Primary Lateral Sclerosis: diagnostic boundaries and outcome

Primary Lateral Sclerosis:diagnostic boundaries

and outcome

Brugman, Frans

Primary Lateral Sclerosis: diagnostic boundaries and outcomeThesis Utrecht University, The NetherlandsISBN 978-90-6464-376-7

The copyright of articles that have already been published or that have been accepted for publication has been transferred to the respective journals.

Cover design and lay-out: Paula Berkemeyer, www.pbverbeelding.nl. Cover image (cortico-spinal and cortico-bulbar tracts) drawn by Ingrid Janssen, Multi-media UMC Utrecht.

Financial support for the publication of this thesis is gratefully acknowledged and was provided by: Stichting het Remmert Adriaan Laan Fonds, J.E. Jurriaanse Stichting, Ipsen Farmaceutica B.V., Boehringer Ingelheim B.V., UCB Pharma B.V., Schering-Plough Nederland B.V., Novartis Pharma B.V., Genzyme Europe B.V., Baxter B.V., Menarini Farma Nederland, Sanofi-Aventis B.V., GlaxoSmithKline. Printed by GVO drukkers & vormgevers B.V. | Ponsen & Looijen, Ede.

Primary Lateral Sclerosis:diagnostic boundaries

and outcome

Primaire Laterale Sclerose:diagnostische grenzen en beloop

(met een samenvatting in het Nederlands)

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. J.C. Stoof, ingevolge het besluit van het college

voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op donderdag 14 januari 2010 des middags te 12.45 uur

door

Frans Brugman

geboren op 30 juni 1975te Enschede

Promotoren: Prof.dr. L.H. van den Berg Prof.dr. J.H.J. Wokke

Co-promotor: Dr. J.H. Veldink

Contents

Chapter 1 General introductionOrphanet Encyclopedia 2004 (www.orpha.net)

7

Chapter 2 Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesAnnals of Neurology 2005;58:865-869

17

Chapter 3 Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesNeurology 2008;71:1500-1505

29

Chapter 4 Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesJournal of Neurology 2009;256:824-826

43

Chapter 5 Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 geneNeurology 2007;69:702-704

51

Chapter 6 Differentiation of hereditary spastic paraparesis from primary lateral sclerosis in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesArchives of Neurology 2009;66:509-514

59

Chapter 7 Proposed new diagnostic criteria for primary lateral sclerosis: a prospective validation studySubmitted

75

Chapter 8 Primary lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALSNeurology 2005;64:1778-1779

93

Chapter 9 ALS pathology in a patient with clinical primary lateral sclerosisSubmitted

101

Chapter 10 General Discussion 109

Summary 123

Samenvatting 129

Dankwoord 135

List of publications 139

Curriculum vitae 143

Chapter One

General Introduction

F. Brugman, J.H.J. Wokke

Adapted from: Orphanet Encyclopedia 2004 (www.orpha.net)

8

Chapter 1

Abstract

PLS is an idiopathic, adult-onset, non-familial, neurodegenerative disorder of upper motor neurons, presenting as a slowly progressive pyramidal tract and/or pseudobulbar syndrome. Disease onset is usually between 40 and 60 years with spasticity in the legs. Onset in the arms or in the bulbar region with pseudobulbar speech and swallowing disturbance is also possible. Ultimately, a tetrapyramidal and pseudobulbar syndrome may develop. Life ex-pectancy is probably normal. PLS is considered by many to be a variant of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The etiology has not yet been elucidated. Roughly estimated, the annual incidence and the prevalence of PLS are 1 in 1,000,000 and 10-20 in 1,000,000, respectively. Treatment of PLS is symptomatic and may involve prescription of antispasticity medication and rehabilitation care.

9

General introduction

Introduction

This thesis focuses on diagnostic boundaries and outcome in patients with sporadic adult-onset idiopathic disorders of the upper motor neurons (UMNs). Such patients were first described in the 19th century and the term ‘primary lateral sclerosis’ (PLS) was applied to the condition. Ever since the first descriptions, however, it has been a matter of debate whether PLS represents a separate disease entity, a variant of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or (apparently) sporadic presentation of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP). In ALS, there is also degeneration of lower motor neurons causing progressive muscle weakness, which sooner or later affects the respiratory muscles leading to death due to re-spiratory insufficiency. HSP is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of inherited disorders characterized by a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis, which may, however, present (apparently) sporadically.This first chapter was written in 2002, and updated in 2004, before the start of the studies described in this thesis. It provides an overview of the knowledge and unresolved questions at that time regarding PLS.

PLS diagnostic criteria / definition

PLS is an idiopathic non-familial neurodegenerative disorder of UMNs which presents clinically as a slowly progressive pyramidal tract syndrome, sometimes with marked pseudobulbar symptoms.1-9

The diagnosis is based on exclusion of other causes and requires the results of blood, urine and CSF tests and EMG findings to be normal and no abnormalities to be found on brain and spinal cord MRI. In 1992, Pringle and colleagues proposed the currently used and accepted diagnostic criteria for PLS, which require adult onset of symptoms and a negative family history, in addition to normal laboratory and imaging test results.5 The criteria include a disease duration of at least three years in order to exclude ALS, as the initial pre-sentation of ALS can be a pure UMN syndrome.

Differential diagnosis

Other causes of a slowly progressive pyramidal and/or pseudobulbar syndrome include structural disorders (cervical spondylotic myelopathy, Arnold-Chiari malformation, spinal arteriovenous fistula, tumor, hydrocephalus), uncomplicated forms of hereditary spastic paraparesis (pure HSP), leukodystrophies (adrenoleukodystrophy, adrenomyeloneuropa-thy, metachromatic leukodystrophy, globoid cell leukodystrophy / Krabbe’s disease), other metabolic and toxic disorders (cerebro-tendinous xanthomatosis, subacute combined de-generation of the cord, copper deficiency, vitamin E deficiency, hexosaminidase deficiency,

10

Chapter 1

lathyrism, konzo) and infections (neurosyphilis, tropical spastic paraparesis (HTLV1), neuroborreliosis, spinal sarcoidosis, AIDS).6 Primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) can present as a pure upper motor neuron syndrome.10 ALS may present initially as a pure UMN syndrome, before the appearance of clinical or neurophysiological signs of lower motor neuron loss. A disease duration of at least three years is required before the diagnosis of PLS can be made, according to criteria proposed by Pringle et al. Transition to ALS has, however, been described in patients with longstanding PLS, even after a disease duration of as much as 18 years.11

Frequency

PLS is very rare. Norris et al. reported 26 PLS patients among their population of 708 motor neuron disease (MND) patients, who were seen between 1970 and 1986 (93.8% ALS, 3.7% PLS, 2.4% progressive muscular atrophy).12 In their database of 1200 patients with motor neuron disease, Haverkamp and co-workers reported 35 patients (2.9%) with only UMN signs.13 ALS has an annual incidence of 1-2 per 100,000, thus the incidence of PLS can be estimated at just under 1 per 1,000,000 per year. The prevalence is probably around 10-20 per 1,000,000, as PLS follows a chronic disease course.

Clinical description3-9

PLS is characterized by a slowly progressive bilateral pure UMN syndrome. Disease onset is usually between 40 and 60 years with spasticity in the legs. Onset in the arms or the bulbar region with speech and swallowing disturbance is also possible. Ultimately, a tetrapyrami-dal syndrome develops, sometimes with marked pseudobulbar features (including forced laughing and crying). Disease progression is usually very slow. Life expectancy is probably normal; however, considerable functional impairment may develop. Bladder involvement, mostly in the form of urgency and frequency symptoms, occurs in approximately half of the patients, usually late in the disease course. Subclinical neuropsychological disturbances have been described in PLS patients in some studies, but overt dementia is exceptional.14

Management including treatment

There is no cure for PLS. Treatment is symptomatic and may involve prescribing antispas-ticity medication and rehabilitation care.

11


Etiology

The etiology of PLS is not known. Since the original description by Erb in 1875, it has long been debated whether PLS exists as a disease entity.1-4,7,9 PLS is considered by many to be a variant of ALS, at one end of the clinical spectrum where there are only UMN symptoms.8,9 The exact pathogenesis of ALS is not known. Hypotheses include glutamate-excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.15,16 Similar mechanisms may play a role in the pathogenesis of PLS.To our knowledge, a PLS-like phenotype has not been described in the reported families with familial ALS (FALS) with superoxide dismutase (SOD1) mutations. A PLS-like phenotype has, however, been described in a subset of patients in families with autosomal recessive juvenile ALS (JALS).17 In the initial Tunisian family and three additional con-sanguineous families from the Arabian peninsula, homozygous mutations were found in a newly identified gene (ALS2) on chromosome 2q33, encoding a protein called “alsin”. Interestingly, it has recently been shown that the alsin gene is also mutated in a subset of patients with infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paraparesis.18

It cannot be ruled out that some PLS patients could actually be sporadic cases of uncompli-cated HSP,19 some forms of which can now be excluded with genetic testing.Patients with PLS in combination with small-cell carcinoma of the lung, HIV infection, multiple myeloma, IgM paraproteinaemia and breast cancer have been reported.4,20,21 It is not clear whether this is based on causal relations or on chance associations.

Diagnosis

There is no positive diagnostic marker for PLS and so additional tests have to be performed to exclude other causes (see “differential diagnosis”). This may involve examination of blood, urine and CSF, electromyography, as well as MRI of the brain and spinal cord. Atrophy of the motor cortex, visible on brain MRI, was described as being indicative of the diagnosis PLS, but was not a consistent finding in other studies. Motor evoked responses are usually delayed or absent.8

Autopsy can prove the diagnosis PLS by confirming the absence of another disease process and by showing selective involvement of the UMNs, with degeneration of the Betz cells, and corticospinal and/or corticobulbar tract demyelination with sparing of the anterior horn cells.4,5

12

Chapter 1

Unresolved questions

Important unresolved questions include:Does PLS represent a single disease entity or a group of entities?•Are there any prognostic factors and/or (genetic or other) susceptibility factors?•What proportion of patients represents sporadic presentations of HSP instead of •PLS?What proportion of patients develops signs of anterior horn cell disease or progres-•sion to ALS? How does this disease evolution affect the prognosis?Does riluzole, a drug with a small life-prolonging effect on the survival of ALS •patients,22 also have an effect on disease progression in PLS?

Aims of this thesis

This Chapter, the General Introduction, was written in 2002 (and updated in 2004), •before embarking on the studies described in this thesis. It provides an overview of the knowledge about PLS and the unresolved questions at that time. New develop-ments that have occurred since and possible future implications are discussed in the General Discussion (Chapter 10).

During this period of study of PLS and other sporadic UMN syndromes, genetic tests for some forms of HSP have become available in The Netherlands. We tested the patients included in our studies for mutations of a number of HSP genes. The results are described in Chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Chapter 2. To investigate whether spastin gene (SPG4) mutations, the most common •cause of autosomal dominant (AD) HSP, are present in PLS and sporadic HSP.Chapter 3. To investigate the frequency of paraplegin gene (SPG7) mutations, a •cause of autosomal recessive (AR) HSP, in patients with sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes.Chapter 4. To investigate whether the 2 known seipin/BSCL2 gene (SPG17) •mutations, associated with a range of AD (mixed) upper and lower motor neuron disorders including HSP, are present in patients with sporadic HSP and PLS.

In 2001, homozygous mutations of the alsin gene (ALS2) were identified as a cause of AR early-onset forms of UMN diseases described as infantile ascending HSP, juvenile PLS and juvenile ALS. We sought collaboration with researchers in Clermont-Ferrand, France, to screen a large subset of our patients with adult-onset UMN syndromes for alsin gene mutations. These results are described in Chapter 5.

13


Chapter 5. To investigate whether alsin gene (ALS2) mutations are present in adult-•onset PLS.

Previous studies used several clinical characteristics to separate sporadic presentations of HSP from PLS, such as age at onset < 40 years, evidence of mild dorsal column impairment and symptoms of urinary urgency. We studied whether clinical differentiation of (sporadic) HSP from PLS based on clinical characteristics is reliable, using the clinical data that we collected at inclusion in our large group of patients with adult-onset sporadic UMN syndromes, including those who were found to have a pathogenic HSP gene mutation (SPG4 or SPG7). The results of this study are described in Chapter 6.

Chapter 6. To investigate whether clinical characteristics can differentiate sporadic •presentations of HSP from PLS.

Based on the observations described in Chapter 6 and on previous studies by other authors, we designed new PLS diagnostic criteria that incorporate different levels of certainty of the clinical diagnosis of PLS instead of (sporadic presentation of) HSP. To validate our criteria, we included our cohort of patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome in a 3-year prospective study. The results of this study are presented in Chapter 7.

Chapter 7. To validate our proposed new PLS criteria, that incorporate different •levels of certainty of the clinical diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP, in a 3-year prospec-tive study.

While collecting suitable patients for our studies, we encountered 2 interesting patients who had a PLS phenotype, but a positive family history of ALS.These 2 families are reported in Chapter 8.

Chapter 8. To report 2 patients with PLS who have a family history of ALS, providing •further evidence that PLS can be part of the clinical spectrum of (F)ALS.

During the period of the studies described in this thesis, a deceased patient was available for post-mortem examination. The autopsy results are presented and discussed in Chapter 9.

Chapter 9. To report the autopsy findings in a patient with clinical PLS.•

14

Chapter 1

References

Erb WH. Ueber einen wenig bekannten Spinalen Symptomencomplex. Berl Klin Wschr 1. 1875;12:357-359.Wechsler IS, Brody S. The problem of primary lateral sclerosis. JAMA 1946;130:1195-1198.2. Beal MF, Richardson EP, Jr. Primary lateral sclerosis: a case report. Arch Neurol 1981;38:630-3. 633.Younger DS, Chou S, Hays AP, et al. Primary lateral sclerosis. A clinical diagnosis reemerges. 4. Arch Neurol 1988;45:1304-1307.Pringle CE, Hudson AJ, Munoz DG, Kiernan JA, Brown WF, Ebers GC. Primary lateral sclero-5. sis. Clinical features, neuropathology and diagnostic criteria. Brain 1992;115:495-520.Donaghy M. Classification and clinical features of motor neurone diseases and motor neuropa-6. thies in adults. J Neurol 1999;246:331-333.Swash M, Desai J, Misra VP. What is primary lateral sclerosis? J Neurol Sci 1999;170:5-10.7. Kuipers-Upmeijer J, de Jager AE, Hew JM, Snoek JW, van Weerden TW. Primary lateral sclero-Primary lateral sclero-8. sis: clinical, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-try 2001;71:615-620.Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A, et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 9. patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.Thompson AJ, Polman CH, Miller DH, et al. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Brain 10. 1997;120:1085-1096.Bruyn RP, Koelman JH, Troost D, de Jong JM. Motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral 11. sclerosis) arising from longstanding primary lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:742-744.Norris F, Shepherd R, Denys E, et al. Onset, natural history and outcome in idiopathic adult 12. motor neuron disease. J Neurol Sci 1993;118:48-55.Haverkamp LJ, Appel V, Appel SH. Natural history of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in a da-13. tabase population. Validation of a scoring system and a model for survival prediction. Brain 1995;118:707-719.Caselli RJ, Smith BE, Osborne D. Primary lateral sclerosis: a neuropsychological study. Neurol-14. ogy 1995;45:2005-2009.Leigh PN, Meldrum BS. Excitotoxicity in ALS. Neurology 1996;47:S221-S227.15. Rowland LP, Shneider NA. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1688-1700.16. Ben Hamida M, Hentati F, Ben Hamida C. Hereditary motor system diseases (chronic juvenile 17. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Conditions combining a bilateral pyramidal syndrome with limb and bulbar amyotrophy. Brain 1990;113:347-363.Eymard-Pierre E, Lesca G, Dollet S, et al. Infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis is 18. associated with mutations in the alsin gene. Am J Hum Genet 2002;71:518 -527.Fink JK. Progressive spastic paraparesis: hereditary spastic paraplegia and its relation to primary 19. and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Semin Neurol 2001; 21:199-207.Forsyth PA, Dalmau J, Graus F, Cwik V, Rosenblum MK, Posner JB. Motor neuron syndromes 20.

