Upload
laong-laan
View
228
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 1/162
Principles and TheoriesTeaching and LearningBy : Sherwin Sean M. Amid
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 2/162
At the end of the Presentation the students will understandthe ff:
Behavioral Theories
Field and Gestalt Theories
Cognitive Theories
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 3/162
“You often learn whenyou don’t intend tolearn, and you oftenteach when you don’tintend to teach”
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 4/162
But what is knowledge? It isn’t the absolute truth about life anddeath, but the thing that help us to live and confront thechallenges of day to day life. It isn’t what we learn from books,which serves only to fuel futile arguments about what
happened or will happened; it is the knowledge that lives in thehearts of men and women of good willPAULO COELHO
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 5/162
What is Learning?
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 6/162
LEARNING
1. “a persisting change in human performanceor performance potential . . . (brought) aboutas a result of the learner’s interaction with theenvironment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. “the relatively permanent change in aperson’s knowledge or behavior due toexperience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in thecapacity to behave in a given fashion, whichresults from practice or other forms ofexperience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 7/162
Theory
is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or theresults of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for exampleinclude generalized explanations of how nature works.
A theory provides an explanatory framework for some observation, and from theassumptions of the explanation follows a number of possible hypotheses that
can be tested in order to provide support for, or challenge, the theory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 8/162
Principle
is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirablyfollowed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the lawsobserved in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of sucha system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of thesystem, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation oruse of which would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 9/162
Behaviourism
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 10/162
Behaviorism
Behaviorism assumes that a learner is essentially passive, respondingto environmental stimuli.
Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and behavior isshaped by positive and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the possibility of anevent happening again.
Punishment, both positive and negative, decreases the possibility ofan event happening again.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 11/162
Positive reinforcement is the application of a stimulus.
Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of a stimulus.
Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 12/162
Behavioural Theories
Primary Focus Observable behaviourStimulus-response connections
Assumptions Learning is a result of environmentalforces
Major TheoristsPavlovThorndikeSkinnerBandura
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 13/162
Born: 26 September 1849
Ryazan, RussiaDied: 27 February 1936 (aged 86)Leningrad, Soviet Union
Nationality: Russian
Known for: Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 14/162
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus UnconditionedResponse
Neutral Stimulus
ConditionedConditioned Stimulus
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 15/162
The animal in the experiment learns to associate the bell with the opportunity to eat and begins to salivate to the bell inthe absence of food. It is as though the animal came to think of the bell as "mouth-watering," although behaviourists
never would have used terms like think of, because thinking is not a directly observable behaviour.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 16/162
Born: August 31, 1874
Williamsburg, Massachusetts, U.S.Died: August 9, 1949 (aged 74)Montrose, New York
Nationality: American
Known for: Father ofmodern educational psychology,theory of connectionism
Edward Thorndike
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 17/162
Cat Experiment
Hungry cat is placed inside the box. Food keptoutside the box work as a motive. Cat started doingrandom movements for getting food. Cat squeezethrough opening, claws and bites at the bars ofwires, thrust its paws through any opening. Out ofany one random movement latch manipulatedaccidently. Hungry cat came out and got its rewardi.e. food.
In another trial:
Hungry cat placed in a puzzle box. Food kept outsidethe box worked as a motive. To get out of the boxcat again did random movements. But cat took lesstime to come out from the box. Gradually reducedand took less time on each succeeding trial.Manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in thebox. Gradually cat learned the art of opening door.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 18/162
Theory of Connectionism
Learning is by Bond and connection
Learning is the result of associations formed between stimuli andresponses
( S-R framework)
These associations are strengthened/weakened by the nature andfrequency of the S-R pairings.
