlivingininstitutionalsettings(suchashospitals,prisons,andmilitarybarracks).Theypooleddatafrom1982,1983,and1984togenerateasamplewithalargernumberofveteransandAfricanAmericans.Generally,theyfindthat,holdingotherfactorsconstant,veterans,olderpeople,andsouthernersaremorelikelytosupportthemilitary,whilemorehighlyeducatedpeoplearelesssupportiveofthemilitary.Characteristicshavinglittleeffectincluderaceandincome.Ofimportancehereistheirfindingthatmilitaryserviceincreasessupportforthemilitary.
Ivie,Gimbel,andElder(1991)analyzeddataonmenandwomenwhowereborninthe1920stoseeifmilitaryexperiencesinWorldWarIIandKoreaaffectedtheirattitudestowardthemilitary.Theyfindthatbeingaveteranorbeingmarriedtoaveteran,havingachildwhoservedinthemilitary,andmaintainingsocialtieswithfriendsfromtheserviceincreasesupportformilitarypreparedness.4
3Holdingcostsconstant,alargerRCproportionresultsinasmallerACandanRCthatincreasesbymorethanthedecreaseintheAC.SomeproportionofthelargerRCrequirementwouldbemetusingnonprior
serviceresources.IfthosenonpriorserviceresourcesturnoveratthesameorhigherratesthanthesmallernumberofACresourcestheydisplace,theresultwillbemoreveterans.Althoughwedonothaveseparateturnoverforprior-serviceandnonpriorservicereservists,wenotethatturnoverintheRCisgenerallyhigherthanturnoverintheAC.4Supportformilitarypreparednessismeasuredbyafive-pointscalerangingfrom"stronglydisagree"to"stronglyagree,"indexingsupportforthefollowingfourstatements:(1)Astrongdefenseshouldbethenumber-oneprioritytoday,rankingabovesocialneedsandabalancedbudget;(2)RegistrationforthedraftisneededtoensureastrongAmerica;(3)Militarytrainingshouldreceivestrongsupportinourcollegesand
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Similarly,ButlerandJohnson(1991)findthatveteranstatusispositivelyrelatedtosupportforthemilitary.
MilitaryexperienceisincreasinglyrareamongmembersofCongress.Withinthelast25years,thepercentageofmemberswithanymilitaryexperiencehasfallenfrom70.6to35.8percent.5WithfewerveteransinCongress,thereisagreaterpossibilitythatmilitaryappropriationswillfallshortofneeds.6
PoliticalInfluenceoftheRC
MembersoftheRCcanusetheirextensivepoliticalnetworkstogarnernationalsupportforthearmedforces.TheANG,inparticular,hasmembersinall50stateswhocanlobbytheircongressionalrepresentativesinsupportoftheirgoals.EvenwithoutactivelobbyingbytheRC,congressionalinterestinmaintainingalocalmilitarypresence,perhapsbecauseofjobs,willenhancethelikelihoodthatCongresswillvoteinsupportofparticularACorRCgoals.
OneexampleistheperpetualoverfundingofC130transportaircraftprocurement.Yearafteryear,Congress,perhapslobbiedbyeithertheaircraftmanufacturerorlocalreservecomponents,fundsprocurementofmoreC130sthantheAirForcerequests.7TheextrasfindahomeintheRC,whereinfactalargeportionoftheairliftmissionexists.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspagepage)
highschools;and(4)Allmenabove18shouldberequiredtotakeacertainamountofmilitarytraining.5Dataforthe93rdCongressarederivedfromRosterofUnitedStatesCongressionalOfficeholdersandBiographicalCharacteristicsofMembersoftheUnitedStatesCongress,17891993:MergedDataFile,9thInter-UniversityConsortiumforPoliticalandSocialResearch,1993,AnnArbor,Michigan.Dataforthe105thCongressarederivedfromCongressionalUniverse(worldwidewebservice),CongressionalInformationService,
Bethesda,Maryland(accessedDecember17,1998).6AsstatedintheIntroduction,theobjectiveoffosteringalargernumberofveteransinsocietyandingovernmentisnottomaximizemilitaryresourcesbutrathertohelpcreateconditionsinwhichdemocraticsocialandpoliticalprocessesresultinanappropriatelevelofmilitaryresources.7ThisraisesthequestionofwhethertheAirForceinfactreliesonknowledgethatthiswillhappenwhenitputstogetheritsbudgetrequestsforaircraftacquisition.IfprogrammersknowthatCongressisgoingtoforceacertainnumberofairliftaircraftontheAirForce,theAirForcecanaskformorefightersorbombersthanifithadtohusbanditsresourcesmorecarefully.
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Accordingtothisargument,RCpoliticalinfluenceshouldbeharnessedinsupportofallnewweaponacquisitionsbyplanningforinitialintroductionofnewweaponsinbothACandRCunits.Butshouldforce-mixdecisionsbeshapedtoinvokepoliticalsupport?Ourviewisthatthepublicinterestisgenerallynotwellservedwhenanagencyattemptstobendnationalprioritiestowarditsownendsthroughpoliticaladvocacyratherthanshapingitsmissiontowhatthecitizenrydeemsimportant.Thisisparticularlytrueifalesseffectiveorefficientforcemixwereadoptedtogainpoliticaladvantage.
WedistinguishsuchdirectpoliticalRCinfluencefromamoreindirectsort,whichisthedevelopmentofpublicsupportforthearmedforcesthroughvotingandothermanifestationsofpoliticalpreferences.Themilitaryneedspublicsupporttosustainitselfinanenvironmentoflimitedresources,wheredefenseisjustoneofmanypublicgoodscompetingfortaxdollars.TheRC,withitstiestothelargersociety,iswellpositionedtocommunicatetheimportanceofdefenseandnationalsecuritypolicytoacitizenrywhosemoreimmediateconcernsandinterestsmaylieinotherdirections.WeargueinthisreportthattheRC'sindirectinfluencethroughtheprocessesofidentification,embeddedness,andinvestmentplaysasignificantroleingeneratingpublicsupportforthemilitary.
StateMissionsoftheANG
Unliketheothercomponentsofthearmedservices,theNationalGuardhasastaterole.Itcanbecalleduponbystategovernorstoofferemergencyassistanceinadisasterthatmaypresentproblemstoanoverwhelmedcitizenry.Examplesaresnowstorms,floods,earthquakes,andfires,aswellasemergenciesresultingfromsocialunrest.
Brown,Fedorochko,andSchank(1995)examinedthenatureofthestatemissionsoftheNationalGuardtodetermineiftheGuardhad
sufficientmanpowertofulfillthem.Theycollectedsurveydatafrom49ofthe54NationalGuardentities(inall50states,plustheDistrictofColumbia,Guam,PuertoRico,andtheU.S.VirginIslands).Inaddition,theyconducted15sitevisitstostudyindepthstaterequirementsfortheGuardandhowwelltheyhadbeenmet.The
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studyincludedboththeArmyNationalGuardandtheAirNationalGuard.
TheauthorsexaminedcaseswheretheGuardwascalledouttorespondtostateemergencies,includingHurricaneAndrewthatstruckFloridaandLouisianain1992,HurricaneInikithatdamagedHawaiiin1992,theenormousMidwesternfloodsin1993thatputhugeportionsofWisconsin,Missouri,Iowa,Illinois,SouthDakota,Nebraska,Kansas,andNorthDakotaunderwater,andthe1992LosAngelesriotsthatfollowedtheacquittalofthepoliceofficerswhohadbeenaccusedofbrutalizingRodneyKing.Ineachofthesecases,NationalGuardsmennumberinginthethousandswerecalleduptorespondtothecrisisconditions.8
ThestaffingoftheNationalGuardwasmorethanadequatetoperformallthestatemissionsforwhichitwascalledupon.TheGuardusuallybackedupstateresourcesandtheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)ratherthanservingasafront-lineresponsetodisaster.TheremaynotbeenoughNationalGuardcapacitytofullyresolvepeakdisasters,butthesepeaksarerelativelyrare,andtheGuardisonetoolinanadequatepackageofemergencyreliefthatissufficienttorespondtocivilemergencies.BrownandhiscolleaguesdonotrecommendincreasingthesizeoftheGuardtorespondtopeakdisasters,whichtheycharacterizeasanuneconomicalapproach.SizingtheGuardtodealwithraredisasterswouldmeancreatingaforcethatisunderusedthevastmajorityofthetime.Ifincreasedcapabilityshouldbeconsiderednecessary,regionalpactsbetweenthestateGuardorganizationscouldinstitutionalizeandeasethesharingofresourcesamongthestates.TheexampleoftheOklahomaAirGuardairliftingfeedtocattleinNewMexicowhiletheNewMexicoGuardrespondedtootheraspectsofaheavysnowstormshowstheviabilityofthisoption.
Brownetal.(1995)reportthatonlyasmallfractionofANGunitsormembersserveonstatemissionsinanygivenyear(andinmanyyearsthereisnorequirementfortheirservices).Thus,evena
8MajordisasterstendtorequireresourcesmorelikelytobefoundintheArmyNationalGuardthanintheAirNationalGuard.However,theANGcontributesspecialcapabilities,suchasairliftandcivilengineering,inadditiontogeneral-purposemanpower.
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significantlyreducedRCwouldnotnegativelyaffecttheabilityoftheANGtoperformitsstatemissions.
StatemissionsoftheANGgarneragreatdealofpositivepublicityfromthemediaandsupportfromthepublic,increasinginterestandinvestmentintheinstitution.Moreover,citizenswhomayhavelittleornocontactwiththemilitaryoritsmembersinusualtimesmayhavesignificantcontactduringdisasters,furtherdeepeningthismeansofattachmentbetweenciviliansocietyandthearmedforces.ThisisprobablynotasufficientreasontosetaflooronthesizeorproportionoftheANGinthetotalforce.
HowSocialandPoliticalConsiderationsConstraintheForceMix
Ourcurrentresearchseekstodeterminethedegreetowhichsocialandpoliticalconsiderationsshouldconstraintheforcemix.WeillustrateourfindingsusingthetwoconstraintlinesdepictedinFigure3.6.NotethatthelinesinFigure3.6arelabeleddifferentlyfromthecorrespondinglinesinFigure2.2.ThelabelsintroducedheremorefullyreflectthevocabularyandconceptsintroducedinChapterThree.OnelinerepresentstheRCproportionofthetotalforceneededtoprovideasufficientlevelofsocialidentification,embeddedness,andinvestment(IE&I)linkingthearmedforcestothelargersociety.TheotherlinerepresentstheminimumproportionthattheRCmustoccupytohaveameaningfullevelofrepresentationandinfluencewithinthetotalforce.