15


in cancer patients. Ann Neurol 1997;41:722-730.Desai J, Swash M. IgM paraproteinemia in a patient with primary lateral sclerosis. Neuromuscul 21. Disord 1999;9:38-40.Lacomblez L, Bensimon G, Leigh PN, Guillet P, Meininger V. A confirmatory dose-ranging 22. study of riluzole in ALS. ALS/Riluzole Study Group-II. Neurology 1996;47:S242-S250.

Chapter Two

Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes

F.Brugman, J.H.J. Wokke, H. Scheffer, M.H.A. Versteeg, E.A. Sistermans, L.H. van den Berg

Annals of Neurology 2005;58:865-869

18

Chapter 2

Abstract

Mutation of the spastin gene is the single most common cause of pure hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP). In patients with an unexplained sporadic upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome, clinical distinction between primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) and sporadic HSP may be problematic. To investigate whether spastin mutations are present in patients with PLS and sporadic HSP, we screened the spastin gene in 99 Dutch patients with an un-explained, apparently sporadic, adult-onset UMN syndrome. We found 6 mutations, of which 4 were novel, in the subgroup of 47 patients with UMN symptoms restricted to the legs (13%). Another novel spastin mutation was found in a patient with a rapidly progressive spinal and bulbar UMN syndrome that progressed to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In the patients with arm or bulbar UMN symptoms and slow progression, no spastin mutations were found. Our study shows that spastin mutations are a frequent cause of apparently sporadic spastic paraparesis, but not of primary lateral sclerosis.

19

Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes

Introduction

In patients with an unexplained sporadic pure upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome, clinical distinction between primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) and sporadic hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) may be problematic.1 PLS is a rare syndrome of progressive spinobul-bar spasticity with mostly spinal and occasional bulbar onset and is often considered to be part of the clinical spectrum of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).2-7 HSP is a clini-cally and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis.8,9 Generally, symptomatic involvement of the arms or the bulbar region would suggest a diagnosis of PLS.1,2 Patients with PLS may, however, present with spastic paraparesis for many years before involvement of the arms or of the bulbar region becomes evident.7 In addition, atypical HSP phenotypes with dysarthria or spasticity in the arms have been described.10,11

Screening for mutations in known HSP genes may help to differentiate sporadic HSP from PLS. Currently, 10 genes and 16 additional loci have been identified for 10 autosomal dominant, 13 autosomal recessive and 3 X-linked forms of HSP.12-19 The single most common cause of pure autosomal dominant AD-HSP is mutation of the spastin gene (SPG4), representing about 40% of the patients.20 The SPG4 phenotype has been described as typical uncomplicated spastic paraparesis, with onset of symptoms at any age, but some patients have cognitive impairment, spasticity in the arms, dysarthia, cerebellar atrophy or a thin corpus callosum.10,11,21

To investigate whether spastin mutations are present in patients with PLS and sporadic HSP, we screened the spastin gene in 99 Dutch patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset, unexplained UMN syndrome.

Materials and methods

This investigation was carried out in a cohort of patients recruited for a natural history study of unexplained, sporadic, adult-onset UMN syndromes. Patients were selected by contacting all neurologists in the Netherlands and asking them to refer suitable patients. Before inclusion in the study, all patients were seen by an investigator (F.B.) for recording of detailed history and neurological examination. Inclusion criteria were a progressive UMN syndrome, adult onset, duration longer than 6 months and negative family history for HSP. The bulbar region was considered affected if there was pseudobulbar dysarthria, and arms and legs were considered affected if there were UMN signs associated with symptoms. Exclusion criteria were clinical evidence of lower motor neuron (LMN) loss (amyotrophy) and evidence of other causes using the following laboratory investigations: serum bio-chemistry (including thyroid-stimulating hormone, vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin E), very long chain fatty acid analysis in plasma, serology (syphilis, borreliosis, T-cell lympho-trophic virus type 1, and human immunodeficiency virus), bile alcohol analysis in urine,

20

Chapter 2

and cerebral and spinal magnetic resonance imaging. Patients in whom cerebrospinal fluid findings were indicative of intrathecal antibody production (increased IgG index or oligo-clonal cerebrospinal fluid bands absent in serum) were excluded only if there were sufficient additional findings to allow diagnosis of other conditions (eg, multiple sclerosis).Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood lymphocytes according to standard procedures. All 17 coding exons and flanking intronic sequences of the spastin gene were separately polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified from genomic DNA. Primer sequences and parameters for amplification are available upon request. The PCR products of exons 1, 6, 13, 14, 15, and 16 were directly sequenced using the Dye Terminator method on an ABI 3730 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). The PCR products of exons 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 17 were subjected to denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. For exons 4, 8, 9 and 10, two separate PCR fragments, indicated as fragments a and b, had to be analyzed. PCR products were heated for 10 minutes at 96°C, and subsequently for 45 minutes at 50°C to allow the formation of heteroduplexes. The samples were electrophoresed in a 6.5% polyacrylamide gel, 1x tris-acetate-ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid, with a linearly increasing gradient of denaturants urea and formamide at 59°C for 10 hours at 150V. For the analysis of PCR fragments 7, 8a, and 9a, a denatur-ing gradient ranging from 10 to 45% was used; for the remaining PCR fragments, a dena-turing gradient ranging from 10 to 55%. After electrophoresis, the gels were stained with ethidium bromide and photographed under ultraviolet light. For mutation identification, PCR products showing an abnormal migration pattern on denaturing gradient gel electro-phoresis analysis were directly sequenced as described earlier. No DNA of family members could be obtained for further study.

Results

Study populationNinety-nine patients were included in this study. Clinical characteristics are shown in Table 1. Three patients were Asian, one was black African and the remaining were white. Fifty-two patients had symptomatic involvement of the arms or of the bulbar region. Forty-seven patients had UMN symptoms restricted to the legs.

Spastin mutationsWe found spastin mutations in 7 patients, but not in 100 healthy controls (Table 2). The c.1245+1G>A mutation is a previously reported splice/donor site mutation and causes skipping of exon 9, which lies within the AAA-cassette.22 Three mutations (c.1729-2A>T, c.1324G>T (p.Glu442X) and the previously reported c.1741C>T (p.Arg581X) mutation) cause truncation or failure of production of the spastin protein, which makes these mutations almost certainly pathogenic.23 The three other mutations were missense mutations that cause a non-conservative amino acid change. Two of these (c.1048G>C

21


(p.Ala350Pro) and c.1625A>G (p.Asp542Gly)) were located in a conserved region within the functionally important AAA-domain, which makes them likely to be pathogenic. The other (c.1735A>C (p.Asn579His)) was located in a non-conserved region within the conserved AAA-domain, but this mutation was found previously in an unrelated Dutch HSP patient (unpublished results).

Clinical FeaturesThe clinical features of the patients with spastin mutations are summarized in Table 2. Six mutations, of which 4 were novel, were found in the subgroup of 47 patients with UMN symptoms restricted to the legs (13%). On examination, two of these patients had UMN signs in the arms or in the bulbar region (positive pseudobulbar reflexes or hyperreflexia), but this was asymptomatic. Another novel spastin mutation was found in a 34-year-old woman of Turkish descent (Patient 7), who had acquired a rapidly progressive spastic tetra-paresis and pseudobulbar dysarthria within a period of one year, without clinical evidence of LMN involvement. At the last follow-up at age 35, 1 year after the initial visit, she had progressed to anarthria, severe dysphagia requiring percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding, loss of voluntary movement of all extremities, and symptoms of night-time hy-poventilation. Neurological examination showed widespread atrophy and fasciculation in all body regions, but the clinical presentation was still dominated by severe spasticity. At that time she fulfilled the (revised) El Escorial criteria for clinically definite ALS.24 In the other patients with UMN symptoms in the arms or bulbar region, no spastin mutations were found. Other clinical features, including age at onset, were not significantly different between patients with and patients without a spastin mutation.

Sex, n (%)

Male 59 (60)

Female 40 (40)

Median age at onset, yr (range) 50 (18-76)

Median duration, yr (range) 6 (1-30)

Site of onset, n (%)

Bulbar 8 (8)

Spinal 91 (92)

Affected body regions, n (%)

Bulbar 35 (35)

Arms 45 (45)

Legs 96 (97)

Legs only 47 (48)

Table 1. Characteristics of the 99 included patients with a sporadic upper motor neuron syndrome.

22

Chapter 2

Tab

le 2

. Cha

ract

erist

ics o

f the

seve

n pa

tient

s with

a sp

astin

mut

atio

n.

Patie

nt n

o.1

23

45

67

Mut

atio

nc.1

735A

>Cc.1

729-

2A>T

c.132

4G>T

c.104

8G>C

c.174

1C>T

c.124

5+1G

>Ac.1

625A

>G

Mut

atio

n at

pro

tein

leve

lp.

Asn

579H

isTr

unca

tion

p.G

lu44

2Xp.

Ala

350P

rop.

Arg

581X

Exon

skip

ping

p.A

sp54

2Gly

Ethn

icity

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

n

Sex

MM

FM

FF

F

Age

, yr

3665

7253

6254

34

Ons

et ag

e, yr

2944

6950

3250

33

Bulb

ar re

gion

Dys

arth

riaN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oYe

s

Pseu

dobu

lbar

refle

xes

Neg

Neg

Neg

Neg

Pos

Neg

Pos

Arm

s

Sym

ptom

sN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oYe

s

Hyp

erre

flexi

aN

oYe

sN

oN

oYe

sN

oYe

s

Legs Sy

mpt

oms

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Hyp

erre

flexi

aYe

sYe

sYe

sYe

sYe

sYe

sYe

s

Babi

nski

sign

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Wal

king

abili

tyU

naid

edW

alke

rU

naid

edC

ane

Whe

elch

air

Una

ided

Whe

elch

air

Add

ition

al fe

atur

es

Impa

ired

vibr

atio

n se

nse

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

Urin

ary u

rgen

cyN

oN

oYe

sYe

sYe

sN

oN

o

Prog

ress

ion

to A

LSN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oYe

s

ALS

= am

yotr

ophi

c lat

eral

scle

rosis

23


Discussion

We screened the spastin gene in a large group of apparently sporadic patients with an unex-plained adult-onset UMN syndrome and found seven mutations, five of which were novel. Our study population included 47 patients with UMN symptoms only in the legs, 1 patient who had a rapidly progressive spinal and bulbar UMN syndrome that progressed to ALS, and 51 patients with arm or bulbar UMN symptoms with slow progression. A high frequency of spastin mutations was found in the patients with the HSP phenotype (6/47, 13%). Previous studies that screened the spastin gene in sporadic HSP were small, and results were inconsistent: spastin mutations were found in two of 29 (7%) and in 1 of 19 (5%) patients with sporadic HSP, whereas one study could not detect any spastin mutation in 11 patients.23,25,26 Another study reported two sporadic patients with a spastin mutation among a group of 20 patients with HSP, but it was unclear how many of the 20 patients were sporadic or familial.27 Interestingly, we found one novel mutation in a patient with rapid subsequent progression to clinically definite ALS. She never had a typical HSP phenotype, because she had arm involvement from onset and dysarthria within 1 year. There are no previous reports of oc-currences of ALS in families with spastin mutations or families with other genetic types of HSP. In the only study that investigated the spastin gene in ALS, no mutations were found in 19 patients with ALS with a predominantly UMN phenotype or in 8 patients with non-copper-zinc superoxide dismutase 1 gene-related familial ALS.28 However, there is evidence that the neuropathology of spastin mutations extends to LMNs. In three autopsy cases of HSP with spastin mutations, LMNs, although not affected clinically, showed hyaline inclu-sions and alteration in immunostaining for cytoskeletal proteins and mitochondria, which suggests a pathophysiological role of cytoskeletal dysregulation.29 Although the mutation in our patient with rapid progression to ALS is almost certainly pathogenic, its role in the current disease history is unclear. One possibility is that there is no relation at all, and that this patient is essentially an asymptomatic spastin mutation carrier who experienced devel-opment of ALS. Conversely, it is possible that ALS can be a rare phenotypic manifestation of SPG4, which could be a specific feature of the c.1625A>G (Asp542Gly) mutation. In addition, spastin mutations may increase susceptibility for development of ALS. Unfor-tunately, examination and genetic screening of family members was not possible in this family. No spastin mutations were found in the 51 patients with UMN involvement of the arms or the bulbar region and slow progression. The phenotype of these patients might be suggestive of PLS, because these patients fulfilled most (gradually progressive spastic paresis, usually beginning in the lower limbs, adult onset, no evidence of lower motor neuron involvement, a negative family history, and exclusion of other causes by laboratory and imaging studies) but not in all cases all (severe spastic spinobulbar paresis, with symmetrical distribution, disease duration of at least 3 years) of the diagnostic criteria for PLS that Pringle and col-legues2 proposed.

24

Chapter 2

Although UMN loss in PLS is eventually more progressive than in HSP, and transition of PLS to ALS has been reported,30 PLS may be difficult to distinguish from sporadic forms of HSP because PLS may present with spastic paraparesis for many years before in-volvement of the arms or the bulbar region becomes evident.7 Our results, and those of a previous study showing no spastin mutations in 10 PLS patients,28 indicate that patients with gradually progressive spastic paresis of the legs who have a spastin mutation are highly unlikely to evolve to a PLS phenotype. Apart from one investigation excluding paraplegin mutations (SPG7, AR-HSP) in eight patients with PLS,28 no other HSP genes have been studied in patients with PLS. In patients with a UMN syndrome, a careful family history remains important. Our study design did not allow systematic examination of all family members. However, the referring neurologists of the patients generally included examination of family members where possible. In addition, before inclusion in our study, we carefully re-reviewed the family history of all patients, and excluded doubtful cases. The selection of patients may resemble clinical practice, where the possibility of examining family members may be limited by various causes (eg, death, broken family ties, ethical issues, lack of cooperation). For these reasons, we used the term apparently sporadic patients to indicate that subjects may actually have a genetic disorder, HSP.Our results support the decision to offer spastin gene analysis to patients with a phenotype of spastic paraparesis. Finding a mutation is important both from a diagnostic and prog-nostic point of view. Genetic counseling can be offered to the patient and the other family members, although accurate genetic counseling may be difficult if it cannot be verified whether the parental generation is unaffected because they lacked the mutation or are un-affected because of incomplete penetrance. Patients can be informed that they have HSP, not PLS, and that, as a consequence, symptomatic arm or pseudobulbar involvement is very unlikely to develop.1 They also can be reassured that progression to ALS, as may occur in PLS,30 is not to be expected. This study shows that spastin mutations are a frequent cause of apparently sporadic spastic paraparesis, but not of PLS. The number of known HSP genes is expanding rapidly.12,13 Future studies should further determine to what extent these are implicated in sporadic HSP and PLS.

25


References

1. Fink JK. Progressive spastic paraparesis: hereditary spastic paraplegia and its relation to primary and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Semin Neurol 2001;21:199-207.

2. Pringle CE, Hudson AJ, Munoz DG, Kiernan JA, Brown WF, Ebers GC. Primary lateral sclero-sis. Clinical features, neuropathology and diagnostic criteria. Brain 1992;115:495-520.

3. Swash M, Desai J, Misra VP. What is primary lateral sclerosis? J Neurol Sci 1999;170:5-10.4. Rowland LP. Primary lateral sclerosis: disease, syndrome, both or neither? J Neurol Sci

1999;170:1-4.5. Kuipers-Upmeijer J, de Jager AE, Hew JM, Snoek JW, van Weerden TW. Primary lateral sclero-

sis: clinical, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-try 2001;71:615-620.

6. Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A, et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.