Trial and error learning- certain responses come to dominate others dueto rewards.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 19/162
The 3 Primary Laws ofConnectionism
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 20/162
Law of Exercise
States that the strength of aconnection is determined by howoften the connection is used.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 21/162
Law of Readiness
States that when an organism is ready to actit is reinforcing for it to do so, and annoying
for it not to do so.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 22/162
Law of Effect
The strengthening or weakening of a connectionby its consequences.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 23/162
Experiment sums up the following stages in the process oflearning:
1. Drive: Hungry cat intensified by the sight of the food.
2. Goal: To get food by getting out of the box.
3. Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
4. Random movements: The cat persistently tried to come out of the box without knowinghow.
5. Chance success: Striving and random movements the cat by chance succeeded in openingthe door.
6. Selection: Gradually cat recognized the correct way to manipulate the latch.
7. Fixation: At last cat learned the proper way to open the door by eliminating all the incorrectresponses & fixing only the right response.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 24/162
Born: March 20, 1904
Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, UnitedStates
Died: August 18, 1990 (aged 86)Cambridge, Massachusetts, UnitedStates
Nationality: American
Known for: Operant conditioning
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 25/162
Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Stimulus ReinforcemeResponse
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 26/162
Fundamental Co
• Operant Conditioninto using pleasant/unpconsequences to contbehaviour of the orga
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 27/162
Principles of Learning inOperant Conditioning
• Principle of Consequence• Principle of Reinforcement• Pre mack Principle or Grandma Rule• Principle Extinction
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 28/162
Principle of Consequence
Under this principle, behaviourchanges according to itsimmediate consequences;pleasurable/Pleasantconsequence strenghten
behaviour, Unpleasantconsequence weaken it
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 29/162
Principle of Reinforcement
This involves any action takenfollowing a response thatincrease the probability that theresponse will occur again
Praising wordsand phrases
Facial Expressions Nearness
• Good• That's right• Excellent• That's clever•
Fine answer• Good job• Good thinking• Great• That shows agreat deal of work• You really payattention• I like that.• Show the classyou model.• That's interesting• Joan, you're doingso well with themicroscope.• That was verykind of you.
• Smiling• Winking• Nodding• Looking
interested• Laughing
• Walking athe student• Sitting in groups.•
Joining that break.• Eating witstudents.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 30/162
Pre mack Principle
This principle is characterizedthat less desire activities can beincreased by linking them tomore desired activities
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 31/162
Principle of Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease ordisappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus isno longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell offood (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle(the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditionedresponse of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food)
were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually theconditioned response (hunger) would disappear.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 32/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 33/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 34/162
Social Learning Theory
SLT
ObservationalLearning
Observationlearning
attention retention reproduction
motivation
Vicarious Learning Self regulatedlearning
Learning byImitating
Real life symbolic Re
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 35/162
Observational Learning
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 36/162
Vicarious learning
Is acquired from observing the consequences of others behaviour
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 37/162
Self Regulated
Occurs when individual observe, assess and judge their own behaviour againsttheir own standards, and subsequently reward or punish them.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 38/162
Models
Real Life• teachers• parents
Symbolic• books
Representat• Films• media
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 39/162
Gestalt and Field Theories
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 40/162
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's complete form"
"The whole is greater than the sum of the parts " is often used when explainGestalt theory.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 41/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 42/162
Gestalt Psychology
Gestaltists see objects as perceived within an environment according to all of theelements taken together as a global construct.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 43/162
Max Wertheimer
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 44/162
Max Wertheimer
Born April 15, 1880Died Oct 12, 1943
Born in Prague, Czech Republic
Psychologist
Father of Gestalt psychology
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 45/162
Inspiration
In 1910 he bought a toy stroboscope
He saw two separate and alternatinglight patterns
He discovered that if the spacing, on-time, and off-time were just right forthese lights, his mind would perceive thedual lights as one single flashing lightmoving back and forth
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 46/162
Phi phenomenon
a perceptual illusion in which aperception of motion is producedby a succession of still images.
Lead to important questions abouthow perception and the brain
works.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 47/162
Kurt Koffka
Born March 18, 1886Died Nov 22, 1941
Born in Berlin, Germany
Psychologist
Another of the founders of Gestaltpsychology
Learning theorist
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 48/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 49/162
Theories on learning
Koffka also believed that a lot of learning occurs by imitation ,though he argued that it is not important to understand howimitation works, but rather to acknowledge that it is a naturaloccurrence.