TheIE&Iconstraintlineisslopedbutitsprecisepositioncannotbedetermined.Wecantheorizethatasthetotalforcedecreasesinsizeandismoregeographicallyconcentrated,theRCwouldplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinmaintainingcontactwiththelargersociety.TheRCwouldhavetooccupyanincreasinglylargerproportionofthetotalforcetoprovidetherequiredmassina
sufficientnumberofcommunities.Thisexplainstheslopeoftheline.However,wehavenobasisforestimatingthemassorcommunitypenetrationneededtoobtainthesebenefits.Thus,thepositionofthelineisunknown.
Aminoritystatusconstraintisshownat20percent.Asdiscussedearlier,thisisatthelowendofKanter'srangeofthresholdsbetween
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Figure3.6LocusofPoliticalandSocialConstraintsontheForceMix
atokenandminoritylevelofrepresentationforaseparatelyidentifiablesubgroupwithinaninstitution.WeofferthisconstraintwiththecaveatthatKanter'stheorywasdevelopedafterobservingdemographicminoritiesthataremoreclearlydistinctthanaretheactiveandreservecomponentsofthearmedservices,andinasituationwhereleadershipdidnotworktoensurethattheminoritywastakenseriously.Generalizingthetheorytoapplyitintheforce-mixcontextmustbedonewithcaution.
Finally,weofferacaveatthatAirForceforce-miximplicationscannotbeconsideredinisolationfromthoseoftheotherarmedservices.Inmanycases,thesocialandpoliticalfunctionsthatarepartofthelogicofastrongRCareservedsimilarlybytheArmyandtheAirForceNationalGuardsandReserves.TheArmyRCismuchlargerthantheAirForceRC,andpresumablyhowtheArmyaddressestheforce-mixquestionwouldhavemoreofaneffectonthefeedbackloopbetweenthemilitaryandsocietythanwouldtheforcemixwithintheAirForce.
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ChapterFourReadinessAndAvailabilityInthischapter,wediscusseffectiveness:howwellRCunitsservemilitaryneedsrelativetosimilarlyconfiguredACunits.Toanswerthisquestion,weconsideredtwoaspectsofeffectiveness:thereadinessofaunittoperformitsintendedmilitaryfunctionsandtheavailabilityofaunitforemploymentbynationalcommandauthorities.Readinessdependsontheunit'saccesstoresources(personnelandequipment)andtoprocesses(trainingandmaintenance)neededtokeeptheseresourcescombat-ready.Availabilitycombineselementsofresponsiveness(howsoonisaunitavailable)andduration(forhowlongisitavailable).IfACandRCunitssystematicallydifferineitherofthesetwoaspects,effectivenesswillbeaffectedbytheforcemix.
Readiness
Generally,modernRCairassetsreceivemuchpraisefortheircombateffectiveness.Forexample,RCunitsandaircrewsservedduringoperationsDesertShieldandDesertStormwithlittlereadinessdifferencesbetweenthemandtheirACcounterparts(RAND,1992,pp.5657).SimilarevidenceexiststhatRCunitsperformwellwhendeployedforcurrentpeacetimecontingencyoperations.1
1AcurrentjointforcecombatoperationscenterdirectorsaidthattherewasnodiscernibledifferencebetweenRCandACunitsdeployedinhisareaofresponsibility.HeclaimedthatonlyminimallocalareacheckoutwasrequiredforexperiencedRCunits.Anotherobserverattributedonlyaverageorbelow-averageperformancetoRCcombatrescueunits,someofwhicharrivedatforwardoperatingareaslackingbasiccombatrescue
skills.ThisobserversaidRCrescueunitsmaynothaveadequateaccessto
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Althoughactualperformanceincombatisthebestreadinessindicator,itcannotbeobservedduringpeacetime.Thus,wemustlookatavailablepeacetimereadinessindicatorstodeterminehowRCunitscomparewithACunits.SomemeasuresofreadinessareavailablefromthejointreadinessreportingstructuretheStatusofResourcesandTrainingSystem(SORTS).Otherindicatorsincludeoperationalreadinessinspections(ORIs)andexerciseswhereRCunitsperformwiththeiractivecounterparts.SORTSmeasuresinputstoreadinesspersonnelstatus,equipmentstatus,andtrainingwhereasinspectionsandexercisestendtomeasureoutputsoroutcomesmoreakintoactualcombatcapabilities.
PeacetimeReadinessIndicators
Asaninputmeasure,SORTSprovidesalimitedmeansforbenchmarkingunits.AirForceunitsgenerallymaintainahighernaturalstateofreadinessthantheotherservicesinboththeACandRC,andSORTSrevealslittledifferencebetweenRCandACairunits.
ORIresultsalsoshowlittledifferencebetweenACandRCunits,althoughtheprocessforRCunitscanbesomewhatdifferentfromthatforACunits.2Theinspectionteamincludesaugmenteesfromthegainingcommandandmucheffortisinvestedinmakingsurethattheprocessmirrorstheactiveprocessforlikeunits.FewdifferencesbetweentheACandRCwerefoundinORIresultsfortheyears19921996(seeFigure4.1).Overallratings(onascaleof1to11)areslightlylowerforRCunits,althoughtheyarestillwellinthesatisfactoryrange.Forfighterunits,theoverallscoresaresomewhathigherforRCunitsthanforACunits.3
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rangesandotherforcesnecessarytotraintothesamelevelasactive-dutycombatrescueunits.Inaddition,theseunitsmaybemoreactivelyengaged
withstateandlocalmissions,whichbuildbasicairmanshipbutdolittleforthemoredemandingcombatrescuemissionwhereahighdegreeofcoordinationwithsupportingforcesisrequired.Thecombatrescuemissionhasarelativelyhighmissionoperationstempoforthetotalforce.2DoingwellontheORIinmostRCunitsishighlydesired,justasitisintheactiveforce.OnereservisttoldRANDthatthefirstquestionaskedduringhisinitialhiringinterviewwashiswillingness(andability,givencivilianemployment)tomakehimselfavailablefortheunitORI.3UnpublisheddatagatheredfromAirCombatCommand,officeoftheInspectorGeneral,byRANDresearchersWillardNaslundandCraigMoore.
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Figure4.1AverageORIRatings,19921996
RCunitshavehistoricallydoneverywellinvariouscombatcrewcompetitions.ThiscouldbetheresultofanRCunithavinghigheraveragetotalcareerandmissiondesignseries(MDS)flyingtimeandgreaterexperienceoverallthanasisterACunithas.ButcompetitionsmaynotbeanappropriatereadinessgaugeforRCorACperformance,becausetheflightandmaintenancecrewswhoparticipatearethebest-of-the-best.However,ahigheraveragenumberoftotalcareerflyinghoursandmoretimewiththeunitaremajorstrengthsthatRCaircrewsbringtothetotalforce.ThisdifferenceinexperiencewillincreaseasanticipatedshortagesofACpilotsemerge.4
4Operationspersonnelatamixed-forceactivewingtoldRANDthatsomecombatfightersquadronshad4050percentofpersonnelwithlessthantwoyearsofactiveflyingexperiencebeyondtheirinitialmissionqualification(RANDinterviews,AprilMay1998).
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UnderlyingFactorsExperience,Training,andOperationalIntegration
WeidentifiedthreefactorsthatunderlietheRC'sreadinessparitywiththeAC.First,asmentionedabove,RCpersonnelgenerallyhavemoreunit-specificandaircraft-specificexperiencethantheirACcounterparts.Second,RCaircrews,despitehavingfeweravailabledutydays,comeclosetoachievingqualitativelywhatACunitsachievewithhighernumbersintheirtrainingprograms.Third,relativelysmallRCelementscanbereadilyintegratedwithotherRCandACelementstoformprovisionalunitsforemployment.
Experience
ExperiencelevelsinRCunitsaregenerallysignificantlyhigherthantheyareinACunitsforseveralreasons.First,manymembersofRCunitshavepriorACexperience.Second,RCaircrewstendtoremainincockpitflyingdutiesfarlongerthanACaircrews,whomustrotatebetweenstaffandcockpitassignments.Asanexample,Table4.1showsindicatorsofexperienceforpilotsintwoB52squadrons,oneintheRCandoneintheAC.
Training
ThetrainingprogramforanRCunitgenerallycontainsthesamecategoriesoftrainingmissionsasthetrainingprogramofanACunitwithasimilarmission,butwithfewermissionsrequiredinsomecases.Table4.2shows,forexample,thenumberofannualtrainingmissionsforcomparableRCandACunits.Annualmissionrequirementsareidenticaltomaintainabasicmission-capablestatus(forpilotsinstaffpositions),butcombatmission-readystatus(forpilotsinlinecockpitpositions)requiresfewermissionsintheRC.Someobserversbelievethatgenerallyhigherexperiencelevels
Table4.1AverageFlyingHoursandCombatExperienceof
PilotsinTypicalRCandACB52Units
Indicator RC ACTotalhours 32661809B52hours 22441446Instructor/evaluatorhours 621 464Proportionofpilotswithcombatexperience
60% 12%
SOURCE:OfficeofAirForceReserve,HeadquartersUSAF,dataasofApril1998.
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Table4.2ReadyAircrewProgram(RAP)AnnualTrainingMissions
BasicMissionCapable CombatMissionReadyInexperiencedExperiencedaInexperiencedExperienceda
F16,Block40AC 72 60 116 96ANG 72 60 90 76
A10AC 72 60 102 90ANG 72 60 90 72SOURCE:DirectorateofTraining,HeadquartersAirCombatCommandRAPtaskingmessagesforJuly1998toJune1999.aExperiencedpilotsarethosewhoexceedanestablishedflying-hourthresholdthatvariesbyMDS.
permitRCunitstomaintainthesameproficienciesasACaircrewsevenwithfewertrainingmissions.
OperationalIntegration
Tobeconsideredreadyintheprevailingenvironmentofcontingencydeployments,RCunitsmustbeabletofunctioneffectivelyinthepackagesizesatwhichtheyarecommonlyavailable.Asdiscussedinmoredetailbelow,RCparticipationinmostcontingencydeploymentsdependsonvoluntaryparticipationratherthanmobilization.DeployablepackagesofRCpersonnelandequipmentthereforetendtobeoflessthanfullsquadronscale.