7. Zhai P, Pagan F, Statland J, Butman JA, Floeter MK. Primary lateral sclerosis: A heterogeneous disorder composed of different subtypes? Neurology 2003;60:1258-1265.

8. Harding AE. Hereditary ”pure” spastic paraplegia: a clinical and genetic study of 22 families. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1981; 44:871-883.

9. McDermott C, White K, Bushby K, Shaw P. Hereditary spastic paraparesis: a review of new developments. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;69:150-160.

10. Nielsen JE, Krabbe K, Jennum P, et al. Autosomal dominant pure spastic paraplegia: a clinical, paraclinical, and genetic study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:61-66.

11. White KD, Ince PG, Lusher M, et al. Clinical and pathologic findings in hereditary spastic paraparesis with spastin mutation. Neurology 2000;55:89-94.

12. Fink JK. The hereditary spastic paraplegias: nine genes and counting. Arch Neurol 2003;60:1045-1049.

13. Simpson MA, Cross H, Proukakis C, et al. Maspardin is mutated in mast syndrome, a com-plicated form of hereditary spastic paraplegia associated with dementia. Am J Hum Genet 2003;73:1147-1156.

14. Blumen SC, Bevan S, Abu-Mouch S, et al. A locus for complicated hereditary spastic paraplegia maps to chromosome 1q24-q32. Ann Neurol 2003;54:796-803.

15. Hodgkinson CA, Bohlega S, Abu-Amero SN, et al. A novel form of autosomal recessive pure hereditary spastic paraplegia maps to chromosome 13q14. Neurology 2002;59:1905-1909.

16. Zortea M, Vettori A, Trevisan CP, et al. Genetic mapping of a susceptibility locus for disc her-niation and spastic paraplegia on 6q23.3-q24.1. J Med Genet 2002;39:387-390.

17. Wilkinson PA, Simpson MA, Bastaki L, et al. A new locus for autosomal recessive complicated hereditary spastic paraplegia (SPG26) maps to chromosome 12p11.1-12q14. J Med Genet 2005;42:80-82.

18. Meijer IA, Cossette P, Roussel J, Benard M, Toupin S, Rouleau GA. A novel locus for pure reces-sive hereditary spastic paraplegia maps to 10q22.1-10q24.1. Ann Neurol 2004;56:579-582.

19. Bouslam N, Benomar A, Azzedine H, et al. Mapping of a new form of pure autosomal recessive

26

Chapter 2

spastic paraplegia (SPG28). Ann Neurol 2005;57:567-571.20. Hazan J, Fonknechten N, Mavel D, et al. Spastin, a new AAA protein, is altered in the most

frequent form of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia. Nat Genet 1999;23:296-303. 21. Orlacchio A, Kawarai T, Totaro A, et al. Hereditary spastic paraplegia: clinical genetic study of

15 families. Arch Neurol 2004;61:849-855.22. Svenson IK, Ashley-Koch AE, Gaskell PC, et al. Identification and expression analysis of spastin

gene mutations in hereditary spastic paraplegia. Am J Hum Genet 2001;68:1077-1085.23. Patrono C, Scarano V, Cricchi F, et al. Autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia:

DHPLC-based mutation analysis of SPG4 reveals eleven novel mutations. Hum Mutat 2005;25:506.

24. Brooks BR, Miller RG, Swash M, Munsat TL. El Escorial revisited: revised criteria for the di-agnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2000;1:293-299.

25. Sauter S, Miterski B, Klimpe S, et al. Mutation analysis of the spastin gene (SPG4) in patients in Germany with autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia. Hum Mutat 2002;20:127-132.

26. Proukakis C, Auer-Grumbach M, Wagner K, et al. Screening of patients with hereditary spastic paraplegia reveals seven novel mutations in the SPG4 (Spastin) gene. Hum Mutat 2003;21:170.

27. Lindsey JC, Lusher ME, McDermott CJ, et al. Mutation analysis of the spastin gene (SPG4) in patients with hereditary spastic paraparesis. J Med Genet 2000;37:759-765.

28. McDermott CJ, Roberts D, Tomkins J, Bushby KM, Shaw PJ. Spastin and paraplegin gene anal-ysis in selected cases of motor neurone disease (MND). Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2003;4:96-99.

29. Wharton SB, McDermott CJ, Grierson AJ, et al. The cellular and molecular pathology of the motor system in hereditary spastic paraparesis due to mutation of the spastin gene. J Neuro-pathol Exp Neurol. 2003;62:1166-1177.

30. Bruyn RP, Koelman JH, Troost D, de Jong JM. Motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) arising from longstanding primary lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:742-744.

Chapter Three

Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes

F. Brugman, H. Scheffer, J.H.J. Wokke, W.M. Nillesen, M. de Visser, E. Aronica, J.H. Veldink, L.H. van den Berg

Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505

30

Chapter 3

Abstract

Objective: To investigate the frequency of autosomal recessive paraplegin mutations in patients with sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron (UMN) syndromes. Methods: We analyzed the paraplegin gene in 98 Dutch patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome. Inclusion criteria were a progressive UMN syndrome, adult-onset, duration >6 months and negative family history. Exclusion criteria were clinical or elec-trophysiological evidence of lower motor neuron loss and evidence of other causes using a predefined set of laboratory tests, including analysis of the spastin gene.Results: Seven patients had homozygous or compound heterozygous pathogenic paraple-gin mutations: six patients had UMN symptoms restricted to the legs and one had UMN symptoms in legs and arms. No mutations were found in the 33 patients with UMN in-volvement of the bulbar region. Age at onset was lower in the seven patients with paraple-gin mutations (37 years, range 34-42) than in the 91 patients without mutations (51 years, range 18-77, p = 0.001). Three of the seven patients with paraplegin mutations and none of the patients without mutations developed cerebellar signs during follow-up. Conclusions: Paraplegin mutations are a frequent cause of sporadic spastic paraparesis.

31

Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes

Introduction

Hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders, characterized by slowly progressive spastic paraparesis.1,2 As HSP may occur spo-radically, clinical differentiation from primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) may be problematic.3 PLS, a diagnosis of exclusion, is a rare sporadic disorder of progressive spino-bulbar spasti-city with mostly spinal and occasional bulbar region onset and is considered to be part of the clinical spectrum of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).4,5 There have been very few autopsies in both HSP and PLS, so the level of corticospinal tract dysfunction is not exactly known. Generally, symptomatic involvement of the arms or the bulbar region would favor a diagnosis of PLS,3,4 although atypical HSP phenotypes with dysarthria or spasticity in the arms have been described.6,7 Conversely, patients with PLS may present with spastic paraparesis for many years before involvement of the arms or of the bulbar region becomes evident.8 Some authors used an age at onset below 40 years to separate HSP from PLS9; however, several patients with typical PLS and onset before age 40 have been reported,4,5 while symptom onset after age 40 is not uncommon for HSP.10

Screening for mutations in known HSP genes may help to differentiate sporadic HSP from PLS and to provide a more specific diagnosis and prognosis. To date, 15 genes and more than 20 additional loci have been identified for autosomal dominant (AD), autosomal recessive (AR), and X-linked forms of HSP.11-18 We previously reported that mutation of the spastin gene (SPG4), the most frequent cause of pure AD HSP (about 40% of AD HSP),19 is a frequent cause of sporadic HSP (13%).10 The role of other known HSP genes in sporadic UMN syndromes is largely unknown. Hypothetically, AR forms of HSP could be relatively common in patients with sporadic HSP.Mutations of the paraplegin gene (SPG7) cause 1.5-6% of AR HSP and are associated with both pure and complex phenotypes with onset in childhood or adulthood.20-22 Paraple-gin is a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial metalloprotease protein that is a member of the AAA (ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities) protein family.23 Members of this protein family share an ATPase domain and have roles in diverse cellular processes including membrane trafficking, intracellular motility, organelle biogenesis, protein folding, and proteolysis.24

To investigate the frequency of paraplegin mutations in patients with sporadic UMN syndromes, we screened the paraplegin gene in 98 Dutch patients in whom spastin mutations had been excluded previously.

32

Chapter 3

Methods

PatientsThis study was carried out in patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome who were seen from 2003 to 2007 in the University Medical Center Utrecht, a referral center for motor neuron disorders in the Netherlands. Inclusion criteria were a progressive UMN syndrome, adult onset, duration >6 months, and negative family history. The bulbar region was considered affected if there was pseudobulbar dysarthria, and arms and legs were con-sidered affected if there were UMN signs associated with symptoms. Exclusion criteria were lower motor neuron (LMN) loss fulfilling revised El Escorial critera for clinically definite, clinically probable, or probable laboratory-supported ALS25 and evidence of other causes of a UMN syndrome using the following laboratory investigations: serum biochem-istry (including thyroid-stimulating hormone, angiotensin converting enzyme, vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin E), very long chain fatty acid analysis in plasma, serology (syphilis, borreliosis, human T-cell lymphotrophic virus type 1 and HIV), bile alcohol analysis in urine, and cerebral and spinal MRI. Mutation analysis of the spastin gene was performed in all patients, resulting in exclusion of seven patients with spastin gene mutation, who were reported previously.10 Our method of spastin gene analysis did not include techniques to identify deletions, which may be a frequent additional cause of HSP.18 The study was approved by the medical ethics review board of the University Medical Center in Utrecht and written informed consent was obtained from all patients.

Mutation analysisGenomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood lymphocytes according to standard procedures. All 17 coding exons as well as flanking intronic sequences of the paraplegin gene (GenBank reference sequence accession number NM_003119.2, National Center for Biotechnology Information were PCRs amplified from genomic DNA. The A of the ATG start codon in exon 1 is defined as “position 1” for the numbering of nucleotides in mutation and DNA-variant nomenclature. Primer sequences and amplification parameters are available online (appendix e-1 on the Neurology® Web site at www.neurology.org). Purified PCR products (using Multiscreen PCRµ96 filter plate, Millipore Carrigtwohill, CO Cork, Ireland) were directly sequenced on an ABI 3730 automated sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). Sequence changes were identified as mutations, based on the following criteria: 1) sequence changes are not reported as polymorphisms in different databases, 2) the changes are located in an evolutionary conserved region, 3) amino acid substitutions have an effect on a splice site, or have a chemical consequence, 4) different mutation prediction programs (e.g., PolyPhen [http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph/] and SIFT [http://blocks.fhcrc.org/sift/SIFT.html]) predict a pathogenic amino acid change, or predict an alteration of the effectiveness of a splice site (e.g., NetGene 2 [www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetGene2/] , SpliceSiteFinder [www.genet.sickkids.on.ca/~ali/splicesitefinder.html], or Fruitfly [www.fruitfly.org/seq_tools/splice.html], 5) changes have not been found

33


in over 200 control alleles, or 6) the changes lead to a premature stop codon or create/remove a splice acceptor or a splice donor site. If available, parental DNA was analyzed to confirm presence of the mutations in different paraplegin alleles. In addition, patients in whom only a single heterozygous pathogenic mutation could be identified, were subse-quently analyzed by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification to detect possible deletions or duplications within the paraplegin gene.

Results

Study populationClinical characteristics of the 98 patients included in this study are shown in Table 1. Three patients were of Asian, one of black African and the remaining of Caucasian ethnicity. Four patients had had parents who were related to each other. UMN symptoms were re-stricted to the legs in 49 patients, 16 patients had UMN symptoms in arms and legs, and 33 had bulbar region UMN involvement. Emotional lability was seen in 26 of the 33 patients with bulbar region UMN involvement.

Paraplegin sequence variantsWe detected known single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as reported in the dbSNP database (available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SNP), with similar frequencies (not shown). We found a further nine different paraplegin sequence variants, of which seven were novel, in 11 patients (table 2). The c.1454-1462del [p.Arg485_Glu487del] variant is a known pathogenic mutation.20,21 The c.1529C>T [p.Ala510Val] missense mutation was originally described as a polymorphism, but it causes a nonconservative amino acid change in a highly conserved region, computer programs predict it to be pathogenic, and a later study showed it to be significantly associated with HSP.22 The other seven detected variants were novel. Four are missense mutations that are probably pathogenic, as they cause a noncon-servative amino acid change in a conserved region (c.1045G>A [p.Gly349Ser], c.2014G>A [p.Gly672Arg], c.2069C>T [p.Pro690Leu], and c.2228T>C [p.Ile743Thr]) and computer models predict them to be pathogenic. Of the other three novel variants, the pathogenicity cannot be determined reliably. Two are missense mutations of uncertain pathogenicity, as they are located in a nonconserved region (c.2219A>G [p.Tyr740Cys]) or in a moderately conserved, but not functionally important, region (c.2275G>A [p.Ala759Thr]). One is an intronic mutation (c.IVS4+11_68del) that is unlikely to be pathogenic. Splice prediction programs show no or just a very moderate effect on its effectiveness. Pathogenicity cannot, however, be ruled out completely. One could imagine that other regulatory elements in the DNA sequence might be affected.

34

Chapter 3

Clinical features of patients with causative paraplegin mutations Seven patients had homozygous or compound heterozygous paraplegin mutations that were considered causative (known pathogenic mutations or novel mutations of probable pathogenicity). The clinical characteristics of these seven patients are shown in Table 3. The parents of patient 4, who had homozygous paraplegin mutations, were second cousins. At the time of inclusion, six of these patients had spastic paraparesis without bulbar region or arm involvement compatible with typical pure HSP. One patient (patient 7) also had UMN

Table 1. Characteristics of the 98 included patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syn-drome.

Characteristics No. (%) or median (range)

Male 61 (62)

Female 37 (38)

Age at onset, y 50 (18-77)

Duration, y 6 (1-29)

Site of onset

Bulbar 8 (8)

Spinal 90 (92)

Affected body regions

Bulbar 33 (34)

Arms 41 (42)

Legs 96 (98)

Legs only 49 (50)

Variant Effect on proteinPatient chromosomes

No. of patients Pathogenicity

c.1454-1462del p.Arg485_Glu487del 6 5 Confirmed

c.1529C>T p.Ala510Val 5 5 Confirmed

c.1045G>A p.Gly349Ser 2 2 Probable

c.2014G>A p.Gly672Arg 1 1 Probable

c.2069C>T p.Pro690Leu 1 1 Probable

c.2228T>C p.Ile743Thr 1 1 Probable

c.2219A>G p.Tyr740Cys 1 1 Uncertain

c.2275G>A p.Ala759Thr 1 1 Uncertain

c.IVS4+11_68del (intronic mutation) 1 1 Unlikely

Table 2. Paraplegin gene sequence variants, other than known polymorphisms, detected in the study popula-tion.

35


involvement of the arms, evolving simultaneously with the leg symptoms from disease onset, as determined by the presence of arm hyperreflexia associated with loss of dexterity. In addition, this patient developed cerebellar intention tremor without dysmetria of the arms during follow-up, 15 years from disease onset. Two of the other six patients developed cerebellar signs on follow-up: ataxic gait (patient 2, emerging 10 years from disease onset) and cerebellar dysarthria (patient 6, emerging 25 years from disease onset). Analysis of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) genes was considered in these patients, but was not proceeded when mutations in the paraplegin gene became known, which well explain this phenotype. However, a mutation of SCA genes was thus not formally excluded. Muscle biopsy was performed in one patient (patient 6) at age 42 and showed only minimal fiber size variabil-ity. Two-color histochemistry for succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) revealed 5 among a total of 958 fibers (0.52%) with intense SDH activity and devoid of COX activity. This frequency of COX-negative fibers may be slightly too high to be at-tributed to normal aging26 and might thus suggest mitochondrial oxidative phosphoryla-tion impairment, as reported previously in HSP due to paraplegin mutations.20,23 Median age at onset in these seven patients with paraplegin mutations (37 years, range 34-42) was lower than in the 91 patients without mutations (51 years, range 18-77, p = 0.001), while other clinical features were not significantly different.