According to Koffka, the highest type of learning is “ ideationallearning ”, which makes use of language.
Wolfgang Köhler
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 50/162
Born in Jan 21, 1887
Died in June 11, 1967Born in Reval (now Tallinn), Estonia
Psychologist and phenomenologist
Another of the founders of Gestalt
psychology
g g
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 51/162
Problem solving
In 1913, Köhler went to the island ofTenerife in the Canary Islands for sixyears
Köhler observed the manner in whichchimpanzees solve problems, such asthat of retrieving bananas whenpositioned out of reach. He found thatthey stacked wooden crates to use as
makeshift ladders, in order to retrievethe food.
If the bananas were placed on theground outside of the cage, they usedsticks to lengthen the reach of theirarms.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 52/162
Problem solving
Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrivedat these methods through trial-and-error (whichAmerican psychologist Edward Thorndike hadclaimed to be the basis of all animal learning,through his law of effect), but rather that they hadexperienced an insight (also sometimes known asan “ aha experience ”), in which, having realized theanswer, they then proceeded to carry it out in away that was, in Köhler’s words, “ unwaveringly purposeful ”.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 53/162
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 54/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 55/162
The bouba/kiki effect
The Bouba/Kiki Effect was firstobserved by German-Americanpsychologist Wolfgang Köhler in1929.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 56/162
In psychological experiments, first conducted on the island of Tenerif(in which the primary language is Spanish), Köhler showed forms in previous slides asked participants which shape was called "takete" anwhich was called "baluba" ("maluma" in the 1947 version). Datasuggested a strong preference to pair the jagged shape with "takete" athe rounded shape with "baluba".
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 57/162
In 2001, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard repeatedKöhler's experiment using the words "kiki" and "bouba" and askedAmerican college undergraduates and Tamil speakers in India “Which othese shapes is bouba and which is kiki?”
In both the English and the Tamil speakers, 95% to 98% selected thecurvy shape as "bouba" and the jagged one as "kiki", suggesting that
human brain is somehow able to extract abstract properties from theshapes and sounds.
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 58/162
Recent work by Daphne Maurer and colleagues has shown that even children as young as 2.5 (too young to
show this effect.
Ramachandran and Hubbard suggest that the kiki/bouba effect has implications for the evolution of languagbecause it suggests that the naming of objects is not completely arbitrary.
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 59/162
The rounded shape may most commonly be named "bouba" because mouth makes a more rounded shape to produce that sound while amore taut, angular mouth shape is needed to make the sound "kiki".
The sounds of a K are harder and more forceful than those of a B, aswell.
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 60/162
The presence of these "synesthesia-like mappings" suggest that thiseffect might be the neurological basis for sound symbolism, in whichsounds are non-arbitrarily mapped to objects and events in the world.
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 61/162
Individuals with autism do not show as strong a preference. Whereaverage people agree with the typical result 90% of the time, individuwith autism only agree 60% of the time (Ramachandran, V.S., ObermL.M. Evidence for Deficits in Mirror Neuron Function, MultisensoryIntegration, and Sound-form Symbolism in Autism Spectrum Disorde
The bouba/kiki effect
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 62/162
Main principlesof Gestalt Psychology
G l P i i l
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 63/162
Gestalt Principles
EmergenceReification
Multistability
Invariance
Prägnanz
P i i l f E
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 64/162
Principle of Emergence
Objects in an images are not recognised by their component parts, but are ratherperceived as a whole, all at once.
Principle of Emergence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 65/162
p g
Principle of Emergence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 66/162
p g
Principle of Emergence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 67/162
Principle of Emergence
The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.),and then inferring the dog from those component parts.
Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once.
Principle of Reification
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 68/162
Principle of Reification
the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than thesensory stimulus on which it is based.
Principle of Reification
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 69/162
Principle of Reification
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 70/162
Principle of Multistability
the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forthunstably between two or more alternative interpretations.