Fortunately,airoperationsandtheirdirectsupportallowsmallerpackagesfrommultipleunitstobeassembledtoformprovisionalunitsatemploymentsiteswithoutunacceptablylosingoperationaleffectiveness.AnexampleistheANGRAINBOWdeploymentofANGBlock42F16C/Ds.Aircraft,manpower,andresourcesare
combinedfromthreeunitstodeployin-theaterinaunifiedmissionpackage.EachunitcommanderhasflexibilityinmeetinghisdeploymentcommitmentswhileenablingtheANGtodeployasufficientlysizedunitinpeacetime.5
5TheRAINBOWconceptdemonstratesthatintegrationofsmallerunitsispossiblewithoutmajorproblems.However,unlessunitsareexercisedonaregularbasis,unitcommandersmayfeelmorecomfortablewithmembersoftheirownsquadronsandlogisticssupport.RecentRAINBOWdeploymentshaveconcentratedondeploying
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Availability
Inthepast,availabilitywasrelativelyeasytodefineforRCunits.RCunitswerewrittenintooperationalplansinamannersimilartoACunits.RCunitsgenerallyflowintoadeploymentschedulealongsideACunits,assumingtimelymobilizationoftheRCunits.Aftermobilization,RCunitsbecomefull-timeassetsforaspecifiedduration.However,thisisnotacompletepictureofhowjointforcecommandersareusingforcestoday.Recurringandlong-durationpeacetimeforceemploymentsrequiretheRCtoparticipateinanonmobilizedstatus.Thus,availabilityofreservistsunderbothmobilizedandnonmobilizedconditionsmustbeconsidered.
AvailabilityWhenMobilized
LegallimitsonmobilizationarecontainedinTitle10,USCode,Section12301-12305.Themainprovisions,whichapplytoallreservecomponentscollectively(Army,Navy,AirForce,MarineCorps,andGuard),areasfollows:
IntimeofwarornationalemergencydeclaredbyCongress,reserveunitsandindividualsnotassignedtounitsmaybeorderedtoactivedutyforthedurationofthewaroremergencyandforsixmonthsthereafter.
Atanytime,areserveunitorindividualnotassignedtoaunitmaybeorderedtoactivedutyfornotmorethan15daysayear.
IntimeofnationalemergencydeclaredbythePresident,ReadyReserveunitsandindividualsnotassignedtounitsmaybeorderedtoactivedutyfornotmorethan24consecutivemonths.6Notmorethan1,000,000membersoftheReadyReservemaybeonactivedutyatanyonetimeunderthisprovision.
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equipmentfrommultipleunitswhiledrawingmanpowerprimarilyfromasingleunit.Researchneedstodeterminewheretheproblemsofintegrationdetractfromaunit'sabilitytoperformitsmission.However,leadership,personality,andsharedexperiencemayplaythekeyroleinsuccessfulintegrationatthetacticalunitlevel.6TheReadyReserveconsistsofallreservistsexceptthoseinaninactiveorretiredstatus.
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WhenthePresidentdeterminesitisnecessarytoaugmenttheactiveforce,SelectedReserveunitsandindividualsnotassignedtounitsandaspecialmobilizationcategoryoftheIndividualReadyReservemaybeorderedtoactivedutyfornotmorethan270days.7Notmorethan200,000membersoftheSelectedReservemaybeonactivedutyunderthisprovisionatanyonetime,ofwhomnotmorethan30,000maybemembersoftheIndividualReadyReserve.
TheprovisiontorecalltheSelectedReserveforperiodsupto270dayswasaliberalization,in1994,ofpreviouslawthatallowedacall-upof90daysplusa90-dayextension.TheprovisionforaspecialmobilizationcategorywithintheIndividualReadyReservewasaddedin1998.
Theseprovisionslimittheavailabilityofreservistsinseveralways.Limitsonthedurationofcall-upsandonthenumbersallowedonactivedutyaresuchthattheACmustbeusedtomeetmanycontingencies,especiallythoseinwhichdeclarationofanationalemergencyisdeemedinappropriateorundesirable.AlthoughitisonlynaturalthattheACshouldbethefirstoptionconsideredtomeetmostcontingencies,decisionmakersshouldconsiderthelegallimitationsonRCavailabilityindeterminingtheforcemix.Ingeneral,thetotalforceshouldbesizedsothattheACcanmeetallbut200,000manpowerrequirementsinapeacetimecontingencyor1,000,000manpowerrequirementsinanationalemergencyshortofdeclaredwar.
Anotherlimitationonavailabilityistherequirementthatreservistswhoareorganizedandtrainedinunitsmustberecalledwiththeirunitsratherthanindividually.Asapracticalmatter,relativelysmallunitpackages(unittypecodes,orUTCs)canbespecifiedinmobilizationplans.Still,thisprovisioncouldimpedetheflexibleandefficientuseofreservistsinsomecircumstances.
7TheSelectedReserveconsistsofindividualswhoparticipateininactive-dutytrainingperiodsandannualtraining.TheindividualReadyReserveconsistsofReadyReservememberswhoarenotintheSelectedReserve.ThespecialmobilizationcategoryofIndividualReadyReservistssubjecttocall-upundertheprovisioncitedheremustbewithin24monthsofseparationfromactiveduty,volunteersforentryintothespecialmobilizationcategory,andingradesandskillsdesignatedbytheservicesecretaryconcerned.
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AvailabilityWhenNotMobilized
InhisFY1999AirForcePostureStatementtoCongress,ActingSecretaryoftheAirForceF.WhittenPetersstatedthattheservicehadhelpedtoreduceoperationaltemporatesforactiveunitsthroughthe
creativeuseoftheReserveandGuardunitsandincreasesinmanninginhighlystressedspecialties.However,theseeffortshaveplacedanewburdenontheRC.During1997,RCaircrewsservedanaverageof110daysinuniform,withtheirsupportteamsserving80days.(DepartmentoftheAirForce,1998,pp.23.)
Althoughthose110daysinuniformwerenotalldaysdeployedoverseas,theyweredaysthatmayhavebeenspentawayfromafull-timejob,home,andfamily.AssumingthattheRCiscurrentlyrespondingatornearitscapacitytoalleviateheavydeploymentdemands,thisnumberofdaysinuniformmaybeanapproximateupperlimitonparticipationforthepart-timeRCforce.Giventimerequiredfortrainingandotheradministrativeneeds,availabilityofpart-timersfordeploymentisconsiderablylessthanthe110daysinuniformstatedabove.
ThalerandNorton(1997)estimatedthenumberofcontingencydeploymentdaysavailableforACandRCaircrews.Assumingadesiredmaximumof120temporaryduty(TDY)daysperyearisestablishedforactiveaircrews,theycalculatedthatACaircrewsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesspendaround50TDYdaysperyearparticipatinginindividualtraining,jointexercises,andotheractivitiesnotrelatedtocontingencyoperations.Thisleaves70daysavailableforcontingencyoperations.8ThalerandNortonalsopostulatethatRCcrewsareavailablefor50daysofTDYperyear,ofwhich15daysareavailableforoverseascontingenciesafternoncontingencytraining,exercise,andotherneedsaresatisfied.ThislimithasbeenvalidatedthroughourowninterviewswithRCrepresentativesattheheadquar-
8ThalerandNortonpostulatethataircrewsinEuroperequireslightlymorenoncontingencyTDY(60days),leavingslightlyfewerdaysavailableforcontingencies(60days).
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tersandunitlevel.9ACaircrewdeploymentstoSouthwestAsiahavebeenreducedto45days,whichmaybeclosetoaminimumrotationdurationtopermiteffectivecontinuityofoperationsforfightersorcommandandcontrolaircraft.Althougha45-dayoverseasdeploymentfitswithinthepostulated50-daylimitforRCaircrews,suchadeploymentwouldnotallowenoughadditionalTDYforaREDFLAGorotherunittrainingdeploymentafterreturntothehomestation.RCunitscanrotateaircrewstodeploymentsitesinincrementsoffewerthan45days,buttheimpactofshorterrotationsonoperationaleffectivenessremainstobeexamined.
TheANGhascollectedaircrewactivitydatathathelptoputThalerandNorton'spostulatedlevelofavailabilityinperspective.Figure4.2showsthenumberofTDYdaysexperiencedbyactiveflyingaircrewsinANGwingsduringFY1997.TheaveragenumberofTDYdaysis37days,somewhatfewerthanthe50dayspostulatedbyThalerandNorton(1997).
TDYbyreservistsisincludedwithintotaltimespentinuniform.Figure4.3showsthenumberofdaysinuniformforactiveflyingaircrewsinANGwings(allpayperiodsfortraditionalguardsmenandperiodsbeyondthenormaldutydayforfull-timetechniciansandactiveGuard/Reservestatusindividuals).WesupplythesedatatohelpputtheTDYdatainperspective.
ThereisevidencethatlengthofaTDYassignmentisasimportantasthetotalyearlytimeawayindeterminingtheavailabilityofRCaircrews.AFRvolunteerratesfornormaloperations,smallcontingencies,andlargecontingenciesduring1996areshowninFigure4.4.ThedatashowasteepdropoffinvolunteersforTDYsof10daysormore.Accordingtothesedata,thereservestrategicairliftpilot,whoisofferedshorterTDYs,maybemorelikelytovolunteerthanafighterpilotorcivilengineerwhomustvolunteerinchunksof
45daysormore.
9Intervieweeshavesaidthatforsomepersonnel,50daysperyearisatthehighendofwhattheycanexpecttoprovidegiventheirfull-timeworkandfamilyresponsibilities.However,exceptasconstrainedbylaw,full-timereservistsmayhavethesameavailabilityasACmembers.
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Figure4.2FY1997TDYDaysbyANGAircrews
Figure4.3FY1997DaysinUniformbyANGAircrews
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Figure4.4AvailabilityofAFRAircrewsbyDurationofTDY
ImplicationsfortheForceMix
TheevidenceindicatesthatRCunitsareasreadyasACunitsforuseinamajortheaterwar,andhaveapproximatelythesameavailability,assumingmobilization.RCunitsmaintainahighlevelofreadiness,notwithstandingfewertrainingmissionsthanACunits,becausetheyhavehigherexperiencelevels.However,formajoroperationsshortofdeclaredwarandforcurrentpeacetimecontingencyoperations,RCunitshavelimitedavailabilityrelativetoACunits.
Givenreadinessparity,100percentoftheforcecouldbeintheRCwithnolossofeffectiveness,asindicatedbythelocusofthereadinessconstraintinFigure4.5.ThisfindingoffersnoguaranteethattheRCcouldmaintainitscurrenthighstateofreadinessinthelongrunifithadnoACasasourceofexperiencedaccessions.ThispersonnelflowconstraintwillbeconsideredseparatelyinChapterFive.