Clinical features of patients with one paraplegin mutation or with two paraplegin variants of uncertain or unlikely pathogenicityThree patients who carried only one paraplegin mutation of confirmed, probable, or uncertain pathogenicity (c.1529C>T [p.Ala510Val], c.1045G>A [p.Gly349Ser], and c.2275G>A [p.Ala759Thr]) had a phenotype of pure spastic paraparesis. One patient who carried one missense mutation of uncertain pathogenicity (c.2219A>G [p.Tyr740Cys]) and one intronic mutation of unlikely pathogenicity (c.IVS4+11_68del) had a unilateral UMN syndrome of the right arm and leg, without bulbar region involvement.

Discussion

We screened the paraplegin gene in a large group of 98 sporadic patients with an adult-onset UMN syndrome in whom spastin mutation was excluded. We found known polymor-phisms and an additional nine sequence variants, seven of which were novel, in 11 patients. Seven patients had homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations of confirmed or probable pathogenicity and were, therefore, regarded as SPG7 patients. Median age at onset in the seven patients with paraplegin mutations was lower (37 years, range 34-42) than in the 91 patients without mutations (51 years, range 18-77, p = 0.001), similar to the age at onset in previously reported SPG7 patients (range 11-42 years).21,22,27 Some authors used an age at onset below 40 years to separate HSP from PLS9; however, several patients with typical PLS and onset before age 40 have been reported,4,5 while symptom onset after

36

Chapter 3

Pati

ent 1

Pati

ent 2

Pati

ent 3

Pati

ent 4

Pati

ent 5

Pati

ent 6

Pati

ent 7

Mut

atat

ions

at D

NA

le

vel

c.145

4-14

62de

lc.1

454-

1462

del

c.145

4-14

62de

lc.1

454-

1462

del

c.152

9C>T

c.145

4-14

62de

lc.1

045G

>A

c.152

9C>T

c.152

9C>T

c.152

9C>T

c.145

4-14

62de

lc.

2014

G>A

c.22

28T>

Cc.

2069

C>T

Effec

t at p

rote

in le

vel

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.A

la51

0Val

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.G

ly34

9Ser

p.A

la51

0Val

p.A

la51

0Val

p.A

la51

0Val

p.A

rg48

5_G

lu48

7del

p.G

ly67

2Arg

p.Ile

743Th

rp.

Pro6

90Le

u

Ethn

icity

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

nC

auca

sian

Cau

casia

n

Sex

FF

MM

FM

F

Ons

et ag

e, y

4239

3639

3734

35

Dise

ase d

urat

ion,

y8

710

810

2314

Bulb

ar re

gion

Dys

arth

riaN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

o

Arm

s

Sym

ptom

sN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oYe

s

Spas

ticity

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Wea

knes

sN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

o

Hyp

erre

flexi

aN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oN

oYe

s

Legs Sy

mpt

oms

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Spas

ticity

Mild

Mild

Mild

Mild

Mild

Mild

Mild

Wea

knes

sYe

sYe

sN

oN

oN

oN

oN

o

Tab

le 3

. Clin

ical

char

acte

rist

ics o

f the

seve

n pa

tient

s with

hom

ozyg

ous o

r com

poun

d he

tero

zygo

us p

atho

geni

c par

aple

gin

mut

atio

ns

37


Tab

le 3

. Con

tinue

d

Hyp

erre

flexi

aYe

sYe

sYe

sN

oYe

sYe

sYe

s

Babi

nski

sign

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Wal

king

abili

tyU

naid

ed o

r can

eU

naid

ed o

r can

eU

naid

edC

ane o

r wal

ker

Una

ided

Can

eW

alke

r

Add

ition

al fe

atur

es

Blad

der d

ysfu

nc ti

onN

oYe

sN

oYe

sYe

sN

oYe

s

MR

I bra

inN

orm

alN

orm

alN

orm

alN

orm

alN

orm

alC

ereb

ella

r atr

ophy

Nor

mal

Follo

w-u

p

Cer

ebel

lar s

igns

-Sp

astic

-ata

xic

gait

--

-C

ereb

ella

r dys

arth

riaIn

tent

ion

trem

or

38

Chapter 3

age 40 is not uncommon for some other genetic types of HSP, including the most frequent form of HSP associated with spastin gene mutation (SPG4).10 In addition, several patients with typical PLS and onset before age 40 have been reported.4,5 For these reasons, we feel that defining HSP and PLS on the basis of age at onset is difficult. We restricted our study to patients with onset after age 18 because we wanted to focus on adult patients and to avoid overlap with the familial infantile/juvenile forms of PLS.Previous studies in HSP families indicated that paraplegin mutations are not a common cause of HSP (less than 6%).20-22 Two previous studies investigated smaller numbers of patients with sporadic HSP: one study found paraplegin mutations in 2 out of 29 sporadic patients (~7%)21 while the other study detected no paraplegin mutations in 8 patients.20 Our study population included 49 patients with UMN symptoms only in the legs, 16 patients with UMN symptoms in arms and legs, and 33 patients with bulbar region UMN involve-ment. A high frequency of causative paraplegin mutations was found in the patients with UMN symptoms restricted to the legs, similar to the typical pure HSP phenotype (12% of spastin negative patients; 11% if the 7 patients with spastin mutation are not excluded). In the 16 patients with UMN symptoms in legs and arms in our study, only one patient had causative paraplegin mutations (6%). This patient had hyperreflexia associated with loss of dexterity of the arms, as has been reported previously in otherwise pure HSP, also in patients with paraplegin mutations.6,21 Both previously reported sporadic SPG7 patients also had UMN involvement of the arms (spasticity and hyperreflexia),21 which was seen in only one of our seven sporadic SPG7 patients.The absence of causative paraplegin mutations in our 33 patients with bulbar region UMN involvement, and the results of a previous study that found no causative paraplegin mutations in eight PLS patients28, indicate that paraplegin mutations do not appear to be frequent cause of PLS. One previous study reported two SPG7 patients with dysarthria (hypernasal and slowed speech) in the absence of cerebellar signs, possibly reflecting spastic dysarthria.27 Other studies that reported dysarthria in SPG7 patients described cerebellar dysarthria.21,22

In three of our seven patients with paraplegin mutations the phenotype was complicat-ed during follow-up by cerebellar signs (intention tremor of the arms, spastic-ataxic gait, or cerebellar dysarthria), emerging many years after disease onset (range 10 to 25 years). Cerebellar involvement is the most frequent additional feature in patients with (complicat-ed) HSP due to paraplegin mutations and was also recorded in the two previously reported sporadic SPG7 patients.21 As none of our patients without paraplegin mutations developed cerebellar involvement, its appearance could be an important clinical clue for paraplegin mutations as a cause in sporadic UMN syndromes.In patients with a UMN syndrome a careful family history and examination of family members remain important. The referring neurologists of our patients generally included examination of family members where possible. In addition, before inclusion in our study, we carefully re-reviewed the family history of all patients. This selection of patients may resemble clinical practice, where the possibility of examining family members may be

39


limited by various causes (death, broken family ties, ethical issues, lack of cooperation). Our results support offering paraplegin gene analysis, after exclusion of spastin gene mutation, to sporadic patients with an unexplained UMN syndrome without bulbar region UMN symptoms, particularly in the younger patients and if cerebellar symptoms emerge. However, the frequency of rare nucleotide variants of uncertain pathogenicity may complicate interpretation,22 as was the case in one patient in this study who carried two novel paraplegin variants of uncertain (c.2219A>G [p.Tyr740Cys]) or unlikely pathogenic-ity (c.IVS4+11_68del). Future studies in other populations may help to determine whether such novel paraplegin variants are associated with disease. Finding causative mutations is important both from a diagnostic and prognostic point of view. Genetic counseling can be offered to the patient and family members. Patients can be told that they have HSP, not PLS, and can be reassured that progression to ALS, as may occur in PLS,29 is not to be expected. The specific clinical features of SPG7 can be discussed with the patient, including the possibility of developing a complicated HSP phenotype, which could cause additional disability compared to pure HSP.This study shows that paraplegin mutations are a frequent cause in patients with sporadic spastic paraparesis who are negative for spastin mutation (paraplegin mutations in 12%), less so in patients who also have UMN symptoms in the arms (6%), and not in patients with UMN involvement of the bulbar region. The number of known HSP genes is expanding rapidly.11-17 Future studies should determine the extent to which these are implicated in sporadic HSP and PLS.

40

Chapter 3

References

1. Harding AE. Hereditary “pure” spastic paraplegia: a clinical and genetic study of 22 families. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1981;44:871-883.




5. Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.

6. Nielsen JE, Krabbe K, Jennum P et al. Autosomal dominant pure spastic paraplegia: a clinical, paraclinical, and genetic study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:61-66.

7. White KD, Ince PG, Lusher M et al. Clinical and pathologic findings in hereditary spastic para-paresis with spastin mutation. Neurology 2000;55:89-94.

8. Zhai P, Pagan F, Statland J, Butman JA, Floeter MK. Primary lateral sclerosis: A heterogeneous disorder composed of different subtypes? Neurology 2003;60:1258-1265.

9. Gordon PH, Cheng B, Katz IB et al. The natural history of primary lateral sclerosis. Neurology 2006;66:647-653.

10. Brugman F, Wokke JH, Scheffer H, Versteeg MH, Sistermans EA, van den Berg LH. Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Ann Neurol 2005;58:865-869.


12. Simpson MA, Cross H, Proukakis C et al. Maspardin is mutated in mast syndrome, a com-Maspardin is mutated in mast syndrome, a com-plicated form of hereditary spastic paraplegia associated with dementia. Am J Hum Genet 2003;73:1147-1156.

13. Windpassinger C, Auer-Grumbach M, Irobi J et al. Heterozygous missense mutations in BSCL2 are associated with distal hereditary motor neuropathy and Silver syndrome. Nat Genet 2004;36:271-276.

14. Zuchner S, Wang G, Tran-Viet KN et al. Mutations in the novel mitochondrial protein REEP1 cause hereditary spastic paraplegia type 31. Am J Hum Genet 2006;79:365-369.

15. Mannan AU, Krawen P, Sauter SM et al. ZFYVE27 (SPG33), a novel spastin-binding protein, is mutated in hereditary spastic paraplegia. Am J Hum Genet 2006;79:351-357.

16. Valdmanis PN, Meijer IA, Reynolds A et al. Mutations in the KIAA0196 gene at the SPG8 locus cause hereditary spastic paraplegia. Am J Hum Genet 2007;80:152-161.

17. Stevanin G, Santorelli FM, Azzedine H et al. Mutations in SPG11, encoding spatacsin, are a major cause of spastic paraplegia with thin corpus callosum. Nat Genet 2007;39:366-372.

18. Hanein S, Durr A, Ribai P et al. A novel locus for autosomal dominant “uncomplicated” heredi-tary spastic paraplegia maps to chromosome 8p21.1-q13.3. Hum Genet 2007;122:261-273.

41


19. Hazan J, Fonknechten N, Mavel D et al. Spastin, a new AAA protein, is altered in the most frequent form of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia. Nat Genet 1999;23:296-303.

20. McDermott CJ, Dayaratne RK, Tomkins J et al. Paraplegin gene analysis in hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) pedigrees in northeast England. Neurology 2001;56:467-471.

21. Wilkinson PA, Crosby AH, Turner C et al. A clinical, genetic and biochemical study of SPG7 mutations in hereditary spastic paraplegia. Brain 2004;127:973-980.

22. Elleuch N, Depienne C, Benomar A et al. Mutation analysis of the paraplegin gene (SPG7) in patients with hereditary spastic paraplegia. Neurology 2006;66:654-659.

23. Casari G, De Fusco M, Ciarmatori S et al. Spastic paraplegia and OXPHOS impairment caused by mutations in paraplegin, a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial metalloprotease. Cell 1998;93:973-983.

24. Patel S, Latterich M. The AAA team: related ATPases with diverse functions. Trends Cell Biol 1998;8:65-71.


26. Muller-Hocker J. Cytochrome c oxidase deficient fibres in the limb muscle and diaphragm of man without muscular disease: an age-related alteration. J Neurol Sci 1990;100:14-21.

27. De Michele G, De Fusco M, Cavalcanti F et al. A new locus for autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia maps to chromosome 16q24.3. Am J Hum Genet 1998;63:135-139.

28. McDermott CJ, Roberts D, Tomkins J, Bushby KM, Shaw PJ. Spastin and paraplegin gene anal-ysis in selected cases of motor neurone disease (MND). Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2003;4:96-99.


Chapter Four

Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes

F. Brugman, H. Scheffer, H.J. Schelhaas, W.M. Nillesen, J.H.J. Wokke, B.P.C. van de Warrenburg, L.H. van den Berg

Journal of Neurology 2009;256:824-826

44

Chapter 4

Abstract

Two known mutations (c.263G>A/p.N88S and c.269C>T/p.S90L) in exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene (SPG17) can cause a range of AD (mixed) upper and lower motor neuron disorders, including pure and complicated forms of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP), which may also present as a sporadic disease. To investigate whether these two seipin/BSCL2 mutations are present in patients with sporadic HSP and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), we screened exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene in 86 Dutch patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndrome. No exon 3 mutations were detected, indicating that the seipin/BSCL2 exon 3 mutations are not a common cause of sporadic pure HSP and PLS. Therefore, our results do not support including the Seipin/BSCL2 gene in the group of first-choice HSP genes to screen for mutations during the diagnostic work-up of sporadic HSP and PLS.

45

Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset UMN

Introduction

The ability to distinguish between sporadic presentations of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is important in terms of prognostication and genetic counseling, but clinical differentiation is problematic.1 PLS is a sporadic disorder of progressive spino-bulbar spasticity, and may be part of the clinical spectrum of amyo-trophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).2 HSP is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis.3,4

To date, 15 genes and more than 20 additional loci have been identified for autosomal dominant (AD), autosomal recessive and X-linked forms of HSP.5,6 Spastin gene (SPG4) mutation is the most frequent cause of AD HSP (around 40% of the families), and is also frequent in sporadic HSP (13%), but not in PLS.7 We recently found pathogenic paraple-gin gene (SPG7) mutations in 11% of patients with sporadic HSP.8 The role of other HSP genes in sporadic upper motor neuron (UMN) syndromes is largely unknown. Two known mutations (c.263G>A/p.N88S and c.269C>T/p.S90L) in exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene (SPG17) can cause a range of AD (mixed) upper and lower motor neuron disorders, including Silver syndrome (HSP with amyotrophy of the hands), variants of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2, distal hereditary motor neuropathy type V (dHMNV), but also pure and complicated forms of HSP.9-11 Because of incomplete penetrance, seipin/BSCL2 mutation can manifest as a sporadic disease.13

Methods

To investigate whether these two seipin/BSCL2 mutations are present in patients with sporadic HSP and PLS, we screened exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene in 86 Dutch patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome. Inclusion criteria were a gradually progressive UMN syndrome, adult-onset, disease duration >6 months, and a negative family history. Exclusion criteria were lower motor neuron loss meeting the revised El Escorial criteria for clinically definite, clinically probable, or probable laboratory-supported ALS12 and evidence of other causes of a UMN syndrome based on a battery of laboratory investiga-tions. including serum biochemistry (including thyroid-stimulating hormone, angiotensin converting enzyme, vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin E), analysis of very long chain fatty acids in plasma, serology (syphilis, borreliosis, human T cell lymphotrophic virus type 1 and human immunodeficiency virus), bile alcohol analysis in urine, and cerebral and spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). SPG4 and SPG7 mutations were excluded in all patients. The study was approved by the medical ethics review board of the University Medical Center in Utrecht and written informed consent was obtained from all patients.Mutation screening of the seipin/BSCL2 gene was performed using automated forward and reverse direct sequencing of exon 3. BSCL2 exon 3 was amplified by PCR using intronic primers (primer sequences available on request), and the PCR products were

46

Chapter 4

loaded on an Applied Biosystems 3730 DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). Sequence data were analyzed using Phred-PolyPhred software (CodonCode, Dedham, WA) and compared to the BSCL2 reference sequence (GenBank accession number NM_032667).