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 71/162
Principle of Multistability
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 72/162
Principle of Multistability
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 73/162
Principle of Multistability
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 74/162
Principle of Multistability
Principle of Multistability
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 75/162
Principle of Multistability
Principle of Invariance
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 76/162
p
the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognizedindependent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variationssuch as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different componentfeatures.
Principle of Invariance
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 77/162
p
Principle of Prägnanz
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 78/162
p g
we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric,and simple.
This results in other more basic lawsLaw of ClosureLaw of SimilarityLaw of Proximity
Law of ContinuityLaw of Common Fate
Law of Closure
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 79/162
The mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in orderto complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity).
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 80/162
Law of Proximity
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 81/162
Spatial or temporal proximity of elements may induce the mind to perceive acollective or totality.
Law of Symmetry
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 82/162
Symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance.
Law of Continuity
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 83/162
The mind continues visual, auditory, and kinetic patterns.
Law of Common Fate
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 84/162
Elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit.
Kurt Lewin
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 85/162
Born Sept 9, 1890
Died Feb 12, 1947Born in Mogilno, Poland
Psychologist
"founder of social psychology“
Worked closely with the Gestaltpsychologists
Field Theory of Learning
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 86/162
Learning takes place when organism achieves insights
Lewin (1936) used the term ‘life space’ to denote the totalityof all the influences on a person at a given moment in time,both the outer environment and inner personalenvironment.
Field theory views learning as a social process, to learn, anorganism must interact with others in the environment
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 87/162
COGNITIVE LEARNITHEORY
Key Points
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 88/162
The cognitive theory is based on traditional psychological concepts that deal withthinking, remembering, and deciding.
Cognitive psychologists view activities such as thinking, remembering, anddeciding by how they relate to behavior.
The cognitive theory asserts that thinking and remembering are more of abehavior and that the use of behavior analysis is needed to assess their effectson learning.
Cognitivists o bjected to behaviorists’ beliefs that learning is simply a reactionaryphenomenon.
It is commonly referred to as opening the “black box” in the mind.
1.2 Theories: Cognitive
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 89/162
Primary Focus Mental behaviourKnowledgeIntelligenceCritical Thinking
Assumptions Learning is a result of mental operations/processing
Allan Paivio
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 90/162
Born: March 29, 1925
Age: 88
Place: Ontario, Canada
Known for: Dual Coding Theory
Dual Coding Theory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 91/162
Paivio proposed that when information is presented both visually and verbally, it enhances recall and recognit
This theory proposes that people process information in two separate ways:1. Processing of images2. Processing of language
There are three sub processes identified in thistheory:
1. RepresentationalVerbal or nonverbal representations are directlyinfluenced.
2. ReferentialVerbal system is activated by nonverbal communication or vice-versa.
3. AssociativeText-based systems and graphic representations trigger mental associations.
Robert Mills Gagné
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 92/162
Born in Aug 21, 1916
Died in April 28, 2002
Born in in North Andover, Massachusetts
educational psychologist
best known for his “ Conditions of
Learning ” involved in applying instructional theoryto the design of computer basedlearning.
The Gagné Assumption
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 93/162
different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions aremost likely to bring about these different types of learning.
Five Categories of Learning
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 94/162
verbal information
intellectual skills
cognitive strategies
motor skills
attitudes
Eight Types of Learning
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 95/162
1. Signal Learning - The individual learns to make a general, diffuse response to a signal. Sucwas the classical conditioned response of Pavlov.
2. Stimulus-Response Learning - The learner acquires a precise response to a discriminatedstimulus.
3. Chaining - A chain of two or more stimulus-response connections is acquired.
4. Verbal Association - The learning of chains that are verbal.
5. Discrimination Learning - The individual learns to make different identifying responses tomany different stimuli that may resemble each other in physical appearance.
6. Concept Learning - The learner acquires a capability of making a common response to aclass of stimuli.
7. Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or more concepts.
8. Problem Solving - A kind of learning that requires the internal events usually called thinkin
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 96/162
Nine Events of Instruction
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 97/162
1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.
2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for assessment.3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate
learning process.
4. Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to thelearner.
5. Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representatiomnemonics, and analogies.