Availability,ontheotherhand,islimitedfortheRCbecauseofitspredominantlypart-timeworkforce.Becauseoflimitsonmobiliza-
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Figure4.5LocusofAvailabilityandReadinessConstraints
ontheForceMix
tion,theRCcannotsatisfycertainshort-noticeorlong-durationrequirementsspecifiedinoperationalplans.GreaterlimitsoncumulativedeploymenttimeanddurationofdeploymentrelativetotheACmeanthattheRCislessavailableformeetingcontingencyrequirements.Asthetotalforcedeclinesinsize,assumingtheseforceemploymentdemandsremainconstant,theavailabilityconstraint,asdepictedinFigure4.5,permitsadecreasingproportionofthetotalforcetobeplacedintheRC.10However,thespecificlocusofthis
10Toillustratewhythelineisslopedformajorcontingencies,considerahypotheticalMTWrequirementfor2,000,000militarypersonnel,ofwhomamaximumof1,000,000maybemobilizedreservists.Ifthetotalforceconsistsof3,000,000militarymembers,atleast1,000,000mustbeintheactivecomponentinordertomeettheMTWrequirement.ThislimitstheRCtonomorethan67percentofthetotalforce.Ifthetotalforcewerelarger4,000,000therequirementcouldbemetwithanRCofupto75percentofthetotal.Toillustratewhythelineisslopedforsmallerpeacetimecontingencies,considerahypotheticalfighterforcemix.
AssumethatACsquadronscan
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
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constraintvariesbymissionorfunction.Theavailabilityconstraintforahigh-tempoassetsuchasanAWACSunitwillbefardifferentfromtheconstraintforalow-tempoassetsuchasanairdefenseorspaceoperationsunit.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
support1200deployedaircraft-daysperyearandRCsquadronscansupport360.(TheseavailabilityestimatesarederivedinChapterSix.)Ifthetotalforcemustbesizedat20fighterwingequivalents(FWEs),eachconsistingofthreestandard-sizedsquadrons,tosupportatwo-MTWscenarioandmustsupply,say,50,000deployeddaysperyear,itcanconsistof,atmost,8.73RCFWEs,or43.6percentofthetotalfighterforce.Thecomputationsare:RCcontribution8.73FWE3squadrons360deployedaircraft-days=9428deployedaircraft-daysACcontribution(208.73FWE)3squadrons1200deployedaircraft-days=40,572deployedaircraft-daysThesumoftheRCandACcontributionstodeployedaircraft-daysis50,000.AnysubstitutionofmoreRCFWEsforfewerACFWEsresultsinfewerthan50,000deployedaircraft-days.Ifthetotalforceisreducedto16FWEsbutfacesthesamedeploymentdemand,itcanconsistof,atmost,threeRCFWEs,or19percentofthetotalfighterforce.
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ChapterFivePersonnelFlowIndividualswhoseparatefromactivedutyandsubsequentlyaffiliatewithareserveunitprovideasignificantbaseonwhichtobuildRCreadiness.YearsofexperiencegainedbyindividualsintheACandRCarenotequivalent,becauseofdifferencesinthetimeavailabletopracticemilitaryskills:38daysayearintheRC(62daysforpilots)and225daysintheAC(RAND,1992).1Itisdifficultforreservistswhohaveneverbeenonactivedutytogainproficiencyincomplexskillswiththislimitedamountofannualtraining.2Thus,RCreadinessdependsonasignificantflowofexperiencedmanpowerfromtheACtotheRC,whichimposesaconstraintonforce-mixplanning.
EarlierViewsOnPersonnelFlow
TheGatesCommission(formally,thePresident'sCommissiononanAll-VolunteerArmedForce),formedin1969tomakerecommendationsaboutthetransitionfromconscriptiontoanall-volunteerforce,recognizedthepossibleimplicationsforRCsustainability.Amongotherconcerns,theCommissionexaminedwhetheranall-volunteeractiveforcewouldsustainasufficientflowofpriorservice(PS)accessionstothereserveforcesandwhethertheremainingnonpriorservice(NPS)accessionrequirementcouldbemetfromthecivilian
1The38-dayfigureforreservistsisbasedon12monthlyweekenddrillsoftwodayseachplus14daysofactive-dutytrainingperyear.Aircrewsareauthorizedanadditional24daysofflighttrainingperiods,foratotalof62days.2Thiswouldnotbetrue,however,forreservistswhosefull-timeoccupationscloselymatchtheirreserveduties.
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recruitingpool(President'sCommission,1970,pp.109117).Withexpectedactiveandreserveforcesizes,theCommissionprojectedfeweractiveforcelossesandthereforeasmallerpoolfromwhichtorecruitPSaccessionstotheRC.However,withexpectedgainsinreserveforceretention(predicatedontheCommission'srecommendedpayenhancements),theCommissionconcludedthattheall-volunteerforcewouldyieldaratioofPStoNPSreserveaccessionsatorabovehistorical(pre-Vietnam)levels.
NPSaccessionsfelldramaticallybetween1970and1976,forcingthereservestorelyevenmoreheavilythananticipatedonPSrecruiting(BrinkerhoffandGrissmer,1986,p.214).ShortfallsinNPSaccessionscausedreservestrengthstodropsignificantlyfrom1973to1978,duringtheearlyyearsoftheall-volunteerforce.By1983,however,strengthlevelswererestoredandreserveforcescontinuedtoenjoyahighproportionofPStoNPSaccessions.ThePSproportionoftotalreserveaccessions(acrossallservices)was31.9percentin1970,risingtoapeakof79.6percentin1974,andlevelingoutat56.6percentin1982(BrinkerhoffandGrissmer,p.209).
RecognizingtheimportanceofPSpersonneltothereserves,CongressenactedtheArmyNationalGuardCombatReadinessReformActof1992,whichdirectedtheSecretaryoftheArmytoestablish''anobjectiveofincreasingthepercentageofqualifiedprioractive-dutypersonnelintheArmyNationalGuardto65percent,inthecaseofofficers,andto50percent,inthecaseofenlistedmembers,bySeptember30,1997."3Anexaminationofrelevant1989datashowedthattheArmyNationalGuardwasexperiencingPSaccessionswellbelowthesegoals.However,hadthesegoalsappliedtotheANGandAFR,theywouldhavebeenfarexceededforbothofficers(85and87percentfortheANGandAFR,respectively)andenlistedpersonnel(63and75percent,respectively)(RAND,1992,p.263).
Theactive-to-reserveflowofpilotsisespeciallymeaningfultoairRCreadiness.Becauseofthelengthofundergraduatepilottrainingandsubsequentweaponsystemqualification,mostpilotsintheairRChaveprioractiveservice.AnanalysisofDoD'sBaseForce(aplan-
3Section1111ofPublicLaw102-484,asamendedbyPublicLaws103-35,103-60,and103-337.See10USC10105.
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ningandprogrammingtemplatedevelopedin1989)revealedthatitcontainedanactive-to-reservepilotratioofabout1to0.9(RAND,1992,p.234).ThisratiowasconsideredsufficienttosupporttherequiredflowofpilotsintotheRC.However,previouslypublishedresearchdoesnotindicatehowfarthisratiocanshifttowardagreaterreserveproportionwithoutjeopardizingthesupplyofPSpilotstotheRC.
ModelingthePersonnelFlowConstraint
Theactive-to-reserveflowofpersonnelcanbemodeledbyrepresentingthedemandforPSaccessionsintheRCandtheavailabilityofexperiencedlossesfromtheactiveforce.Tocomputethereservedemand,letbetheannualaccessionrequirementforthereservecomponent,thereservecomponentstrength,andtheannualaggregatelossratefromthereservecomponent.4Assumingconstantstrengthfromyeartoyear,theannualreserveaccessionrequirementisaproductofthelossrateandthestrength:
Thisaccessionrequirementcanbecomputedfortheentirereservestrengthorforanysubsetofit.Forexample,therequirementmightbecomputedseparatelyforofficerandenlistedpersonnelorforasingleoccupationalgroupsuchaspilots.Thelossrateusedforthispurposeshould,ofcourse,correspondtothespecificstrengthsubsetofinterest.
Thetotalpooloflossesfromactivestrengthcanbesimilarlycomputedbyapplyingalossratetotheactivestrength.LetPbethePSpoolofACseparateesavailableforaccessiontotheRC,Satheactivestrength(eithertotalstrengthorsomesubsetofinterest),andtheaggregatelossratefromtheactiveforce:
4Populationvariablesareexpressedinuppercaseandrateorratiovariablesareexpressedinlowercase.
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Someactive-forcelossesmaybeeitherineligibleforentryintotheRC(e.g.,retirees)orwillnotmeetRCrequirements(becauseofgrade,yearsofservice,orothersimilarcharacteristics).Ofthoseeligibleandmeetingrequirements,somewillnotbeinterestedinaffiliatingwithanRCunit.ThePSpoolmustbeadjustedtoaccountforthesefactors.LeterepresenttheproportionofthePSpooleligibleandmeetingrequirementsandftheproportionwillingtoaffiliatewithareserveunit.TheadjustedavailablePSpool,AP,isthus:
TheratioofavailablePSrecruitstoaccessionrequirements,,isthusameasureoftheabilityoftheactiveforcetosustaintheexperienceneedsofthereserveforce,anditisafunctionofactiveandreservestrengths,activeandreservelossrates,andthereserveeligibilityandaffiliationratesofactiveforcelosses.5Insomecases,therearespecifiedvaluesforthisratio.Forexample,tomeetthecongressionalguidelinediscussedabove,theratioforArmyNationalGuardaccessionshasavalueof0.65.TheAFRplansforandobtainsPSaccessionsforvirtuallyallitspilotrequirements,sothattheratiohasavalueofapproximately1.TheANGabsorbsalargerproportionofNPSpilotaccessions,resultinginaratioofabout0.57.6Letxrepresentthedesiredratio.Therelationshipcanbeexpressedformallyas
wherexisavaluebetween0and1.
5Thisformulationassumes,forsimplification,thatPSaccessionsaffiliatewithreserveunitsinthesameyeartheyleavetheactiveforce.Inthesteadystate,theformulationholdswithoutthisassumption.6AccordingtodatasuppliedbyANG/XO,theANGlosesabout350pilotsperyear.TheANGgets180UPTslotsperyeartobefilledbyANG
members,yielding150UPTgraduatesperyearaftertrainingattrition.Theremaining200lossesarereplacedusingPSaccessions.
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ForceMixBasedOnStrength
IfadesiredvalueforxinEq.(4)isknown,theequationsforAPandArcanbeusedtosolvefortheneededratioofactivetoreservestrengths.Substitutingtheright-handsidesofEqs.(1)and(3)forArandAPyields:
Bytransformation,theminimumratioofactivetoreservestrength,,canbefound:
Givenaspecifiedvalueofxandexpectedvaluesofe,f,andtheminimumSa/Srcanbecomputed.7Forexample,usingnotionalvaluesx=1,lr=0.10,e=0.7,f=0.5,andla=0.06,Sa/Srmustbeatleast4.8(i.e.,activepilotstrengthmustbeatleast4.8timesasgreatasreservepilotstrength).ForacasemorerepresentativeofcurrentANGexperience,avalueofx=0.57mightbeused,yieldingarequiredACtoRCratioof2.7to1.