Results

Clinical characteristics of the 86 included patients are shown in Table 1. No exon 3 mutations were detected. A previously reported, non-pathogenic polymorphism (c.294+11 G>T)13 was identified in 27 patients (Table 2). This allele frequency is consistent with a previous report13, and with our own data (minor allele frequency of c.294+11 G>T of 0.20 in 50 unrelated reference samples from unaffected individuals).

Table 1. Characteristics of the 86 patients of our study with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndrome.

Sex, n (%)

Male 56 (65)

Female 30 (35)

Age at onset, years, median (range) 51 (18 – 77)

Disease duration, years, median (range) 6 (1 – 29)

Site of onset, n (%)

Bulbar region 7 (8)

Arms 3 (3)

Legs 76 (88)

Affected body regions, n (%)

Bulbar and spinal 32 (37)

Arms and legs 14 (16)

Legs only 40 (47)

Needle EMG

Number of patients studied, n 69

Abnormal, n (%) 37 (54)

EMG, electromyography; abnormal, mild signs of active or chronic denervation (not fulfilling EL Escorial Criteria for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis12).

47

Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset UMN

Discussion

We did not search for seipin/BSCL2 mutations outside exon 3. Results from previous studies, however, suggest that the c.263G>A (p.N88S) and c.269C>T (p.S90L) mutations in exon 3 are probably the only two seipin/BSCL2 mutations associated with Silver syndrome and dHMNV and that, therefore, seipin/BSCL2 mutation analysis for these disorders may be restricted to exon 3.13 Both of these exon 3 mutations destroy a predicted N-glycosylation site of the seipin protein, which probably causes the accumulation of misfolded mutant seipin in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), leading to cell death as a result of ER stress.14

Our population included 40 patients with a phenotype of spastic paraparesis, similar to pure HSP. In families with the seipin/BSCL2 mutation, the frequency of an HSP phenotype has been observed to be as high as 10% of the patients.10 The other 46 patients in our study had symptomatic UMN involvement of the arms or bulbar region, which may suggest a diagnosis of PLS.1,2 The results of our study indicate that the seipin/BSCL2 exon 3 mutations are not a common cause of sporadic pure HSP and PLS. Therefore, they do not support including the Seipin/BSCL2 gene in the group of first-choice HSP genes to screen for mutations during the diagnostic work-up of sporadic HSP and PLS.

Polymorphism Number of patients

c.294+11 G>T 27

Heterozygous 25

Homozygous 2

Table 2. Frequency of the seipin/BSCL2 exon 3 polymorphism in 86 patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndrome.

48

Chapter 4

References

1 Fink JK. Progressive spastic paraparesis: hereditary spastic paraplegia and its relation to primary and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Semin Neurol 2001;21:199-207.





6. Dick KJ, Al-Mjeni R, Baskir W, et al. A novel locus for an autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia (SPG35) maps to 16q21-q23. Neurology 2008;71:248-52.


8. Brugman F, Scheffer H, Wokke JHJ, et al. Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505.

9. Windpassinger C, Auer-Grumbach M, Irobi J, et al. Heterozygous missense mutations in BSCL2 are associated with distal hereditary motor neuropathy and Silver syndrome. Nat Genet 2004;36:271-276.

10. Auer-Grumbach M, Schlotter-Weigel B, Lochmuller H, et al. Phenotypes of the N88S Berar-dinelli-Seip congenital lipodystrophy 2 mutation. Ann Neurol 2005;57:415-424.

11. van de Warrenburg BP, Scheffer H, van Eijk JJ, et al. BSCL2 mutations in two Dutch families with overlapping Silver syndrome-distal hereditary motor neuropathy. Neuromuscul Disord 2006;16:122-125.


13. Rohkamm B, Reilly MM, Lochmuller H, et al. Further evidence for genetic heterogeneity of distal HMN type V, CMT2 with predominant hand involvement and Silver syndrome. J Neu-rol Sci 2007;263:100-106.

14. Ito D, Suzuki N. Molecular pathogenesis of seipin/BSCL2-related motor neuron diseases. Ann Neurol 2007;61:237-250.

Chapter Five

Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 gene

F. Brugman, E. Eymard-Pierre, L.H. van den Berg, J.H.J. Wokke, F. Gauthier-Barichard, O. Boespflug-Tanguy

Neurology 2007;69:702-704

52

Chapter 5

Abstract

Recessive mutations in ALS2 cause early-onset upper motor neuron diseases, including infantile ascending hereditary spastic paralysis, juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS2), and juvenile primary lateral sclerosis (PLS). To assess the role of ALS2 in adult-on-set PLS, a population of 51 PLS patients was screened for ALS2 mutations. No mutations were found. This indicates that mutations of ALS2 are not a common cause of adult-onset PLS.

53

Adult-onset PLS is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 gene

Introduction

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with an adult-onset gradually progressive pure upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome. It has been debated whether PLS is a separate disease or part of the spectrum of ALS. Adult-onset PLS is almost always sporadic; it can, however, be a rare manifestation of familial ALS (FALS).1 Homozygous mutations in the ALS2 gene are causative for autosomal recessive, early-on-set forms of UMN diseases described as infantile ascending hereditary spastic paralysis (IAHSP)2 and juvenile primary lateral sclerosis (JPLS).3,4 They are also rarely associated with lower motor neuron (LMN) involvement (juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS2).3,4 Whether ALS2 mutations may also cause adult-onset PLS is not known. We, therefore, analyzed the ALS2 gene in 51 Dutch patients with adult-onset PLS.

Methods

We included 51 Dutch patients (31 men and 20 women) with a progressive UMN syndrome of adult onset (median 51 years, range 18 to 76 years) and a median disease duration of 8 years (range 2 to 25 years). Onset was in the legs in 39, in the arms in 3, and in the bulbar region in 9 patients. At inclusion, 37 patients had spinal and bulbar UMN symptoms, 10 in arms and legs, 2 in the legs only, and another 2 in the bulbar region only. No patient had clinical evidence of generalized LMN involvement, and known causes of UMN loss were excluded using cerebal and spinal MRI and laboratory investigations (including thyroid-stimulating hormone, vitamin B12, folate, vitamin E, very long chain fatty acid analysis in plasma, bile alcohol analysis in urine, and serology for syphilis, Lyme disease, HTLV-1 and HIV). One patient had a family history of FALS and was previously reported (Family B).1 Family history was negative for HSP, and mutation of the spastin gene (SPG4) had been excluded in 49 of the 51 patients.For all patients, the 34 exons and the flanking splice sites were amplified from genomic DNA and analyzed for sequence variation by denaturing high-performance liquid chro-matography (DHPLC, Transgenomic WAWE system).3 Samples in which variants were detected on the chromatogram were sequenced2 to confirm and identify the sequence change. To validate our DHLPC conditions, the genomic DNA of 25 patients we previ-ously tested positive for ALS2 mutations or sequence variants by direct sequencing was also analysed by DHLPC, and 4 PLS patients in the current study were screened for ALS2 mutations by both DHPLC and direct sequencing techniques.

54

Chapter 5

Results

Fourteen ALS2 sequence variants were detected (table). Thirteen of these variants are known single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) present in the SNP database (available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SNP/). The 4116A>G variant is a new sequence variant that substitutes isoleucine at position 1371 by methionine. Isoleucine and methionine are identically hydrophobic residues, and the position 1371 is not part of a known critical domain of the ALS2 protein. The frequency of each ALS2 variant in our PLS patients was compared to the control values.5 This control population, similar to our PLS cohort, has a Caucasian origin (French, French Canadian, and Dutch subjects). No statistical differences were found between our PLS cohort and the control population using the conditional form of the 2-tailed Fisher exact test, assuming independent inheritance of each variant (table).

Discussion

In our population of adult-onset PLS patients, we identified only SNPs and sequence variants without pathogenic significance, suggesting that ALS2 mutations are not a common cause of adult-onset PLS. ALS2 mutated patients reported as JPLS and IAHSP show a homogeneous phenotype of onset of spastic paraparesis in the first 2 years of life pro-gressing to spastic tetraparesis within the first decade and with development a pseudobulbar syndrome within the second decade. Our population of adult-onset PLS patients showed a widely variable age of onset and included patients with disease onset in the legs, but also patients with bulbar or arm onset, indicating that adult-onset PLS is a more heteroge-neous clinical entity than JPLS and IAHSP. Similar results were obtained in two previous studies that screened for ALS2 gene mutations among patients mostly with sporadic and familial ALS.5,6 These studies, however, included only three patients with PLS compared with 51 in our study. Identical to our PLS population, the age of onset was always after the first decade. This indicates that ALS2 mutations are limited to rare, autosomal recessive, early-onset forms of UMN diseases described as IAHSP and JPLS and rarely associated with LMN involvement in ALS2. In addition, we found no statistical differences in the frequency of each ALS2 variant in our PLS patients compared with a control population. Future collaborative studies may enable performance of association studies in larger groups of patients to further determine whether specific ALS2 variants increase susceptibility or modify disease in PLS.

55


Tab

le. D

NA

sequ

ence

varia

nts d

etec

ted

in a

popu

latio

n of

51

patie

nts w

ith P

LS.

Det

ails,

loca

tion,

and

geno

mic

cont

ext o

f eac

h se

quen

ce va

riant

. Var

iant

s are

giv

en ac

cord

ing t

o pu

blish

ed g

uide

lines

.7 For

codi

ng va

riant

s, th

e num

ber r

efer

s to

the p

ositi

on in

th

e ALS

2 m

RN

A re

fere

nce s

eque

nce N

M_0

2091

9 w

ith st

art c

odon

AT

G at

nuc

leot

ide +

1. F

or in

tron

ic va

riant

s, th

e num

ber r

efer

s to

the n

umbe

r of b

ase p

airs

from

the d

onor

sit

e (+)

or a

ccep

tor s

ite (-

) of t

he in

tron

(IV

S).

PLS

= pr

imar

y lat

eral

scle

rosis

; SN

P =

singl

e-nu

cleo

tide p

olym

orph

ism; N

A =

not

appl

icab

le; (

/) =

no

ref S

NP

avai

labl

e.

Var

iant

Ref

SN

P (r

s no.

)E

xon

or in

tron

no.

Am

ino

acid

cha

nge

No.

of p

atie

nts w

ith

vari

ants

(gen

otyp

e)Fr

eque

ncy

(%)

p V

alue

PLS

Con

trol

Cod

ing

1102

A>G

rs32

1915

64

p.V

368M

6 (4

:A/G

) (2

:G/G

)7.

810

0.67

2483

A>G

rs22

7661

513

p.V

820V

18 (1

2:G

/G)

(6:A

/G)

29.4

370.

22

2793

C>T

rs32

1916

115

p.S9

30S

5 (C

/T)

4.9

5.3

0.99

3882

A>G

rs34

9461

0525

p.A

1294

A1

(A/G

)0.

980

0.36

4012

C>T

rs32

1916

826

p.L1

337L

8 (5

:T/T

) (3

:C/T

)12

.76.

80.

12

4116

A>G

/26

p.I1

371M

2 (A

/G)

1.96

00.

13

Intr

onic

IVS4

-27A

>Grs

7585

706

4N

A14

(A/G

)13

.72

13.7

0.99

IVS1

0-62

C>T

rs37

3703

010

NA

1 (T

/T)

1.96

00.

13

IVS9

-213

C>T

rs38

2096

79

NA

2 (C

/T)

1.96

1.6

0.99

IVS2

6-64

A>G

rs12

1094

026

NA

2 (A

/G)

1.96

00.

13

IVS2

0-75

A>G

rs32

1916

320

NA

9 (6

:A/G

) (3:

G/G

)11

.718

.40.

18

IVS2

9+7G

>Ars

3219

169

29N

A11

(8:A

/G) (

3:A

/A)

13.7

17.9

0.41

IVS2

9-48

T>C

rs32

1917

029

NA

7 (C

/C)

13.7

100.

34

IVS3

0-69

T>A

rs32

1917

130

NA

23 (1

6:A

/A) (

7:A

/T)

3829

0.11

56

Chapter 5

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the participation of the patients.This work was supported by grants from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development and the Association pour la Recherche sur la Sclerose Latérale Amyotro-phique (ARS). E.E.-P. is supported by the Jean Pierre and Nancy Boespflug Myopathic Research Foundation.

57


References

1. Brugman F, Wokke JH, Vianney de Jong JM, Franssen H, Faber CG, van den Berg LH. Primary lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS. Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779.

2. Eymard-Pierre E, Lesca G, Dollet S, et al. Infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis is associated with mutations in the alsin gene. Am J Hum Genet 2002;71:518-527.

3. Hadano S, Hand CK, Osuga H, et al. A gene encoding a putative GTPase regulator is mutated in familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2. Nat Genet 2001;29:166-173.

4. Yang Y, Hentati A, Deng HX, et al. The gene encoding alsin, a protein with three guanine-nu-cleotide exchange factor domains, is mutated in a form of recessive amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nat Genet 2001;29:160-165.

5. Hand CK, Devon RS, Gros-Louis F, et al. Mutation screening of the ALS2 gene in sporadic and familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Arch Neurol 2003;60:1768-1771.

6. Al-Chalabi A, Hansen VK, Simpson CL, et al. Variants in the ALS2 gene are not associated with sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurogenetics 2003;4:221-222.

7. Antonarakis SE. Recommendations for a nomenclature system for human gene mutations. No-menclature Working Group. Human Mutat 1998;11:1-3.

Chapter Six

Differentiation of hereditary spastic paraparesis from primary lateral sclerosis in sporadic adult-onset upper

motor neuron syndromes

F. Brugman, J.H. Veldink, H. Franssen, M. de Visser, J.M.B. Vianney de Jong, C.G. Faber, H.P.H. Kremer, H.J. Schelhaas, P.A. van Doorn, J.J.G.M. Verschuuren, R.P.M. Bruyn, J.B.M. Kuks,

W. Robberecht, J.H.J. Wokke, L.H. van den Berg

Archives of Neurology 2009;66:509-514

60

Chapter 6

Abstract

Objective: To study whether clinical characteristics can differentiate sporadic presenta-tions of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) from primary lateral sclerosis (PLS). Differen-tiation between these diseases is important for genetic counseling and prognostication. Design: Case series.Setting: Tertiary referral center.Patients: One hundred and four Dutch patients with an adult-onset, sporadic upper motor neuron syndrome of at least three years’ duration. HSP was genetically confirmed in 14 patients (7 with SPG4 and 7 with SPG7 mutations).Results: All 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation had symptom onset in the legs, and 1 of the patients with the SPG7 mutation also developed symptoms in the arms. Of the other 90 patients, 78 (87%) had symptom onset in the legs. Thirty-six patients developed a PLS phenotype (bulbar region involvement), 15 had a phenotype that was difficult to classify as similar to HSP or PLS (involvement of legs and arms only), and 39 continued to have a phenotype similar to typical HSP (involvement of the legs only). Median age at onset was lower in patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation (39 [range, 29-69] years), but there was considerable overlap with patients with the PLS phenotype (52 [range, 32-76] years). No differences were found in the features used by previous studies to distinguish HSP from PLS, including evidence of mild dorsal column impairment (decreased vibratory sense or abnormal leg abnormal leg somatosensory evoked potentials), symptoms of urinary urgency, or mild EMG abnormalities.Conclusions: In most patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndrome, differentiation of sporadic presentations of HSP from PLS based on clinical characteristics is unreliable and therefore depends on results of genetic testing.