6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirmtheir correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.
8. Assess performance - take a final assessment.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a "performance" focus.
Howard Gardner
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 98/162
(1943 - )
Born in Scranton, PAProfessor of Cognition and Educationat Harvard
Received many awardsAuthor of over 20 books
Best known for his theory of multipleintelligences
Gardner defines intelligence as:
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 99/162
The ability to create an effective product or offer a service
A set of skills that make it possible to solve problems
The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involvesgathering new knowledge.
Tab
Types of Intelligences:
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 100/162
1. Linguistic
2. Logical/mathematical
3. Musical rhythmic
4. Bodily/kinesthetic
5. Spatial
6. Naturalist
7. Intrapersonal
8. Interpersonal
9. Existential
Tab
Technology and Multiple Intelligences
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 101/162
“Computers offer students a multi -sensory smorgasbord,” which engageslearners by stimulating the multiple intelligences.
Jane Carlson-Pickering
Table of C
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 102/162
These nine intelligences canbe used to determine thetype of instruction andtechnology that will workbest for a student.
Verbal / Linguistic Intelligence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 103/162
Word Processing Programs
Spell Checkers
Desktop Publishing Programs
Tab
Logical / Mathematical
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 104/162
Internet
Computer Software – math games, logic games, etc.
Spreadsheets
www.funbrain.com
Tab
Visual / Spatial Intelligence
D d P i t P
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 105/162
Draw and Paint Programs
Clip Art
PowerPoint
Safari Montage
Tab
Musical / Rhythmic Intelligence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 106/162
Audio Effects
Composition Software
Tab
Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 107/162
Video Games
Virtual Reality
Interactive White Boards
Tab
Naturalist Intelligence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 108/162
Online Encyclopedias
Internet Resources
Tab
Interpersonal Intelligence
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 109/162
Work in groups to use software or technology
PowerPoint
Use databases or spreadsheets to create school-wide surveys and graphs
Tab
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 110/162
Benjamin Bloom
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 111/162
Born on February 21, 1913 in
Lansford Pennsylvania.
Died on 13 September 1999.
Known for Blooms taxonomy
3 learning Domain
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 112/162
Bloom defined three learning domains:
1. Cognitive -Intellectual level; organization of ideas and thoughts
2. Affective -Emotions, interests, attitude, attention, awareness
3. Psychomotor -Motor skills and physical abilities
Blooms Taxonomy
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 113/162
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension3. Application4. Analysis5. Synthesis6. Evaluation
Jerome Bruner
Born October 1, 1915
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 114/162
Age 94
Born in New York, New York
EducationPhD, Harvard, 1941 (Psychology)BA, Duke University, 1937
PublicationsThe Culture of Education, 1996Acts of Meaning, 1991Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, 1987The Process of Education, 1960
cognitive psychologist and educational psychologistScaffolding Theory
Spiral Curriculum
Principles of J. Bruner Theory
1 I i b d i h h i d h k h d
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 115/162
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the studenwilling and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiralorganization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going bthe information given).
J. Bruner Theory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 116/162
Bruner's theoretical framework is based on the theme that learning is an active process learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge.
Facets of the process include selection and transformation of information, decision makgenerating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and experiences.
Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization toexperiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".
B b li d h i i i d l i l hi ki h ld b h b d d
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 117/162
Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged andrewarded.
He believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability oexperts in every field to make spontaneous bound.
He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject mattebest stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as graderanking.
Conclusion of Theory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 118/162
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active procwhich learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledg
As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to dprinciples by themselves and they should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learn
Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually buildwhat they have already learned.
Features of J. Bruner's theory of Instruction
1 T d t d l i
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 119/162
1. Tendency towards learning
2. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readgrasped by the learner,
3. The most effective sequences in which to present material.
4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.
Cognitive Development
Like Piaget, Bruner believed in stages of instruction based on development.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 120/162
g , g p .
Enactive (birth to age 3)
Iconic (age 3 to 8)
Symbolic (from age 8)
Each mode is dominant at different phases of development but all are present and accessialways.