ForceMixBasedOnFighterWingEquivalents
Theforcemixisoftendiscussedintermsofaratioofactive-to-reservepersonnelstrengths.Ifso,thecalculationsabovearesufficienttoexpressthesustainabilityconstraint.Inothercontexts,themixisexpressedasaratioofactive-to-reserveunits.Notably,the
7Ingeneral,expectedvaluesshouldbeselectedsotheyproduceaconservativeestimateoftherequiredratio.Inthiscase,ahigherSa/Srratioismoreconservative.Thus,aprudentanalystwouldselectavalueforlrnearthehighendofhistoricallyobservedreservelossratesandvaluesforfandlanearthelowendoftheirhistoricallyobservedranges.
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force-structuremixisoftengivenasaratioofactive-to-reservefighterwingequivalents(FWE).8
TodeterminerequiredFWEratiosbasedonexperiencedpilotneeds,furthercomputationsarerequired.Theseadditionalcomputationswillconvertpilotstrengthstothenumberofaircrafttheycansupport.SinceFWEarealineartransformationofthenumberofoperationalaircraft,aproportionthatholdsforaircraftwillalsoholdforFWE.Theadditionalinputfactorsrequiredarecrewratiosandallowancesforpilotsinnonoperationalpositions.LetFSijbetheforcestructure(numberofaircraft)inactiveorreservecomponentiandweaponsystemj,Sijbethepilotstrength,cijthecrewratio,andoijtheproportionofthepilotforceinoperationalpositions.9Then
and
Equation(8)isexpressedasaninequalitybecause,likeEq.(6),itdenotestheminimumrationeededtosatisfypersonnelflowconsiderations.Theresultscanbesummedacrossallfighterweaponsystemstodetermineatotalforcestructuremix:
8AFWEconsistsof72operationalaircraft.9Operationalpositionsincluderatedpositionidentifier(RPI)1and2positionsinoperationalsquadrons.Nonoperationalpositionsincludeallother
pilotrequirements,includingRPI1and2positionsintrainingunits.
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Usingnotionalvaluesoa=0.6,ca=1.25,or=0.8,cr=1.25,andSa/Sr=4.8(andassuming,forthesakeofsimplification,thatthesevaluesareconstantacrossallweaponsystems),wecancomputeFSa/FSr=3.6.Translatingthisratiotoaproportion,thesenotionalfactorswouldsuggestaforce-structuremixthatisnomorethan22percentintheRC.WithSa/Sr=2.7(moreappropriatefortheANG),theresultisFSa/FSr=2,oraforcethatisnomorethan33percentintheRC.
Therequiredforce-structureratiocanbefurtherrefinedtorecognizethatreservefighterpilotaccessionrequirementscanbemetfromsourcesotherthanactive-dutyfighterpilotlosses.Somerequirementscanbemetusinglossesfromotherservicesorpilotswhoseactive-dutyflyingwasnotinfighters.Becausethesepilots,especiallythosewhohavenotflownfighters,willrequireextensivetransitiontrainingandwilldiluteexperiencelevelsinreserveunits,alimitontheproportionofreservefighterpilotaccessionstakenfromthesesourceswouldappearreasonable.Toseehowthislimitaffectstheforcemix,weintroduceanotherfactorinEq.(4).Lettbethemaximumproportionofreservefighterpilotaccessionsthatmaybetransitioningfromadifferentflyingcommunity.Iftwereset,forexample,at30percent,thenonly70percent(1t)ofthereserveaccessionsrequiredtomeetthePSfighterpilotaccessiontargetwouldhavetocomefromtheactive-dutyfighterpilotlosses.Thus,ifAPrepresentstheavailablePSpooldrawnfromactive-dutyfighterpilotlosses,Eq.(4)becomes
Eq.(6)becomes
Iftheforce-mixconstraintsarerecalculatedwitht=0.3,thestrengthratioconstraint,Sa/Sr,dropsfrom4.8to3.3andtheFWEratioconstraint,dropsfrom3.6to2.5(28percentintheRC).UsingthePSaccessionratiomorerepresentativeoftheANG,Sa/Srdrops
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from2.7to1.9andtheFWEratioconstraint,dropsfrom2to1.4(42percentintheRC).
Figure5.1capturesthesesustainabilitycalculationsgraphically.ItshowsannuallossesasasubsetoftotalACfighterpilotstrength.WithintheannuallossnumberisasubsetofthoseeligibletoaffiliatewiththeRC.Withinthatpopulationisasmallernumberwillingtoaffiliate.Thisnumber,plussimilareligibleandwillingpilotlossesfromotherthantheAirForcefighterpilotinventory,mustbelargeenoughtofillannualRCfighterpilotaccessionrequirements.
UsingtheModel
Theinputvaluesusedfortheabovecalculationsareroughestimatesdevelopedfromlimiteddatasourcesorpartiallyinformedopinion.Determiningmorepreciseexpectedvaluesforthevariousinputfactorsneededforthiscomputationisbeyondthescopeofthisstudy.However,thefactorscanbedeterminedthroughanalysisofhistori-
Figure5.1SustainabilityofRCFighterPilotRequirements
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calpersonnelflowsandexpertjudgmentonexperiencerequirements.WenotethattheQuadrennialDefenseReview(QDR)recommendedareductionoftheactivecomponenttoabout12FWEandanincreaseinthereservecomponentto8FWE.ThisyieldsanFSa/FSrratioof1.5forfighterunits,suggestingthatacloseexaminationofthesustainabilityconstraintiswarranted.
Anaircraft-denominatedforcemixcanbeanalyzedusingrequirementsformilitaryoccupationsotherthanpilot,givensomefigurecomparabletothecrewratiothatrelatesmanpowertoaircraft.However,formostotheroccupations,theRCcanabsorbanappreciableproportionofNPSaccessions.Forthoseoccupations,therequiredratioofprior-servicerecruitstoreserveaccessionrequirements(xintheequationsabove)willbemuchlessthan1,asitisforAFRpilots,orperhapsevenlessthanthe0.57weassumedforANGpilots.Thus,thepilot-basedanalysisislikelytoprovidethemosttightlyconstrainingresult.
ImplicationsfortheForceMix
AnupperboundontheproportionofthetotalforceintheRC,relatedtopersonnelflow,canbedeterminedifotherrelatedparametersareknown.TheseotherparametersarelikelytovarybymissionorMDSandalsobydifferencesbetweentheANGandAFRintheirperceivedabilitytoabsorbinexperiencedUPTgraduates.Accordingly,asdepictedinFigure5.2,theconstraintwillalsovarybymissionorMDSandbycomponent.Inthenotionalexamplesprovidedhere,thefighterforce-structureconstraintvariedfrom28percentfortheAFRto42percentfortheANG.
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Figure5.2LocusofthePersonnelFlowConstraintontheForceMix
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ChapterSixCostPaststudieshaveshownthatoperationsandsupportcostsforRCflyingunitsaregenerally,butnotuniversally,lowerthanthecostsofsimilarlyequippedactiveunits.A1990DoDreporttoCongressontotalforcepolicycomparedthecostsof11unittypesfoundinboththeACandRCandfoundlowercostsintheRCforallbutonetypeofunit(DoD,1990).Palmeretal.(1992,p.49)foundthatcostsintheRCarelowerthanthoseintheAClargelybecauseRCunitsuselessfull-timemanpowerandflyfewerhoursperyear.
Inthischapter,wewilldemonstratethatusingtotaloperationsandsupportcostsforACandRCunitsisnotsufficientinitselftoindicatetherelativecostadvantagesofonecomponentovertheother.Unitoutputsmustalsobeconsidered.Theappropriatebasisforcomparingcostsamongcomponentsiscostperrelevantoutput.
Relevantoutputswillvaryindifferentcontexts.Formeetingthedemandsofmajortheaterwars(MTWs),wherefullmobilizationofreserveforcescanbeassumed,therelevantoutputisatrainedandreadyunit.Inthiscontext,totaloperationsandsupportcostsperunitareappropriateformakingAC/RCcomparisons.ThisisthecontextandtheapproachusedinmostAC/RCcostcomparisons.Formeetingthedemandsofsmall-scalecontingencies(SSCs)ahigh-tempocontextwithmoreorlesscontinuousoperationsthatfallbelowthethresholdformobilizationofreserveforcesrelevantoutputwillbemission-dependent.Forfighterunits,forexample,itmightbethenumberofdeployedaircraft-daysperunitoftimethataunitcansupport.Forairliftunits,itmightbeflyinghoursdevotedtoproductive(i.e.,movingfreightandpassengers),asopposedto
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training,missions.WewillsuggestthattheleastcostlyforcemixformeetingMTWdemandsmaynotbetheleastcostlymixformeetingongoingSSCdemands.Thus,foragivenbudgetconstraint,force-mixdecisionmakersmayhavetomaketradeoffs.
Forseveralreasons,thischaptercontainsmoredetailsthantheprecedingchapters.First,inaddressingcost,weoftensawsignificantdifferencesinperspectivebetweentheACandtheRC.TocountersubjectiveestimatesofrelativeACandRCcosts,werelyonconcreteinformation.Second,asmentionedabove,weproposenewapproachesforevaluatingcostsinlightofthekindsofdemandsgeneratedbySSCs.Wethoughtthatconcreteexampleswouldhelptomakethecaseforthesenewapproaches.
MeetingMTWDemands:Force-StructureAvailability
ConventionalapproachestocomparingACandRCcostsforairforceshavegenerallyattemptedtocapturetheoperatingcostsofsimilarlysizedandequippedsquadrons.TheimplicitpremiseofthesecostcomparisonsisthatareservesquadronoperatingagivenMDSisequivalenttoanactivesquadronoperatingthesameMDSforsomecost-relatedpurpose.Thatpurpose,presumably,isutilizationoftheunitinanMTW,whentheoptiontomobilizereserveunitsmakesthemfullyavailableduringaperiodofsomeduration.Thus,tomeetMTWdemands,thecostofprovidingatrainedandreadyunitisthepeacetimeoperatingcostoftheunit.
Itmaybeusefultodiscussthesecostsonaperprimaryaircraftauthorized(PAA)basisratherthanaper-unitbasis,becauseunitsofthesameMDStypeoftenvaryinthenumberofPAAtheyareassigned.Anotherrefinement,pursuanttoourrecommendedcost-per-outputapproach,wouldconsiderdesignedoperationalcapabilities(DOCs),whichcanalsovaryacrossunitsofthesametype.Some
unitsare,bydesign,morecapablethanothers.