61

Differentiation of HSP from PLS in sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes

Introduction

In patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome, clinical differentiation between primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) and hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) can be problematic.1 PLS is a rare sporadic disorder of progressive spino-bulbar spasticity with mostly spinal and occasionally bulbar region onset.2-12 HSP is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by a slowly pro-gressive spastic paraparesis.1,13 To date, 15 genes and more than 20 additional loci have been identified for autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked forms of HSP.14-21 To exclude HSP, current diagnostic criteria for PLS require absence of a family history.5 However, researchers increasingly recognize that the apparently sporadic occurrence of HSP is not uncommon, and mutations of the spastin (SPG4) and paraplegin (SPG7) genes are a frequent cause.1,22,23

Differentiation between HSP and PLS is important for genetic counseling of family members and for the patients’ prognosis because HSP generally has a more favorable prognosis than PLS.1 Furthermore, progression to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), as may occur in PLS,24 is not expected in HSP. Symptomatic UMN involvement of the arms and particularly of the bulbar region is unusual in pure HSP and would favor a diagnosis of PLS.1,25 PLS may, however, present with a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis of the legs, similar to the typical HSP phenotype, for many years before onset of arm or bulbar region symptoms.1,9 To separate apparently sporadic HSP from PLS, previous studies used several clinical features, such as an age at onset of younger than 40 years,10 evidence of mild dorsal column impairment such as decreased vibratory sensation in the distal legs or abnormal leg somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs),1 and symptoms of urinary urgency,1,5 but how appropriate these criteria are has yet to be validated.To study whether clinical characteristics can be used to differentiate between sporadic presentations of HSP and PLS in patients with apparently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes, we performed a nationwide search for patients in The Netherlands.

Methods

PatientsFrom November 1, 2002, through March 31, 2005, all Dutch neurologists were asked to enroll patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset idiopathic UMN syndrome. In addition, 1 large referral center for patients with motor neuron disease in Leuven, Belgium, agreed to participate. The study protocol was approved by the medical ethics review board of the University Medical Center Utrecht, and written informed consent was obtained from each patient.Inclusion criteria were a gradually progressive UMN syndrome with adult onset (age, ≥18 years) and a disease duration of at least 3 years. Exclusion criteria were a positive family

62

Chapter 6

history, clinical evidence of generalized lower motor neuron involvement fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria for clinically probable or clinically definite ALS,26 the presence of cer-ebellar or extrapyramidal signs, the presence of sensory signs other than decreased distal vibration sensation (absent at the ankles), and other causes of UMN loss that were investi-gated using a predefined series of laboratory tests. The presence of mild focal amyotrophy limited to 1 or 2 muscles in 1 region and presence of fasciculation were allowed. Additional laboratory investigations were performed to exclude other causes, including serum bio-chemistry, plasma levels of vitamin B12 and E, thyrotropin, and very–long-chain fatty acids, biliary alcohol levels in urine; serologic testing for syphilis, Lyme disease, human T-lym-photropic virus I, and human immunodeficiency virus infection; and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and the spinal cord. Diagnostic MRI white matter changes, for example abnormalities suggestive of demyelinating disorders or leukodystrophy, and the presence of a thin corpus callosum were not allowed. We required that appropriate needle electromyography (EMG) had been performed at least 3 years after disease onset to exclude (laboratory-supported) ALS, according to the revised El Escorial criteria.26 DNA analysis of the spastin gene (SPG4) (GenBank AJ246001, OMIM *604277), the most common cause of autosomal-dominant pure HSP,27 and the paraplegin gene (SPG7) (GenBank Y16610, OMIM *602783), which causes a form of autosomal recessive HSP with pure or complicated phenotypes,28 was performed in all patients. HSP was genetically confirmed in 14 patients (7 with SPG4 and 7 with SPG7 mutations) as published previously.22,23 In approximately 75% of our patients, we performed additional genetic tests using multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification to identify SPG4 exonic microdeletions,29 but none were found. Clinical evaluationThe bulbar region was considered affected if pseudobulbar dysarthria was present. The arms and legs were considered affected if there was at least 1 of the following findings on neurological examination results: spasticity (defined as a modified Ashworth scale30 score ≥2), obvious loss of dexterity due to spasticity (evaluated at examination), pathological hy-perreflexia (defined as Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke myotatic reflex scale31 score of 4 or 5 or extensor plantar response), or a UMN paresis (Medical Research Council paresis grade of no greater than 4).32 We classified patients as having asymmetry if, for any affected body region, spasticity (modified Ashworth Scale score of ≥2), paresis (Medical Research Council paresis grade of ≤4), or dexterity loss were only present unilaterally. Functional impairment was assessed using the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Functional Rating Scale.33

At inclusion, patients underwent standardized needle-EMG of 3 muscles per limb and 2 thoracic and 3 bulbar muscles, with the findings interpreted according to the revised El Escorial criteria.26 Diagnosis of probable laboratory-supported ALS according to the revised El Escorial criteria requires that at least 2 regions fulfill the EMG criteria. Results of leg SSEP studies were available for 33 patients, and the results were classified as normal or abnormal.

63


Statistical AnalysisDifferences between groups were tested using Pearson χ2 and Fisher exact test. We used the Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann-Whitney tests to evaluate differences in the case of nonnormal distribution of values. Statistical analysis was performed by one of us (F.B.).

Results

Patient characteristicsThe medical files of 182 eligible patients were screened for this study. Of these, 23 were unable or unwilling to participate, and 55 were excluded on the basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria. In 14 of the remaining 104 patients, a pathogenic mutation of the spastin (SPG4) or paraplegin (SPG7) gene was found (7 with SPG4 and 7 with SPG7 mutations).22,23 In the 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation, 13 had a typical pure HSP phenotype with only leg involvement, and 1 patient with the SPG7 mutation also developed UMN symptoms of the arms (arm hyperreflexia associated with loss of dexterity) after 1 year. Of the other 90 patients, 39 had a phenotype similar to typical pure HSP (involvement of the legs only), 36 had bulbar region involvement suggestive of PLS, and 15 patients had a phenotype that was difficult to classify as being similar to HSP or suggestive of PLS (UMN involvement of arms and legs). Of the 36 patients with bulbar region involvement, 28 also had symptoms in the arms and legs, 2 patients in the legs, and 2 in the arms. The patients’ characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Value of clinical characteristics for identification of HSPThe pattern of disease progression in the 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation and the other 90 patients with a sporadic UMN syndrome is shown in Table 2. All 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation and 78 of the other patients with sporadic UMN disease (87%) had symptom onset in the legs. Of the 36 patients with bulbar region symptoms, 25 had symptom onset in the legs. The Figure shows the time from onset of leg symptoms (HSP phenotype) to development of bulbar region symptoms (PLS phenotype) in these patients. More than half of these patients developed bulbar region symptoms within 5 years, which may be an underestimation because disease duration for some patients was only 3 years. However, the time range was broad, and one patient even developed a PLS phenotype after 18 years. It is therefore possible that the patients in our study with a sporadic UMN disease and only leg involvement may still develop bulbar region symptoms, even after a relatively long disease duration. Because previous studies used clinical characteristics such as age at onset before age 40 years,10 evidence of mild dorsal column impairment,1 and symptoms of urinary urgency1,5 to separate HSP from PLS, we compared the frequency of these and other clinical characteristics in the 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation with those of the other 90 patients with UMN disease and with those of the 36 patients with at least bulbar region symptoms (Table 1). A significant difference was found only for age

64

Chapter 6

Patie

nts w

ith S

PG4

or

SPG

7 m

utat

ion

Patie

nts w

ithou

t SPG

4 or

SPG

7 m

utat

ion

All

patie

nts

Leg

invo

lvem

ent o

nly

Arm

and

leg

invo

lvem

ent

Bulb

ar re

gion

invo

lvem

ent

(n=

14)

(n=

90)

(n=

39)

(n=

15)

(n=

36)

Mal

e, N

o. (%

)6

(43)

56 (6

2)24

(62)

9 (6

0)23

(64)

Site

of o

nset

, No.

(%)

Bulb

ar0

8 (9

)0

8 (2

2)

Arm

04

(4)

01

(7)

3 (8

)

Leg

14 (1

00)

78 (8

7)39

(100

)14

(93)

25 (6

9)

Age

at o

nset

, med

ian

(ran

ge),

y39

(29-

69)

49 (1

8-76

)a48

(18-

66)

42 (2

0-62

)52

(32-

76)

Dise

ase d

urat

ion,

med

ian

(ran

ge),

y9

(3-3

0)6

(3-2

9)7

(3-2

9)6

(3-1

5)7

(3-2

4)

Sym

ptom

s of u

rinar

y urg

ency

, No.

(%)

6 (4

3)33

(37)

10 (2

6)4

(27)

19 (5

3)

Dec

reas

ed vi

brat

ory s

ense

, No.

(%)

2 (1

4)8

(9)

6 (1

5)1

(7)

1 (3

)

Uni

late

ral s

ympt

om o

nset

, No.

(%)

5 (3

6)48

(53)

18 (4

6)11

(73)

19 (5

3)

Asy

mm

etry

at ex

amin

atio

n, N

o. (%

)0

19 (2

1)7

(18)

8 (5

3)4

(11)

Uni

late

ral a

t exa

min

atio

n, N

o. (%

)0

5 (6

)2

(5)

3 (2

0)0

Fasc

icul

atio

n, N

o. (%

)0

8 (9

)1

(3)

1 (7

)7

(19)

Mild

foca

l atr

ophy

, No.

(%)

08

(9)

3 (8

)0

4 (1

1)

Tab

le 1

. Com

pari

son

of cl

inic

al ch

arac

teri

stic

s bet

wee

n pa

tient

s with

the S

PG4

or S

PG7

mut

atio

n an

d th

e rem

aini

ng p

atie

nts w

ith an

appa

rent

ly sp

orad

ic ad

ult-o

nset

UM

N

synd

rom

e.

65


EMG

No.

1172

3111

28

Nor

mal

, No.

(%)

6 (5

5)36

(50)

13 (4

2)7

(64)

15 (5

4)

Leg S

SEP

No.

528

143

11

Nor

mal

, No.

(%)

2 (4

0)16

(57)

9 (6

4)3

(100

)4

(36)

ALS

FRS

scor

e, m

edia

n (r

ange

)33

(27-

37)

32 (1

3-38

)34

(26-

38)

31 (2

4-37

)25

(13-

36)

Tab

le 1

. Con

tinue

d.

UM

N =

upp

er m

otor

neu

ron;

Asy

mm

etry

= fu

lfilli

ng o

ur d

efini

tion

of ‘a

sym

met

ry’ (

see t

ext);

EM

G =

nee

dle e

lect

rom

yogr

aphy

; SSE

P =

som

atos

enso

ry ev

oked

pot

entia

ls;

ALS

FRS

= A

LS fu

nctio

nal r

atin

g sca

le. a St

atist

ical

sign

ifica

nce c

ompa

red

to th

e pat

ient

s with

the S

PG4

or S

PG7

mut

atio

n: p

= 0

.01.

66

Chapter 6

at onset (younger in patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation compared with all patients without the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation [P = 0.01] and with the patients with bulbar region involvement [PLS phenotype] [P = 0.002]). There were no significant differences in clinical features between patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation and the patients with the PLS phenotype. The range of age at onset, however, was similar in patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation (29-69 years), in all other patients with UMN disease (18-76 years), and in patients with at least bulbar region involvement (32-76 years). Six of the 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation had symptoms at 40 years or older, and 3 of the 36 patients with at least bulbar region symptoms had onset before age 40 years. Evidence of mild dorsal column impairment (decreased vibratory sense, or abnormal leg SSEP), symptoms of urinary urgency, and mild EMG abnormalities were present in the patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation and in the patients with the PLS phenotype.Four patients had symptom onset in the arms; of these, 3 developed bulbar region symptoms (Table 2). Eight patients had onset in the bulbar region that progressed in various patterns to the arms or legs in 6.Four of the 25 patients with symptom onset in the legs who developed bulbar region symptoms showed an asymmetrical pattern of progression, with only 1 leg being affected before symptoms progressed to the arms or bulbar region. This pattern of asymmetric pro-gression was also seen in 4 of 16 patients with involvement of only the arms and legs, but not in the 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation.

Figure. Kaplan-Meier curve illustrating that the 25 patients who had disease onset in legs and who eventually developed bulbar region involvement had a phenotype consistent with hereditary spastic paraparesis (leg involvement only, or at most, also of the arms) for up to 18 years (median duration, 4 years).

Time from disease onset, y

Prop

ortio

n of

pat

ient

sw

ith b

ulba

r reg

ion

invo

lvem

ent

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.00 5 10 15 20

67


Progression

Patients with SPG4 or SPG7 mutation All other patients

(n = 14) (n = 90)

Leg involvement only (n = 52)

Leg(s) only 13 39

Arm and leg involvement (n = 16)

Legs → arms 1 5

Legs → right arm 1

Legs → left arm 4

Right leg → right arm → left leg → left arm 1

Right leg → right arm 1

Left leg → left arm 2

Right arm → legs → left arm 1

Bulbar region involvement (n = 36)

Legs → arms → bulbar 13

Legs → bulbar → arms 5

Legs → bulbar 2

Legs → left arm → bulbar → right arm 1

Left leg → left arm → right leg → right arm → bulbar 1

Right leg → bulbar → left leg → arms 1

Right leg → bulbar 1

Right leg → right arm → left leg → bulbar 1

Arms → bulbar → legs 1

Arms → bulbar 1

Left arm → legs → right arm → bulbar 1

Bulbar → arms → legs 2

Bulbar → left arm 1

Bulbar → legs → arms 1

Bulbar → legs 1

Bulbar → right arm and leg → left arm and leg 1

Bulbar only 2

Table 2. Pattern of disease progression in 104 patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome.

UMN = upper motor neuron. Numbers represent numbers of patients. Right and left limbs are shown sepa-rately only if symptoms spread to another body region first before onset of symptoms in the contralateral limb.

68

Chapter 6

Comment

Differentiation between HSP and PLS is important for genetic counseling of family members and for the patients’ prognosis because HSP generally has a more favorable prognosis than PLS.1 Furthermore, progression to ALS, as may occur in PLS,24 is not to be expected in HSP. Previous studies used several clinical and laboratory features, such as age at onset before age 40 years,10 evidence of mild dorsal column impairment (eg, decreased vibratory sensation in the distal legs or abnormal leg SSEPs),1 and symptoms of urinary urgency1,5; however, the appropriateness of these criteria has yet to be validated. For that reason, we compared the presence of these features in a large cohort of patients with an ap-parently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome that consists of patients who had genetically proved (the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation) HSP (subtype 1), a phenotype similar to typical pure HSP (involvement of the legs only) (subtype 2), a phenotype (involvement of arms and legs) that was difficult to classify as being similar to HSP or suggestive of PLS (subtype 3), or bulbar region involvement suggestive of PLS (subtype 4). The main objective of our study was to investigate whether clinical or laboratory features are useful to differentiate between patients in subtypes 1 and 4, who have the most definite diagnosis of HSP or PLS. Our results demonstrate that these features are not useful in clinical practice for distinguish-ing HSP from PLS in the individual patient. There was substantial overlap in age at onset between phenotypes: the youngest onset in our study occurred in a patient with a PLS phenotype at 32 years, and it was even younger (23 and 26 years) in other PLS studies,8,34 whereas 6 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation had onset at 40 years or older; the oldest onset was 69 years. Symptoms of urinary urgency, previously considered atypical for PLS,5 were even more frequent in our patients with bulbar region involvement (53%) compared with patients with the SPG4 and SPG7 mutation (43%) and were also reported in more recent PLS series.8,9 Signs of mild dorsal column impairment (decreased vibratory sensation in the distal legs or abnormal leg SSEPs), considered indicative of a diagnosis of HSP instead of PLS in a previous study,1 were also found in patients with a phenotype sug-gestive of PLS (bulbar region involvement) in our study, which confirms several previous PLS studies.8,34 Because 3 of our 7 patients with the SPG7 mutation (and none of the other patients) developed cerebellar involvement during follow-up, its appearance could be an important clinical clue for SPG7 mutation as a cause in apparently sporadic UMN syn-dromes.23