Enactive
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 121/162
.
The first stage he termed "Enactive", when aperson learns about the world through actionson physical objects and the outcomes of theseactions.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 122/162
Spiral Curriculum
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 123/162
Instead of focusing for
relatively long periods oftime on specific narrowtopics, a spiral curriculumtries to expose students toa wide varies of ideas over
and over ago.
David Ausubel - Focus
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 124/162
Stressed the importance of active mental participation in meaningful leatasks
Learning must be meaningful to be effective and permanent
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 125/162
David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory/Rationalistic Theory :Human behavior is abstract in nature; it cannot not be controlled or
predictedLearning takes place through a meaningful process of relating newevents or items to already existing cognitiveconcepts/propositions/itemsMeaningful learning is a process of relating and anchoring newmaterial to relevant established entities in cognitive structure As new material enters the cognitive structure it interacts with and isappropriately associated under higher order categories for meaningfulretention
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 126/162
Roger’s Humanistic Psychology Perspective of a constructivist view of learningLearning takes place in a non-threatening environment, which allows a
person to form a picture of reality that is congruent with realityThe goal of education is the facilitation of change and learningThe context for learning must be properly createdLearning is not filling the student with information
True knowledge is facilitated when the student is allowed to negotiatelearning outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and peers in a process ofdiscovery, to engage in critical thinking, to be empowered to achievesolutions to real problems
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 127/162
Piaget’s theory is about cognitive development as the key to explain howindividuals perceive, think, understand, and learn
Cognitive development is perceived as consisting primarily of logical andmathematical abilities
Intelligence is synonymous with thinking in that it involves mental operations
Intelligence develops as children psychologically adapt to their environmenand reconcile discrepancies between current forms and previously acquired
forms of understanding
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 128/162
Meaning is construed based on previous background knowledge structur
Schemata are the previously acquired knowledge structures throughexperience. Schemes: mental systems of knowledge categories —units knowledge that children develop through the adaptation process.
OTHER PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS
Active learning: by being physically and mentally engaged in learning
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 129/162
Active learning: by being physically and mentally engaged in learningactivities, children develop knowledge and learn.
Assimilation: process of fitting new information into existing schemes.
Accommodation: changing or altering existing schemes or creating newones in response to new information.
Equilibrium: balance between existing schemes developed throughassimilation and intake of new information through accommodation.
Piaget’s Constructivism And Cognitive Development
in Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education Today
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 130/162
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 131/162
PIAGET’S STAGESOF COGNITIVE
DEVELEPMENT
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 132/162
in Morrison, 2004.
Early Childhood Education
Today
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Learning Theory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 133/162
Learning is social; every child reaches his or her potential developmentin part, through social interaction
Social interaction, through language, is a pre-requisite to cognitivedevelopment;
Learning awakens a variety of developmental processes that are able tooperate only when the child is interacting with people. Once these
processes are internalized (as the child approaches the zone of proximadevelopment), they become part of the child’s independentdevelopmental achievement
Zone of Proximal Developmen
in Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education To
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 134/162
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 135/162
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) represents the tasks that children
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 136/162
cannot do independently but can do when helped by a more competent adult
encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult to master alone but thatcan be learned with guidance and assistance.
Vygotsky’s scaffolding is assistance of some kind that enables children tocomplete tasks they cannot complete independently. It is the process of providifferent levels of support, guidance, or direction during the course of an act
Abraham Maslow’s (1890 —1970) Self-actualization Theory of Learning
Maslow’s self -actualization theory is based on the satisfaction of human ne
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 137/162
Maslow s self actualization theory is based on the satisfaction of human neOnce the basic needs are satisfied, the child can reach self-actualization, or s
fulfillment--the highest human need.Recognition and approval are self-esteem needs that relate to success andaccomplishment.Children who are independent and responsible, and who achieve, will have hesteemSelf-esteem increases the possibilities of achievement.When children have a sense of satisfaction, they are enthusiastic, and are eaglearn and become involved in activities that will lead to higher levels of learn
Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education Today
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 138/162
Erik Erikson’s (1902 —1994) Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is based on the premise that csocial development occur hand in hand and cannot be separated.