CostComparisonComplexities
Costcomparisonsbetweenactiveandreserveunitsarequitecomplex.Costanalystsmustclassifycostsasdirectversusindirect,fixed
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versusvariable,andrecurringversustransitional.Thesedistinctionsmaybeunderstoodasfollows:
Directcostsareincurredwithintheactivitybeingcosted,whereasindirectcostsareeitheroverheadcostsorcostsincurredbyotheractivitiestosupportthecostedactivity.Foraflyingsquadron,directcostsincludepayandotherpersonnelcostsofindividualsassignedtothesquadron;petroleum,oil,andlubricants(POL)consumedbythesquadron;andotheroperationsandmaintenancecosts,suchasconsumablesuppliesandparts.Indirectcostsincludeheadquartersstaffsoflargercommandstowhichtheunitisassigned,accessionandtrainingcostsneededtosustainthepersonnelstrengthsoftheunit,depotmaintenance,medicalsupport,andotherbasesupport.
Fixedcostsarethosethatwouldbeincurredwhetherornottheunitisintheforcestructure,whereasvariablecostsarethosethatareincurredonlyiftheunitisintheforcestructure.Alldirectcostsarevariable,whereasindirectcostshavefixedandvariablecomponents.Forexample,headquartersstaffsizesareunlikelytobeaffectedbytheadditionorsubtractionofagivenunit.
Marginalcostsarethosefixedandvariablecoststhatareincurredasaresultofaunitbeingpartoftheforcestructureor,conversely,thosecoststhatcouldberemovedfromtheUSAFbudgetwithoutaffectinganyotherorganizationiftheunitunderanalysisweredisestablished.
TotalcostsincludethemarginalcostsplusaproportionalcostofthesupportstructureallocatedfromtheoverallUSAFoverheadcosts,suchasheadquarters,theacquisitionorganizations,andmedicalorganizations.Totalcostdevelopmentistheobjectiveofactivity-basedcosting,whichisreceivingmuchattentionbutforwhichastraightforwardmethodologyisnotavailabletoanalystsmakingforce-structureadjustments.ThisapproachisusedforsettingDoDreimbursementratesforvariousoutputs,suchasairliftorsealift.
Thereisarecurring,orsteady-state,costlevelforongoingoperationofaunit.However,establishingordisestablishingaunitwillentailsometransitionalcostsorsavings.
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Thereisnoonecombinationofthesecostcategoriesthatisappropriateforallpurposes.Forexample,whencomparingthecostofalternativeforcestructures,suchasplacementofaunitintheACorRC,analystsshouldcomparethemarginalcostofanACorRCunit,includingdirectandindirectvariablecostsandexcludingfixedcosts.Inpractice,itisoftendifficulttoidentifyandexcludethefixedcomponentofindirectcosts,resultinginoverstatingmarginalcosts.However,ifthecostanalystistryingtodeterminethefullcostofaunit,suchasforsettingareimbursementratetorecovercostsfromanotheragency,fixedcostsshouldbeallocatedtotheunitandincludedinthecostestimate.Forquickcomparisonofmanyoptions,analystsmustgenerallyconfinetheirattentiontorecurringcostsonly.However,astheoptionsbecomeconcrete,theproperapproachistoconsidertransitionalcostsaswell.Thisrequiresanalyststodevelopcostsforaseriesofpost-decisiontimeperiodsandtodiscountthemtothedecisionpoint.However,transitionalcosts,especiallyforindirectcosts,maybedifficulttodetermine.
Toaddtothecomplexity,categorizingcostsasdirect/indirect,fixed/variable,andmarginal/totaldependsontheunitofanalysis.IfoneisconsideringthemarginalcostofaddingordeletingsquadronsfromtheACortheRC,thesquadronistheunitofanalysis.Allcostsincurredwithinthesquadronareregardedasdirect,variablecosts.Ataless-aggregatelevel,onecouldconsiderincreasingordecreasingthenumberofPAAinasquadron.Inthatcase,thePAAwouldbetheunitofanalysis.Certainsquadronoverheadcostswouldberegardedasfixed;costsrelatedtothenumberofPAAintheunitwouldberegardedasdirectandvariable.Atanevenless-aggregatelevel,thenumberofflyinghoursperPAAcouldbetheunitofanalysis.CertainownershipcostsofaPAAwouldberegardedasfixed;costsrelateddirectlytoflyinghourswouldberegardedasvariable.Inthisstudy,wegenerallytreatthesquadronastheunitofanalysis.
CostComparisonResults
SeveralrelativelyrecentstudiesbyDoD(1990),theInstituteforDefenseAnalysis(IDA)(Wilsonetal.,1992),andRAND(Palmeretal.,1992)havecomparedthecostsofselectedunittypesintheACandRC.FindingsareshowninTable6.1.Itisnotclearthattheauthorsofthesestudieshavesucceededinisolatingthemarginalcostsof
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Table6.1RecurringPeacetimeCostsforSelectedUnitTypesPreviousCost
ComparisonStudies(Costsin$millions/annualflyinghours[FH])
Unit Crew Active ANG AFRType PAA RatioSource Cost FH Cost FH CostF16 24 n.s.aDoDb 64.8 8134 48.8 5064 51.6 4682F16C/D 24 n.s. IDAc 91.7 8134 58.7 5064 62.4 4682F16 24 n.s. RANDd 63.6 unk 36.0 unk 38.4 unkKC135 10 n.s.DoD 36.3 2840 44.2 3500 42.1 3801KC135 10 1.27IDA 47.5 2840KC135 10 1.5 IDA 51.1 3500 54.2 3801KC135 10 n.s. RAND 35.0 unk 30.0 unk 32.0 unk
(tenant) (tenant)KC135 10 n.s. RAND 34.5 unk 48.0 unk
(host) (host)an.s.=notspecified;unk=unknown.bSource:DoD(1990),Table5.CostsindicatedareinFY1992dollars.cSource:Wilsonetal.(1992).ThispaperisrelatedtoDoD(1990).Itincludesthesamedirectandaverageannualequipmentcostsplusinfrastructurecosts.dSource:Palmeretal.(1992).CostsindicatedareinFY1993dollars.
unitoperation,oreventhattheyintendedtodosoineverycase.Almostcertainly,theseestimatesincludesomeallocationsoffixedcosts.
Althoughthereappearstobesomeconsistencyamongthecostsreportedbyvariousstudies,therearesignificantsimilaritiesanddifferencesintheunderlyingdata.TheDoDandIDAstudieswerecompanionpieces.1TheDoDtotalcostfiguresarecomposedofdirectunitcosts,definedaspersonnelcosts,operatingcosts,andsomethingakintoadepreciationcostforunitequipment.TheIDAtotalcostincludestheseelementsplusanallocatedinfrastructurecost.TheRANDfiguresincludedirectcostssuchaspersonnelandconsumables,butalsodepotmaintenanceanitem
thattheIDAreport
1TheDoDstudygroupdidsomeofitsownanalysisandcommissionedseveralsupportingstudiesbyfederallyfundedresearchanddevelopmentcenterswhosereportsweretobepublishedseparately.TheIDAstudywasoneofthose.
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includesininfrastructurecostsandindirectcostssuchasbaseoperatingsupportandtraining.
Thesearepeacetimecosts.IntheeventofanMTW,mobilizationofRCunitswouldmaketheirpayandflyinghourscomparabletoACunitsandhigheroperatingtemposwoulddriveupthecostsofbothACandRCunits.
PaststudieshavegenerallyshownthatRCunits,flyingfewerhoursandrelyingtoasignificantextentonpart-timelabor,arelesscostlythanACunits.TheF16datashowninTable6.1aretypicalofthesestudies.TheKC135,alsoshowninTable6.1,isananomalyintheseearlierstudies,RCKC135unitsweregenerallyfoundtoflymorehoursandthereforetobemorecostlythanACunits.
TheofficeoftheDeputyAssistantSecretaryoftheAirForceforCostandEconomics(SAF/FMC)maintainsaunitcostingmodelanddatabasecalledSABLE(forSystematicApproachtoBetterLongRangeEstimating)thatcanbeexercisedtoobtaincurrentcostestimates.DataobtainedfromtheSABLEmodelareshowninTable6.2.
AllcostsshowninSABLEarevariablevaryingasafunctionofPAA,flyinghours,orauthorizedpersonnelstrengths.However,itislikelythatsomeoftheunderlyingfactors(suchasinstallationsupportcostsperperson)haveallocatedfixedcostsembeddedwithinthem.2
TheSABLEdatashowthatRCcrewsgenerallyflyfewerhoursthanACcrews,andinsomecaseshavelowercrewratios,resultinginlowerannualO&ScostsperPAAfortheRC.(Aswithearlierstudies,thesedatashowthattheKC135Risanexceptiontothegeneralrule.)
2Duringpreparationofthisreport,someRCrepresentativesweinterviewedwereskepticalthatpaststudiesortheSABLEmodelaccuratelycapturethecostadvantages(apart-timeworkforceandaless-elaboratesupportstructure)inherentinRCoperations.Wenote,however,
thatSABLEcostfactorsaredesignedtotakesuchdifferencesintoconsideration.Personnelcountsandcostsaredifferentiatedforactive-dutyanddrill,ratedandnonrated,officerandenlisted,andmilitaryandcivilianpersonnel.Theper-capitainstallationsupportcostfactorishigherforACunits.Activepersonnelincurseveralcategoriesofcost(permanentchangeofstation[PCS],medical)notpresentforRCpersonnel.WefindnoostensiblebasisfordiscreditingSABLE-generatedcostcomparisons.