Although the number of patients with genetically confirmed HSP included in our study was relatively low, we chose to use only those HSP patients with a sporadic presentation because familial HSP patients may present with different clinical features. HSP was geneti-cally confirmed in 14 of 104 patients (7 with the SPG4 and 7 with the SPG7 mutation). We tested only the SPG4 and SPG7 genes to identify patients with genetically proved HSP, but more extensive testing would have identified only a relatively small number of additional patients from subtypes 2 and 3, described in the following paragraphs. More importantly, a more extensive screen for HSP genes would not have influenced our main conclusion

69


that features that have been considered indicative of HSP (onset at <40 years, mild dorsal column involvement, and urinary urgency) appear not to exclude PLS and that onset at 40 years or older is not uncommon in apparently sporadic HSP.Genetic testing is the only reliable way to differentiate HSP from PLS in patients with ap-parently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes, at least for those who have symptom onset in the legs. More than 30 genetic loci and 15 of the responsible genes have been identified for autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked forms of HSP.14-21 Mutation of SPG4, the most common cause of autosomal dominant HSP (in approximately 40%), is a frequent cause of apparently sporadic spastic paraparesis (12%-13%).22,35 Mutations of SPG7, previously reported in 1.5 to 6% of autosomal recessive cases of HSP, are an addi-tional frequent cause of sporadic HSP (13% in this series).23 The role of the other known HSP genes in patients with apparently sporadic disease is largely unknown. The atlastin gene (SPG3A) mutation is the second most common cause of autosomal dominant HSP (around 10%) but is mostly associated with infantile or childhood onset, although patients with adult onset have been reported.36 Mutations in the novel mitochondrial protein REEP1 (REEP1) accounted for 6.5% of an unselected HSP population in a study,17 whereas another study37 detected REEP1 mutations in 3% of a clinically mixed sample of patients with pure and complicated HSP, including 2 of 119 patients with sporadic disease (1.7%; only 1 patient with adult-onset HSP). The ZFYVE27 (SPG33) gene was mutated in 1 of 43 patients with autosomal dominant HSP in 1 study.18 Mutations in the NIPA1 gene (SPG6) are a rare cause of autosomal dominant HSP in Europe (<1%).38 The remaining known HSP genes are associated with complicated forms of HSP or probably each account for less than 1% of HSP cases. Males with proteolipid protein mutations (SPG2) are excluded, in part on the basis of the MRI criteria because many SPG2 patients have MRI changes, but in addition on the basis of our age-at-onset criterion because the SPG2 is associated with early onset.39 We believe that the SPG11 mutation is practically excluded in our patients because it seems to be rare in sporadic disease and is associated with a thin corpus callosum, which was not seen in our patients.40

The patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation all presented with UMN symptoms in the legs and that progressed to the arms in only 1 patient. Most patients (87%) without the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation initially presented with similar symptoms to the patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation. We showed that bulbar region UMN symptoms may start many years after symptom onset in the legs (≤18 years), so there can be a long period during which PLS and (apparently sporadic) HSP are clinically similar. We considered the presence of bulbar region symptoms to be part of the PLS phenotype. Although we cannot fully rule out the possibility that genes will be discovered in patients with an HSP phenotype who develop bulbar region symptoms, the absence of bulbar region symptoms in adult-onset familial HSP makes this unlikely. Only 1 family was reported to have an autosomal dominant adult-onset UMN disease resembling typical PLS associated with a locus on chromosome 4p (PLS1).41,42 The autosomal recessive UMN diseases associated with alsin (ALS2) mutations, which typically progress to the arms and the bulbar region, seem to be

70

Chapter 6

limited to early-onset forms, described as juvenile PLS, infantile ascending HSP, and, if associated with lower motor neuron involvement, juvenile ALS.43 Some features may support a diagnosis of PLS, such as an onset of disease in arms or the bulbar region and development of bulbar region symptoms or marked asymmetry during the disease course. The presence of mild focal atrophy or fasciculation may also support a diagnosis of PLS, but these were not frequently found in our study, so this requires confir-mation in future larger studies. Development of UMN symptoms in the arms after disease onset in the legs usually supports a diagnosis of PLS but does not exclude HSP, because arm involvement was seen in 1 of our patients with the SPG7 mutation and was also reported previously in other patients with genetically confirmed HSP.25,44 Despite our finding that unilateral symptom onset was common in patients with (36%) and without (53%) the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation, marked asymmetry at clinical evaluation was not seen in our patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation. Although current diagnostic criteria for PLS require ”symmetrical distribution of symptoms”,5 we and others found that such asymmetry may indeed be indicative of PLS.8,9 This should be verified in large prospective studies.

Conclusions

In patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome and symptom onset in the legs, differentiation of sporadic presentations of HSP from PLS based on clinical char-acteristics is unreliable and therefore depends on genetic test results. Disease onset in the arms or bulbar region, development of bulbar region involvement, or marked asymmetry during the disease course may support a diagnosis of PLS. New and more widely available genetic testing possibilities for HSP would be beneficial for patients with apparently sporadic UMN syndromes because HSP generally has a more favorable prognosis than PLS.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the cooperation of all the patients, the referring neurologists, and the Dutch patient support organisation for neuromuscular diseases (Vereniging Spierziekten Nederland). Gerda Valk and Nienke de Goeijen, MS, the research nurses, provided assis-tance in the clinical evaluation of patients. Funding: The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (to L.H.vdB.); The Interuniversity Attraction Poles (IUAP) program P6/43 of the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (to W.R.). The funding organizations had no role in (1) the design and conduct of the study, (2) the collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data, or (3) in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript. Dr van den Berg had full access to all of the data in the study and takes respon-sibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

71


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27. Hazan J, Fonknechten N, Mavel D et al. Spastin, a new AAA protein, is altered in the most frequent form of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia. Nat Genet 1999;23:296-303.

28. Wilkinson PA, Crosby AH, Turner C et al. A clinical, genetic and biochemical study of SPG7 mutations in hereditary spastic paraplegia. Brain 2004;127:973-980.

29. Beetz C, Nygren AO, Schickel J et al. High frequency of partial SPAST deletions in autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia. Neurology 2006;67:1926-1930.

30. Bohannon RW, Smith MB. Interrater reliability of a modified Ashworth scale of muscle spastic-ity. Phys Ther 1987;67:206-207.

31. Hallett M. NINDS myotatic reflex scale. Neurology 1993;43:2723.32. Medical Research Council. Aids to the examination of the peripheral nervous system. London:

H.M.S.O.;1976:1-2.33. Brooks, B. R. The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale: Assessment of activities

of daily living in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Arch.Neurol 1996;53:141-147.34. Kuipers-Upmeijer J, de Jager AE, Hew JM, Snoek JW, van Weerden TW. Primary lateral sclero-

sis: clinical, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-try 2001;71:615-620.

35. Elleuch N, Depienne C, Benomar A et al. Mutation analysis of the paraplegin gene (SPG7) in patients with hereditary spastic paraplegia. Neurology 2006;66:654-659.

36. Sauter SM, Engel W, Neumann LM, Kunze J, Neesen J. Novel mutations in the Atlastin gene (SPG3A) in families with autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia and evidence for late onset forms of HSP linked to the SPG3A locus. Hum Mutat 2004;23:98.

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37. Beetz C, Schule R, Deconinck T et al. REEP1 mutation spectrum and genotype/phenotype correlation in hereditary spastic paraplegia type 31. Brain 2008;131:1078-1086.

38. Klebe S, Lacour A, Durr A et al. NIPA1 (SPG6) mutations are a rare cause of autosomal domi-nant spastic paraplegia in Europe. Neurogenetics 2007;8:155-157.

39. Inoue K. PLP1-related inherited dysmyelinating disorders: Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease and spastic paraplegia type 2. Neurogenetics 2005;6:1-16.

40. Paisan-Ruiz C, Dogu O, Yilmaz A, Houlden H, Singleton A. SPG11 mutations are common in familial cases of complicated hereditary spastic paraplegia. Neurology 2008;70:1384-1389.

41. Dupré N, Valdmanis PN, Bouchard JP, Rouleau GA. Autosomal dominant primary lateral scle-rosis. Neurology 2007;68:1156-1157.

42. Valdmanis PN, Dupre N, Rouleau GA. A locus for primary lateral sclerosis on chromosome 4ptel-4p16.1. Arch Neurol 2008;65:383-386.

43. Brugman F, Eymard-Pierre E, van den Berg LH, Wokke JH, Gauthier-Barichard F, Boespflug-Tanguy O. Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 gene. Neurology 2007;69:702-704.

44. White KD, Ince PG, Lusher M et al. Clinical and pathologic findings in hereditary spastic para-paresis with spastin mutation. Neurology 2000;55:89-94.

Chapter Seven

Proposed new diagnostic criteria for primary lateral sclerosis: a prospective validation study

F. Brugman, J.H. Veldink, H. Franssen, M. de Visser, J.M.B. Vianney de Jong, C.G. Faber, H.P.H. Kremer, H.J. Schelhaas, P.A. van Doorn, J.J.G.M. Verschuuren, R.P.M. Bruyn, J.B.M. Kuks,

W. Robberecht, J.H.J. Wokke, L.H. van den Berg

Submitted

76

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Abstract

Background: Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in sporadic patients with an adult-onset upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome and may be part of the spectrum of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Differentiation of sporadic presentation of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) from PLS is important for the patient’s prognosis but may be problematic. We designed new diagnostic criteria for PLS, incorporating levels of certainty of diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP. To study the significance in PLS, mild lower motor neuron (LMN) signs, bladder symptoms due to UMN dysfunction, and any adult onset age were allowed.Methods: To validate our criteria, 89 patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome were included in a 3-year prospective study. Patients with disease duration ≥4 years were classified as typical PLS (UMN signs in at least the bulbar region, n=25), probable PLS (UMN signs in arms and legs, n= 13), or possible PLS (UMN signs only in legs, n=30), and those with duration <4 years as undetermined UMN syndrome (n=21).Findings: Classifying patients with a disease duration ≥4 years according to our criteria differentiates PLS from HSP in levels of certainty (p<0.001): after follow-up all typical PLS patients remained typical PLS (92%) or had developed ALS (8%), whereas 38% of ‘probable PLS’ developed typical PLS (n=3) or ALS (n=2), and 17% of possible PLS developed typical PLS. Disease duration <4 years and a higher rate of functional decline prior to inclusion, but not mild LMN signs, was associated with faster progression, shorter survival, and con-version to rapidly progressive ALS. Interpretation: These new PLS diagnostic criteria help to provide a more accurate diagnosis in patients with sporadic UMN degeneration, which is important for patients and for future research.

77

Proposed new diagnostic criteria for PLS: a prospective validation study

Introduction

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome.1 Since the first descriptions in the late 19th century2,3 it has been debated whether PLS represents a separate disease entity, a variant of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a sporadic presentation of hereditary spastic parapare-sis (HSP), or a collection of neurodegenerative and acquired diseases.4-8 In 1992, Pringle et al. proposed criteria for diagnosis of PLS that included modern diagnostic testing, based on their observation in 8 patients (Panel 1).9 PLS was described as a sporadic disorder of pro-gressive spinobulbar spasticity with mostly spinal and occasionally bulbar region onset.

Clinical

• Insidious onset of spastic paresis, usually beginning in the lower extremities, but occasionally bulbar or in an upper extremity

• Adult onset; usually fifth decade or later

• Absence of family history

• Gradually progressive course

• Duration ≥3 years

• Clinical findings limited to those usually associated with corticospinal dysfunction

• Symmetric distribution, ultimately developing severe spastic spinobulbar paresis

Laboratory studies to help exclude other diseases

• Normal serum chemistries, including normal vitamin B12 levels

• Negative serologic tests for syphilis; in endemic areas, negative Lyme and HTLV-1 serologies

• Normal cerebrospinal fluid parameters, including absence of oligoclonal bands

• Absent denervation potentials on EMG or at most, occasional fibrillation and increased insertional activity in a few muscles (late and minor)

• Absence of high-signal lesions on MRI similar to those seen in multiple sclerosis

Additionally suggestive of PLS

• Preserved bladder function

• Absent or very prolonged latency on cortical motor evoked responses in the presence of normal periph-eral stimulus-evoked maximal compound muscle action potentials

• Focal atrophy of preentral gyrus on MRI

• Decreased glucose consumption in pericentral region on PET scan

PLS = primary lateral sclerosis. HTLV-1 = human T-cell lymphocytotrophic virus-1. MRI = magnetic reso-MRI = magnetic reso-reso-nance imaging. PET = positron emission tomography.

Panel 1. Proposed diagnostic criteria for PLS by Pringle et al. in 1992.

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HSP is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis. To date, 17 genes and more than 20 additional loci have been identified for autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked forms of HSP. 10 To exclude HSP, the diagnostic criteria for PLS proposed by Pringle et al. require absence of a family history.9 However, it is increasingly recognized that the apparently sporadic occurrence of HSP is not uncommon, and mutations of the spastin (SPG4) and paraplegin (SPG7) genes are a frequent cause.11-13

Differentiation between HSP and PLS is important for genetic counseling of family members and for the patients’ prognosis because HSP generally has a more favorable prognosis.11 Fur-thermore, progression to ALS, as may occur in PLS,14-16 is not expected in HSP. To separate apparently sporadic HSP from PLS, previous studies used several clinical features, such as an age at onset <40 years, evidence of mild dorsal column impairment such as decreased vibratory sensation in the distal legs or abnormal leg somatosensory evoked potentials, and symptoms of urinary urgency.9,11,16,17 However, our group and others, recently showed that these clinical features are similarly present in both patient groups and are therefore not useful in clinical practice for distinguishing HSP from PLS.13

Recent patient series provided new insights in the clinical phenotype of PLS but also showed major inconsistencies across studies. One of these concerns the presence of mild clinical or electrophysiological lower motor neuron (LMN) signs in PLS and the differen-tiation from ALS. Many authors accepted mild focal amyotrophy, mostly of the interosseus muscles of the hands or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation, or electro-physiological LMN signs not fulfilling EMG criteria for probable-laboratory supported ALS18 in PLS because these mostly remained mild and focal while the patients continued to progress slowly.9,15,19,20 However, other authors excluded patients with any LMN sign from a diagnosis of PLS.16,17,21 One study labeled patients with mild LMN signs as ‘UMN-dominant ALS’ and found more disability and faster disease progression in these patients compared to those with pure UMN symptoms.16,17

Another inconsistency across studies is whether involvement of the bulbar region was necessary to be included in a PLS cohort study. Symptomatic UMN involvement of the arms usually supports a diagnosis of PLS but does not exclude HSP, because arm involve-ment has been reported in patients with genetically confirmed HSP.13,22 On the other hand, PLS may present with a slowly progressive spastic paraparesis of the legs, similar to the typical HSP phenotype, for many years before the onset of symptoms in the arms or bulbar region 11,21,23. Some previous PLS series included also patients with UMN signs only in the legs, or at most also in the arms15,21 or did not specify which body regions were affected,16,19,24 whereas other studies strictly included patients with symptoms in the bulbar region.20

Validated diagnostic criteria that provide a more precise and meaningful diagnosis in patients presenting with UMN degeneration are important for patients (genetic coun-selling, prognostication) and for future research (more homogeneous clinical groups for inclusion in etiological studies and clinical trials). Based on the most recent literature on PLS and our previous studies in a large cohort of patients with a sporadic upper motor

79


Requirements for the diagnosis• Presence of:

• Gradually progressive UMN syndrome• Adult onset

• Absence of:• LMN signs*• Sensory signs on examination• Family history of HSP#

• Additional neuroimaging and laboratory findings that allow diagnosis of another condition• EMG findings fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria for probable laboratory-supported ALS• Genetic defect of HSP gene if phenotype overlaps with HSP

Levels of certainty of the clinical diagnosis of PLS• Clinically Typical PLS

• Presence of UMN signs in at least the bulbar region (duration ≥4 years)• Clinically Probable PLS

• Presence of UMN signs in arms and legs (duration ≥4 years)• Clinically Possible PLS

• Presence of UMN signs in legs only (duration ≥4 years)• Undetermined UMN syndrome

• Presence of UMN signs in bulbar or spinal regions (duration <4 years)

Other classifications of PLS• PLS Plus Syndromes

• PLS presents in association with clinical features of other neurological diseases which develop in addition to the PLS phenotype, e.g. extra-pyramidal features or dementia.