Children’s personalities and social skills grow and develop within the context of s
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 139/162
Children s personalities and social skills grow and develop within the context of sand in response to society’s demands, expectations, values, a social institutions su families, schools, and child care programs.
School-age children must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense ofincompetence – they either develop an ability to do, be involved, be competent, achieve or a feeling of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.
Atkinson- Shiffrin Model of Memory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 140/162
Multi Store Model of Human Memory• In 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin
proposed a model of humanmemory which posited two
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 141/162
memory which posited two
distinct memory stores: short-term memory, and long-termmemory.
• Later a third memory store(actually the first in sequence)
was added: sensory memory.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 142/162
• Information enters the human informationprocessing system via a variety of channels
associated with the different senses.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 143/162
Sensory Memory • Information notimmediately attended to isheld briefly in a very
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 144/162
temporary "buffer" memory,making it possible to attendto some of it a bit later.
• This buffer memory is calledsensory memory .
There
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 145/162
There sensormemovisioniconic
memo
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 146/162
• And one for touch- hapticmemory
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 147/162
memory
Iconic Memory (vision)
Capacity: Essentially that ofthe visual system
D ti Ab t 0 3 t 1 0
Echoic Memory (hearing)
Capacity: ????
Duration: About 3-4 secon
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 148/162
Duration: About 0.3 to 1.0secondsProcessing: None additionalbeyond raw perceptualprocessing
Processing: None additionraw perceptual processing
• Haptic memory is a form of sensorymemory that refers to therecollection of data acquired bytouch after a stimulus has been
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 149/162
presented. Similar to visual iconicmemory, traces of haptically acquiredinformation are short lived and proneto decay after approximately twoseconds.
Short Term MemoryInformation that is attended to arrives in another temporarystore called short-term or working memory.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 150/162
g y
Some properties of STM:• Capacity: About 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" of information• Duration: About 18-20 seconds (average)
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 151/162
Duration: About 18 20 seconds (average).• Processing: To hold information in STM, it is often encoded
verbally, although other strategies may also be used such asvisualisation. These strategies make it possible to "rehearse"the information.
• The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Millefamous paper entitled The Magical Number Seven, PlusTwo.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 152/162
• Miller concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) "chinformation could reside in STM simultaneously.
Random letters such as "GJK" would each
be considered a chunk , but letters thatform a recognisable larger whole, such as"CAR" would not. (In this case the word"car" is a single chunk.)
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 153/162
• Information is STM can be held for a duration of being 18 a20 seconds provided there isn’t interference- that is ne
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 154/162
information interfering with the currently attended toinformation.
• Information in STM can be held in STM via a method camaintenance rehearsal - that is, repeating the informationsilently or aloud so that it is recalled immediately whenneeded.
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 155/162
• Maintenance rehearsal does NOT add meaning to theinformation and is unlikely to be remembered when it is n
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 156/162
longer being repeated.
Long Term Memory• Long-term memory is the relatively permanent memory s
in which you hold information even when you are no
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 157/162
attending to it.
• Information held not represented asof neural activity but rather as chbrain wiring -- in"cond cti it " of
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 158/162
"conductivity" of synapses, and in tformation new sydestruction of old
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 159/162
• Storing information in LTM is equivalent to a computeinformation out to its hard drive, or to a tape recorderpatterns of magnetisation onto tape to record music.
Some properties of LTM:
• Capacity: Virtually unlimited• Duration: Up to a lifetime
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 160/162
• Processing: Information is organized according to meais associatively linked.
In contrast to maintenance rehearsal in STM, elaboratirehearsal involves the process of expanding upon new i
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 161/162
adding to it or linking it to what one knows, thereby mmore meaningful (for encoding and retrieval).
Self referencing/ Salience• Self-referencing, or using
salience , is when we relate newinfo to personal experiences
8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/principles-and-theories-of-teaching-and-learning 162/162
p pand our personal situation,encoding is enhanced andtherefore we are more likely toremember it.