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Table6.2RecurringPeacetimeCostsforSelectedUnitTypesSABLEModel
(FY1997$)
UnitType Component PAA
CrewRatio
AnnualFlyingHours(FH)
FHperCrew
AnnualO&SCosts
AnnualO&SCost
perPAACostperFH
F16C Active 18 1.25 6,426 286 $46.1M $2.6M $7,174F16C ANG 18 1.25 4,230 188 $32.7M $1.8M $7,730F16A AFR 15 1.25 3,689 197 $31.1M $1.2M $8,432F15C Active 18 1.25 5,670 252 $64.6M $3.6M $11,393F15E Active 18 1.25 6,246 278 $69.9M $3.9M $11,191F15A ANG 18 1.25 3,888 173 $46.7M $2.6M $12,011A10 Active 12 1.5 5,304 295 $31.2M $2.6M $5,882A10 ANG 18 1.25 4,770 212 $34.0M $1.9M $7,128A10 AFR 12 1.25 2,993 199 $25.5M $2.1M $8,520C130E Active 16 2 10,304 322 $58.2M $3.6M $5,648C130E ANG 8 1.75 3,120 223 $25.6M $3.2M $8,205C130E AFR 8 1.75 2,841 203 $22.2M $2.8M $7,814C141B Active 16 1.8 16,192 562 $103.1M $6.4M $6,367C141B ANG 8 2 2,928 183 $34.8M $4.3M $11,885C141B AFR 8 2 2,772 173 $31.9M $4.0M $11,508C141B AFR(Assoc) 16 1.8 4,990a 173 $23.9M $1.5M $4,790KC135RActive 12 1.27 3,672 241 $29.3M $2.4M $7,979KC135RANG 10 1.5 3,500 233 $35.9M $3.6M $10,257KC135RAFR 10 1.27 2,940 231 $27.3M $2.7M $9,286KC10 Active 12 2 7,164 299 $64.7M $5.4M $9,031KC10 AFR(Assoc) 12 1.5 3,740 208 $41.8M $3.5M $11,176NOTE:DataweredevelopedfromtheSABLEcostmodelmaintainedbySAF/FMC.PAA,crewratios,flyinghours,andoperatingandsupport(O&S)costswereextractedfromSABLE.Threeoftheratiosreportedinthetable(flyinghourspercrew,costperPAA,andcostperflyinghour)werecomputedforthisanalysisusingdataextractedfromSABLE.ThecostperPAAandcostperFHreportedherearetotalunitcostsperPAAorFH.TheyshouldnotbeconfusedwithSABLElogisticscostfactorsthatareexpressed
onaper-PAAorper-FHbasis.aSABLEindicateszeroflyinghoursforaC141Bassociateunit.Tocalculatethecostperflyinghour,weassumedthatAFRassociateunitcrewswouldflythesamenumberofhoursasAFRnon-associateunitcrews.
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However,costsperflyinghouraregenerallylowerforACunits,perhapsbecauseofeconomiesofscale.
DifferencesinDesignedOperationalCapabilities
RCunitsinsomecaseshavenarrowerDOCsthancomparablyequippedACunits.ThedifferencesinDOCsarenecessarybecausetheRCunits,withfewerannualflyinghourspercrew,areunabletotrainadequatelytothewiderrangeofcapabilitiesfoundintheACunits.Ideally,acost-per-outputapproachtocostcomparisonswouldaccountforthesedifferencesincapabilityinthecontextofprovidingreadyunitstomeetMTWdemands.However,wewereunableinthescopeofthisresearchtodevelopanapproachforcomputingacostpercapability.Capabilitiesarenotuniforminmanyimportantrespects.Forexample,somearemorecostlytodevelopthanothersandsomemaybemorevaluabletoendusers(warfightingcommands)thanothers.Anexplicitcost-per-capabilitymeasurewouldhavetoaccountforthislackofuniformity.Lackingsuchanapproach,decisionmakersconsideringalternativeAC/RCmixesmustsubjectivelyweighrelativecostsandcapabilitiesofACandRCunits,particularlyinthefaceoftheoftendifferingcapabilitiesamongvariousMDSoflike-missionaircraft.
AStrategyforOptimizingForce-StructureAvailabilityAndCost
SincetheannualoperatingcostsofRCunitsaregenerallylessthanthoseofACunits,cost-effectivenessinmeetingMTWdemandsisachievedbyplacingasmuchoftheforcestructureintheRCaspossible.Forfighterunits,forcestructureisgenerallymeasuredinFWE,calculatedasthenumberofPAAintheinventorydividedby72(thenumberofaircraftinanotionalwingconsistingofthree24-PAAsquadrons).TheforcestructureisoptimizedbyplacingjustenoughforcestructureintheACtomeetrequirementsthatareincompatiblewithRCemploymentandplacingtheremainderoftheforcemixin
theRC.TheforcemixattheendofFY1997was13ACFWEand7RCFWE,buttheQuadrennialDefenseReviewdeterminedthatthemixcouldshiftto12ACFWEand8RCFWE(Cohen,1997,p.30).
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MeetingSSC,OOTW,andOtherPeacetimeDemands
InadditiontoprovidingreadyforcesforMTWs,ACandRCunitsprovideforcesforSSCsandOOTW.Inthepast,theforcestructurerequiredtomeetthesenon-MTWdemandswasconsideredtobealesserincludedcasewithintheMTW-relatedforcestructure.However,itisbecomingapparentthatoperatingtemposimposedbySSCsandOOTWareplacinggreatstressesonthecurrentforcestructure.TheforcestructurethatisbestformeetingMTWdemandsmaynotbebestformeetingSSCandOOTWdemands.Accordingly,itisappropriatetocomparetherelativecostsofACandRCunitstomeetthesenon-MTWdemands.
InanythingotherthananMTWscenario,widespreadmobilizationofRCunitsisunlikely.Thus,asdiscussedinChapterFour,RCavailabilitytogenerateproductiveoutputinsupportofSSCandOOTWdemandsismorelimitedthanthatoftheAC.Forcost-comparisonpurposes,theappropriatecost-per-outputapproachistodividetheannualoperatingcostbyadenominatorthatrepresentsaproductiveoperationaloutputinanSSC(nonmobilization)environment.Forexample,thedenominatorforfightersmightbethemaximumnumberofdaysdeployedforcontingencyoperationsthattheunitcanbeexpectedtosupport.Forairliftunits,thedenominatormightbeproductiveflyinghours.Inthefollowingparagraphs,wedevelopexamplesofhowthesecostcomparisonsmightbedevelopedforfighterandairliftassets.Similarpeacetimeoutputmeasuresandcostcomparisonscouldbeconstructedforothermissionsandweaponsystems.
MeasuringPeacetimeFighterDeploymentCapacityandItsCost
AsdiscussedinChapterFour,ThalerandNorton(1997)estimatedthatof120totalTDYdaysavailableperyear,ACfighteraircrews
have70daysperyearavailableforcontingencyoperations.3ThalerandNortonalsopostulatethatRCcrewsareavailablefor50daysofTDY
3ThalerandNortonpostulatethataircrewsinEuroperequireslightlymorenoncontingencyTDY(60days),leavingslightlyfewerdaysavailableforcontingencies(60days).
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peryear,ofwhich15daysmaybeusedforoverseascontingencies.Foranentiresquadron,thenumberofavailabledayspercrewismultipliedbythenumberofcrewsintheunit.For24-PAAsquadronswithacrewratioof1.25,thisyields1500deployedaircrew-daysperyearforanACunitand450foranRCunit.
Informationaboutdeployableaircrew-dayscanbecombinedwithsquadronoperatingcostsandotherfactorstodeterminethecostofadeployedaircraft-day.Assumingthatdeployedunitsoperateatthesamecrewratioasattheirhomebases,itappearsthatACunitscanprovide1200daysofdeployedaircraftoperationsperyearwhereasreserveunitscanprovide360.(Availabledeployedaircrew-daysmustbedividedbythedeployedcrewratiotodeterminethenumberofavailabledeployedaircraft-days.)Dividingtheannualoperatingcostsofafighterunitbythesefiguresyieldsacostperdeployedaircraft-day.4AsrecapitulatedinTable6.3,usingtheSABLE-reportedF16CunitoperatingcostsshowninTable6.2,thecostperdeployedaircraft-dayforanACunitis$51,250.ThecomparablecostforanANGunitis$121,111.
MeasuringPeacetimeAirliftProductiveCapacityandItsCost
Forairliftunits,contingency-deployedaircraft-daysmaynotbetheappropriatemeasureofusefuloutput.Amoreappropriatemeasuremightbethecostperproductiveflyinghour.Inthismeasurement,productiveflyinghoursarethosedevotedtoJointChiefsofStaff(JCS)-directedmissions,channeltraffic,andspecialassignmentairliftmissions(SAAMs).Table6.4providesthecostcalculations.Notethatthistabledependscriticallyupontheassumptionoftheproportionofflyingdevotedtoproductivemissions.WehadnoimmediateaccesstoempiricaldataasabasisoftheratesusedinTable6.4.Werelied,instead,onroughestimatessuppliedbyacolleaguefamiliarwithactiveandreserveairliftoperations.Unlesstheseestimatesarewidely
inaccurate,datasuggestthatACunitsprovidetheleast
4AnnualoperatingcostsofbothACandRCunitsmightriseasaresultofaprolongedcontingencydeploymentforreasonssuchasincreasedflyinghours,transportationofunitpersonnelandotherassetstoandfromthetheaterofoperations,andincreasedconsumptionofmunitions.Webaseourcostcomparisonsonpeacetimeoperatingcosts,butamorerigorouscostanalysismightconsiderthelikelychangesinoperatingcostsassociatedwithtypicalOOTWandSSCdeployments.
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Table6.3CostperDeployedAircraft-Day,F16Squadrons
AC ANG1.TDYdaysperyearpercrewmember 120 502.TrainingandothernoncontingencyTDYdaysrequiredperyear
70 35
3.AvailablecontingencyTDYdaysperyear(line1minusline2)
50 15
4.PAA 24 245.Crewratio 1.25 1.256.Contingency-deployeddaysperyear(line3×line4×line5)
1500 450
7.Contingency-deployedaircraftoperationdaysperyear(line6dividedbyline5)
1200 360
8.Unitoperatingcostsperyear(Table6.2) $61.5Ma$43.6Mb9.Costpercontingency-deployedaircraft-day(line8dividedbyline7)
$51,250$121,111
a18-PAAunitcost($46.1M)linearlyscaledto24-PAA.b18-PAAunitcost($32.7M)linearlyscaledto24-PAA.
Table6.4CostPerProductiveFlyingHour,C141Squadrons
RC
ACIndependentlyEquipped Associate
1.FlyinghoursperPAAperyear(Table6.2)
1,012 347 312
2.Proportionproductive(JCS-directed,channel,SAAM)(roughestimates)
80% 50% 50%
3.ProductiveFHperPAA(line1×line2)
810 174 156
4.AnnualcostperPAA(Table6.2) $6.4M $4.0M $1.5M
5.CostperproductiveFH(line4dividedbyline3)
$7,901 $22,988 $9,615
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expensivelift,followedbyRCassociateunits.However,anassociateunitmustbepairedwithanACunit.Incontrasttothesepairings,independentlyequippedairliftunitscostfarmoreperproductiveflyinghour.
AStrategyforOptimizingDeploymentCapacityandCost
ProvidingthegreatestcapacityforSSC,OOTW,andotherpeacetimeoperationsatagivenbudgetlevel(or,equivalently,minimizingthecostforagivencapacity)requiresforcemixesdifferentfromthosethatoptimallymeetMTWdemands.Tomeetnon-MTWdemands,theoptimalmixinfighterMDSsplacesjustenoughoftheforceintheRCtosatisfysocialandpoliticalconsiderationsandtheremainderintheAC.Theoptimalmixformeetingnon-MTWairliftneedssplitstheforceevenlyintoACandRCassociateunits.
TradeoffsbetweentheConflictingDemands
Aforcemixthatoptimallymeetsnon-MTWdemands(byminimizingtheproportionoftheforceintheRC,subjecttosocialandpoliticalconstraints)maynotprovideaforcestructurelargeenoughtomeetMTWdemands.Likewise,aforcemixthatoptimallymeetsMTWdemands(bymaximizingtheproportionoftheforceintheRC,subjecttomobilization-relatedavailabilityconstraints)maynotprovideenoughdeploymentcapacitytomeetnon-MTWdemands.
ConflictingDemandsforFighterForceStructure
WhenfacedwithaconflictbetweenMTWandnon-MTWdemands,decisionmakersmustweighthetradeoffs.Figure6.1illustrateshowthetradeoffscanbeconceptualizedandquantifiedforthefighterforce.ItprovidesinformationaboutpotentialalternativeFWEforcemixeswithcostsheldconstantattheleveloftheQDR-proposedmixof12ACandeightRCFWE.ItshowsthatasthenumberofRCFWE
increases(fromzerototenonthehorizontalaxis),thenumberoftotalforceFWEavailabletomeetMTWneeds(ontheleftaxis)alsoincreases.Inaddition,asthenumberofRCFWEincreases,thenumberofcontingency-deployedaircraft-daysthatcanbegeneratedtomeetnon-MTWneeds(ontherightaxis)declines.Notethatthe
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QDRforcemix,witheightFWEintheRCandatotalof20FWE,cangenerateanestimated51,800contingency-deployedaircraft-days.Holdingcostsconstant,eachincreaseofoneFWEintheRCresultsinadecreaseof0.7FWEintheAC,oranetincreaseof0.3FWEinthetotalforce.However,eachincreaseofoneFWEintheRCdecreasesthetotalforce'scapacityfordeployedaircraft-daysbyabout1480peryear(1080additionaldeployeddaysattributabletotheadditionalRCFWEminus2560deployeddaysattributabletothe0.7FWElostfromtheAC).Asanillustrationofhowthefigurecanbeused,consideraforcemixthatcontainedonlythreeFWEintheRC.ReadinguptotheFWElineandacrosstotheleftaxis,itcanbeseenthatthetotalforce,ifheldtothesamecostasthe20-FWEQDRmix,wouldprovideonly18.5FWEforuseinanMTW,ofwhich15.5wouldbeintheactiveforce.However,itwouldhaveacapacityfor59,200deployedaircraft-days.
TodeveloptheunderlyingdataforFigure6.1,wehadtomakeanassumptionaboutthemarginalcostofanFWEintheACandRC.Tosimplifyourcostcalculations,weassumedthatmarginalunitswouldbeequippedwithF16Cs,costedasshowninTable6.3.5
Inpractice,thelinearchangesincostassumedherewouldprobablyholdovermodestchangesfromthecurrentforcestructurebutnotformoreradicalchanges.Attheextremes,somecoststhatareconsideredfixedforsmallchangeswouldbecomevariable.Forexample,ifthecurrentAC/RCmixweretiltedmuchmoretowardtheRC,sustainabilityofRCpilotaccessionsfromACtrainedpilotlossesmightbecomeinfeasible,forcingtheRCtoincursignificantadditionalcoststotrainNPSpilotsandflythemenoughtoreachproficiencyintheirweaponsystems.
AComparativeLookatAirliftForceStructure
WehavenotanalyzedMTWversusnon-MTWdemandsforall
MDSs.However,sinceasignificantproportionofairliftcapacityisintheRC,wehavedevelopedanotionalapproachforconsideringthetradeoffs
5AnassumptionofF16Cequipageforthemarginalunitisreasonable,becauseF16sarebyfarthemostnumerousfighteraircraftinboththeACandRC.
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Figure6.1AlternativeEqual-CostForceMixes
inanairliftMDS.WeillustratetheapproachusingavailabledatafortheC141B.
ThemarginalcostofprovidingMTWcapacitycanbederivedfromTable6.2.ThedataindicatethatC141BRCunits,likefighterunits,arelesscostlythanACunits,allowingmoreforcestructuretobegeneratedforMTWpurposesbyshiftingtheAC/RCmixtowardtheRC.However,inairliftunits,thecostdifferencesbetweenassociateandindependentlyequippedunitsrequireamorenuancedanalysis.Forthispurpose,weconsideredtwocases.Inthefirstcase,wepairanACandRCassociateunitandobservethetotalcostofthetwounits(associateunitsmustbepairedwithACunits).Inthesecondcase,wedeterminethecostforprovidingthesamenumberofaircraftinRCindependentlyequippedunits.Inthefirstcase,a16-PAAACC141Bunit($103.1M)pairedwitha16-PAAAFRassociateunit($23.9M)hasatotalannualcostof$127M.Thesameforcestructurecouldbeprovidedbytwo8-PAAindependentlyequippedRCunits($34.8MforanANGunitor$31.9MforanAFRunit)atatotalcostof$63.8Mto$69.6M.Sincethemarginalcostoftheforcestructureinthe
independentlyequippedunitsislowerthanintheAC/associate
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unitpairing,greaterequipmentcapacityisgainedbyshiftingtheforce-structuremixtowardindependentlyequippedunits.However,independentlyequippedunitswouldprovideonly32crews,whereastheactive/associatepairwouldprovide58crews,permittingmoreintenseoperationoftheavailableequipment.
Formeetingnon-MTWdemands,Table6.4indicatesthatAC/associatepairingsprovidemoreliftcapacitythanindependentlyequippedRCunitsatagivenbudgetconstraint.Thus,thereisapotentialconflictbetweenMTWandnon-MTWdemandsifequipmentcapacityinanMTWscenarioismoreimportantthanaircrewavailability.
MakingTradeoffs
MakingthetradeoffsbetweenpotentialMTWcapacityandrealizedpeacetimecapacityrequiresbalancingtherisksandbenefitsinMTWandnon-MTWscenarios.Thetaskiscompoundedbyuncertaintyaboutthedemandsforcapacityineitherscenario.Analysiscanaidthedecisionprocessbyprovidingestimatesofexpecteddemandsandusingthemasabasisforquantifyingexpectedrisksandstresses(suchworkisbeyondthescopeofthisanalysis).
ImplicationsfortheForceMix
AsdepictedinFigure6.2,costconsiderationsargueforalargerproportionofthetotalforceintheRCwhencontemplatingMTWscenariosandasmallerproportionwhencontemplatingSSCandOOTWscenarios.
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Figure6.2CostConsiderationsintheForceMix
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ChapterSevenConclusionsOurmodelforgraphicallydepictingasetofforce-mixprinciplespresentedinChapterTwopostulatedafeasibleregionwithinwhicharangeofforcemixeswouldbeacceptableandwithinwhichcostconsiderationscouldprevail.Inexaminingtheavailableevidence,wefoundthatthelociofsomeoftheseconstraintsarecurrentlyunknowableandthatothersaremission-orcomponent-dependent.Wherepossible,wederivednotionalresultsusingmission-dependentvaluespertinenttothefighterforce.
TheresultsshowninFigure7.1depicttheANGcase,wherenotionalpersonnelflowconstraintsmightallowtheRCtooccupyupto42percentofthetotalfighterforce.Afeasibleregionisthuscreatedtotherightoftheminoritystatusconstraint.Thefeasibleregionmightbereducedifanavailabilityconstraintcameintoplayorifadecisionmakerweretosupplysomejudgmentallocusforthesocialidentification,embeddedness,andinvestment(IE&I)constraint.Withinthisfeasibleregion,cost-consciousdecisionmakerswouldgravitatetowarda42percentmixiftheywereprimarilyconcernedaboutpreparednessforMTWscenariosortowarda20percentmixiftheyweremoreconcernedwithmeetingcurrentcontingencydeploymentneeds.Itispossible,ofcourse,toweighcostmoreheavilythaneitherthepersonnelfloworsocialconstraints.Inthatcase,decisionmakersmightdrivethemixabove42percent,consciouslyacceptingadegradationinexperiencelevelsandreadiness.Alternatively,theycoulddrivethemixbelowthe20percentRCminoritystatusconstraint,possiblycompromisingRCmembers'capacitytoinfluencethevaluesandperceptionsofACmembers.
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Figure7.1NotionalValuesforForce-MixConstraints:AnANGCase
Ifpersonnelfloworavailabilitywereevaluatedusingdifferentparameters,thoseconstraintscouldconceivablylietotheleftoftheRCminoritystatusorsocialIE&Iconstraints.Therewouldbenofeasibleregion.Insuchacase,decisionmakerswouldhavetocompromisebetweenconflictingobjectives.ThemostlikelyoutcomewouldbetodeemphasizetheminoritystatusandsocialIE&Iconstraintsbecausethecaseforapplyingtheformerinthepresentcontextislesscompellingandthelocusforthelatterisunknown.
Weagainstressthatthespecificforce-mixresultsreportedherearenotional.Wherepossible,weusedinputvaluesthatwejudgedtobeapproximatelycorrect,recognizingthatwedidnothavetheresourcesinthisstudytoobtainorderiveanalyticallyrigorousinputs,especiallywhentheinputsarelikelytovaryacrossmissions.Also,becauseofvariationsacrossmissionsorMDSs,force-mixdecisionscannotbemadeintheaggregate.TheymustbemadeforeachmissionorMDSindividually.
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Althoughtheresultsreportedherearenotional,webelieveourresearchprovidestwoconcretecontributionstotheforce-mixdecisionprocess.Thefirstcontributionisaframeworkforintegratingtherangeofconsiderationsthatdecisionmakersfaceandforgainingperspectiveontheargumentsofferedbyvariousinterestgroupshopingtoinfluencetheforcemix.Thesecondcontributionisaroadmapformore-detailedresearchintospecificmission/MDSforcemixesorageneralmodelthatincorporatesmission/MDS-specificinputs.
Perhapsourmostsignificantfindingisthatcostconsiderationscancutinoppositedirectionsdependingonwhethertheforceisbeingoptimizedformajortheaterwarpreparednessorforpeacetimecontingencyoperations.Inourview,peacetimecontingencydemandsmustbegivenmoreweightinforce-mixdecisions,especiallyinMDSsexperiencinghighdeployment-relatedstress.
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