Panel 2. New proposed diagnostic criteria for PLS.

PLS = primary lateral sclerosis. UMN = upper motor neuron. *LMN signs = clinical LMN signs more than mild focal amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation. #Negative family history does not exclude HSP and rarely PLS may be a phenotypic manifesta-tion of familial ALS,34 or very rarely of familial PLS.35 HSP = hereditary spastic paraparesis. UMN signs in bulbar region = pseudobulbar dysarthria. UMN signs in legs or arms = evident hypertonia (defined as modified Ashworth scale score ≥2), obvious dexterity loss due to spasticity, pathological hyperreflexia (defined as NINDS reflex scale score 4 or 5 or extensor plantar response) or UMN weakness.

Additional investigations include: MRI of brain and spinal cord; CSF studies, serum biochemistry, serum copper, vitamin B12 and E, TSH, plasma VLCFAs; urine biliary alcohols; serology for lues, borrelia, HTLV1 and HIV.

neuron syndrome, we designed new PLS diagnostic criteria (Panel 2). All patients with a disease duration <4 years were classified as undetermined UMN syndrome, based on a previous study that showed that 4 instead of 3 years may be safer to exclude ALS.16 We hy-pothesized that the distribution of UMN symptoms across the different body regions may determine the probability of diagnosis of PLS instead of (sporadic) HSP,11,23 and therefore

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Chapter 7

classified patients with a disease duration of ≥4 years as having possible PLS if UMN signs were present only in legs, as probable PLS if UMN signs were present in arms and legs, and as typical PLS if UMN signs were present in at least the bulbar region. We avoided the term definite PLS for the most certain PLS diagnostic classification, and used typical PLS instead, because PLS may convert to ALS even after many years.14-16 Due to new insights and inconsistencies between studies and to study its significance in PLS, we allowed mild clinical (mild focal amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands, or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation) or electrophysiological (not fulfilling EMG criteria for probable-laboratory supported ALS18) LMN signs, bladder symptoms due to UMN dysfunction, asymmetrical symptom distribution, and any adult onset age. To validate our proposed new PLS diagnostic criteria, we performed a 3-year prospective study in a large cohort of patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome.

Methods

PatientsBetween November 2002 and March 2005, all Dutch neurologists were asked to enroll patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset idiopathic UMN syndrome. In addition, one large referral center for patients with motor neuron disease in Leuven, Belgium, participated. The study protocol was approved by the medical ethics review board of the University Medical Center Utrecht and written informed consent was obtained from each patient.Inclusion criteria were: a gradually progressive UMN syndrome, adult onset (18 years or older) and disease duration of at least 6 months. Exclusion criteria were: a positive family history, clinical LMN signs (except mild focal amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands, or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation), electrophysiological LMN signs fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria for probable laboratory-supported ALS18, cer-ebellar or extrapyramidal signs, sensory signs (except decreased distal vibration sensation), and other causes of UMN loss. Additional laboratory investigations performed to rule out other causes are shown in the Panel. Diagnostic MRI white matter changes, for example abnormalities suggestive of demyelinating disorders or leukodystrophy, and presence of a thin corpus callosum were not allowed. Patients who had cerebrospinal fluid abnormali-ties were excluded if there were additional findings sufficient to diagnose other conditions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). DNA analysis of the spastin gene (SPG4),12 paraplegin gene (SPG7),13 and BSCL2 gene (SPG17)25 was performed in all patients. ALS2 mutations, as-sociated with juvenile forms of ALS and PLS, were excluded in 47 of the included patients (predominantly those who had also bulbar region or arm UMN symptoms).26

81


Study designAt inclusion and at the follow-up visits, all patients were re-examined by the first author (FB) supervised by LHvdB or JW, who are experienced neuromuscular specialists. Follow-up visits were scheduled at 9-month intervals during 3 years for each patient, comprising a total of 5 evaluations including the inclusion visit. Thereafter, patients were further followed-up for at least survival status, which was last verified for all patients at December 24, 2008.

Clinical evaluationClinical evaluation at each visit included history, neurological examination, and assess-ment of functional status using the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale (ALSFRS).27 At visit 1 (inclusion visit), visit 3 (18 months) and visit 5 (36 months), a stan-dardized needle-EMG of 3 muscles per limb, 2 thoracic and 3 bulbar muscles was scheduled, interpreted according to the revised El Escorial criteria.18

The bulbar region was considered affected if there was pseudobulbar dysarthria. The arms and legs were considered affected if there was at least one of the following findings on neurological examination: spasticity (defined as a modified Ashworth scale28 score ≥ 2), obvious loss of dexterity due to spasticity (evaluated at examination), pathological hyper-reflexia (defined as Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke myotatic reflex scale29 score 4 or 5 or extensor plantar response), or UMN paresis ≤ Medical Research Council30 grade 4. To quantify disease progression prior to inclusion we calculated the ‘ALSFRS-rate’ (defined as number of points lost, prior to inclusion, on the ALSFRS, divided by disease duration in years).

Statistical analysisFor validation of the proposed diagnostic criteria, we regarded those patients as having PLS (and definitely not HSP) who had an idiopathic UMN syndrome with at least symptoms in the bulbar region (typical PLS according to our proposed criteria), or an UMN syndrome that evolved into ALS after a disease duration of ≥4 years. Differences in clinical character-istics at inclusion between groups were tested using the Pearson chi square test, Fisher exact test, independent samples T-test and Mann-Whitney test. To estimate the rate of decline during follow-up of functional status (ALSFRS), the longitudinal data were fitted by maximum likelihood using linear mixed-effects models. Kaplan-Meier methods, log-rank tests and Cox regression were used to study survival data.

Results

Patient inclusionThe medical files of 182 eligible patients were screened for this study. Of these, 63 were excluded after study of medical files and enquiries by telephone and 30 were excluded after initial clinical evaluation. Reasons for exclusion are shown in Table 1. The remaining

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Chapter 7

Table 1. Reasons for exclusion of 93 patients.

Unable or unwilling to participate 25

Family history suggestive of hereditary spastic paraparesis 12

Mutation of the spastin gene (SPG4) 7

Mutation of the paraplegin gene (SPG7) 8

Diagnosis of ALS, after initial diagnosis of PLS 11

Family history suggestive of familial ALS 2

Absence of objective upper motor signs 6

Disease onset < age 18 6

Extrapyramidal or major sensory signs 5

Focal myelopathy 3

Death 4

Primary progressive multiple sclerosis 2

Vitamin B12 deficiency 1

Causative intracranial tumour 1

Data are number of patients. ALS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. PLS = primary lateral sclerosis.

89 patients were included in the prospective study and were classified according to our proposed PLS criteria. Table 2 shows the clinical characteristics at inclusion.

Change of diagnosis during follow-upIn 2 patients (1 possible PLS, 1 probable PLS) the diagnosis changed to HSP after family members became affected, and 1 patient was diagnosed with corticobasal degeneration (CBD) when, following 5 years of isolated UMN symptoms in one leg, he developed pro-gressive asymmetrical spasticity of all limbs, sensory signs, dystonia, cognitive dysfunction, and SPECT abnormalities supporting CBD.

Change of PLS classification during follow-upAll surviving patients completed the study protocol (mean follow-up = 3.0 years, 95% CI 2.9-3.2). Of the 25 patients who were classified as typical PLS at inclusion, the classifica-tion remained unchanged in 23 (92%) and in 2 patients ALS was diagnosed (Table 3). In the 13 patients who were classified as probable PLS at inclusion, the classification changed in 5 (38%) patients to typical PLS (3 patients) or ALS (2 patients). In the 30 patients with possible PLS, the classification changed in 5 (17%) patients to typical PLS and in none to ALS. In this follow-up study, classifying patients with a non-familial UMN syndrome and a disease duration >4 years according to our proposed criteria for PLS was able to differenti-ate PLS from HSP in levels of certainty (p<0.001 by the Pearson chi-square test).Of the 21 patients with a disease duration <4 years at inclusion, classified as ‘undetermined

83


Table 2. Clinical characteristics at inclusion of 89 included patients with a sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndrome, classified according to the proposed new PLS diagnostic criteria.

Typical PLS Probable PLS Possible PLS Undetermined(≥4 years, bulbar region affected)

(≥4 years, arms and legs)

(≥4 years, legs only) (<4 years)

(n=25) (n=13) (n=30) (n=21)

Males 15 (60%) 7 (54%) 19 (63%) 13 (62%)

Duration (years) 11 (4-24) 6 (4-15) 7 (4-29) 3 (0.5-4)

Age at onset (years) 50 (32-66) 42 (20-62) 46.5 (28-62) 60 (18-76)

Onset site

Bulbar region 4 (16%) .. .. 5 (24%)

Arm .. 1 (8%) .. 3 (14%)

Leg 21 (84%) 12 (92%) 30 (100%) 13 (62%)

Affected body regions at inclusion

Bulbar region 25 (100%) .. .. 11 (52%)

Arms 22 (88%) 13 (100%) .. 8 (38%)

Legs 24 (96%) 13 (100%) 30 (100%) 18 (86%)

Mild lower motor neuron signs

Clinical 7 (28%) 1 (8%) 4 (13%) 3 (14%)

On EMG 15 (60%) 5 (38%) 13 (43%) 9 (43%)

ALSFRS 25 (13-33) 31 (24-36) 34 (26-38) 35 (22-38)

ALSFRS rate prior to inclu-sion 1.4 (0.5-3.5) 1.1 (0.5-2.8) 0.6 (0.2-2.3) 2.9 (0.6-8.6)

Data are number (%) or median (range). PLS = primary lateral sclerosis. LMN = lower motor neuron. Clini-Clini-cal mild LMN signs = at most mild focal amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands or of the ante-amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands or of the ante-rior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation. EMG = needle electromyography. Mild LMN signs on EMG = needle EMG abnormalities not fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria for probable laboratory-supported ALS. ALSFRS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale (maximum 40). ALSFRS rate =number of points lost, prior to inclusion, on the ALSFRS divided by disease duration in years.

UMN syndrome, 3 patients progressed to ALS.None of the clinical or EMG characteristics at inclusion (Table 2) was significantly associ-ated with a classification of typical PLS or ALS after follow-up.

Conversion to ALSAt the last evaluation, 7 patients (8%) fulfilled revised El Escorial criteria for clinically probable ALS (3 patients) or laboratory-supported ALS (4 patients).18 Clinical characteris-tics of these 7 patients are shown in Table 4. Progression to clinically probable ALS (clinical

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Chapter 7

LMN signs fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria in at least 2 regions18) only occurred in 3 patients who were classified at inclusion as undetermined UMN syndrome. These 3 patients had a rapid disease progression with relatively short survival from onset (median 2.7 years, range 2.3-3.7). Only 1 of these 3 patients had mild EMG abnormalities at inclusion of the study. In the other 4 patients (2 with probable PLS’ and 2 with typical PLS at inclusion), the diagnosis of ALS was based on the EMG only (laboratory-supported ALS18), which was performed as scheduled in our study protocol, not for clinical reasons. One of these 4 patients died (8 years after onset), whereas the other 3 patients continued to progress relatively slowly and were still alive at the last verification, 1.3, 1.4, and 3.3 years since the diagnosis of ALS.

PLS ‘plus’Four patients developed additional neurological features fulfilling the definition of a PLS ‘plus’ syndrome. Of these patients, 1 (with typical PLS) developed frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and 3 (2 with possible PLS and 1 with probable PLS) developed parkinsonism.

At inclusion At the last evaluation

Clinical diagnosis n(%) Clinical diagnosis n(%)

Typical PLS 25 Typical PLS 23 (92%)

ALS 2 (8%)

Probable PLS 13 Probable PLS 7 (54%)

Typical PLS 3 (23%)

ALS 2 (15%)

Other: HSP 1 (8%)

Possible PLS 30 Possible PLS 20 (67%)

Probable PLS 3 (10%)

Typical PLS 5 (17%)

Other: HSP 1 (3%)

Other: CBD 1 (3%)

Undetermined 21 Possible PLS 5 (24%)

Probable PLS 2 (10%)

Typical PLS 11 (52%)

ALS 3 (14%)

Data are number of patients (%). PLS = primary lateral sclerosis. ALS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. HSP = hereditary spastic paraparesis. CBD = cortico-basal degeneration.

Table 3. Clinical diagnosis, at inclusion and at the last evaluation in the 89 included patients.

85


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86

Chapter 7

Disease progression and survivalFigure 1A shows the decline during follow-up of functional status (ALSFRS) based on the mean slopes and mean intercepts that were calculated by linear mixed-effects modelling, for the different PLS classifications at inclusion. Patients with possible PLS who had rela-tively preserved functional status, and patients with typical PLS who had more functional loss at inclusion, progressed relatively slowly during the follow-up period. Patients classified at inclusion as probable PLS showed an intermediate progression, while the mean progres-sion in patients with an undetermined UMN syndrome was relatively rapid. Of the 19 deaths that occurred by the last verification at 24 December 2008, 15 were con-sidered related to the neurological disorder: 4 died of ALS associated with respiratory in-sufficiency, 1 of CBD, and 10 of severe typical PLS (death was associated with severely weakened condition due to combination of factors, including severe disability, nutritional problems, and superimposed infection; 2 died as a result of euthanasia in the very end stage of the disease). The remaining 4 deaths were considered unrelated to the neurological disorder (3 cancer; 1 presumably cardiac sudden death). The mortality related to the neu-rological disorder differed among PLS classifications at inclusion (Figure 1B; p = 0.001 by the log-rank test) and was highest in patients classified at inclusion as undetermined UMN syndrome (43%), and typical PLS (16%).

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87


Table 5. Outcome (functional decline expressed as ALSFRS slope, and survival) after follow-up, of patients with and those without mild clinical or EMG LMN signs at inclusion.

Patient classification at inclusion Outcome Mild clinical or EMG LMN signs at inclusion

P

Yes No

All patients (n=89) ALSFRS slope -2.4 -2.4 0.99

Died* 7/49 (14%) 8/40 (20%) 0.47

Undetermined UMN syndrome (n=21) ALSFRS slope -9.6 -6.2 0.63

Died* 4/10 (40%) 5/11 (45%) 0.71

Possible, Probable and Typical PLS (n=68) ALSFRS slope -0.6 -0.9 0.35

Died* 3/39 (8%) 3/29 (10%) 0.72

Data are number (%) or mean. EMG = electromyography. LMN = lower motor neuron. Clinical mild LMN signs = at most mild focal amyotrophy ofthe interosseus muscles of the hands or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation. EMG mild LMN signs = needle EMG abnormalities not fulfilling revised El Esco-rial criteria for probable laboratory-supported amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. ALSFRS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale. *Died related to the neurological disorder by the last verification at December 24th, 2008 (p = log-rank p).

As it was previously reported that patients with an UMN disorder associated with mild clinical or EMG LMN signs have more disability and shorter survival than those with a pure UMN disorder,16 we compared the ALSFRS slope and survival in patients with and without mild clinical or EMG LMN signs at inclusion, but found no significant differences (Table 5). If all clinical and EMG characteristics at inclusion were analyzed, the only char-acteristic that showed significant association with more rapid functional decline during follow-up and shorter survival was a higher rate of functional decline prior to inclusion expressed as the ALSFRS-rate (median 1.1, range 0.2-8.6, n= 89). This finding was con-sistent if analyzed in all 89 patients, in only the 21 patients with an undetermined UMN syndrome, and in only the 68 patients with possible PLS, probable PLS or typical PLS (all p-values <0.005 in linear mixed-effects modelling and Cox regression).

Discussion

In a 3-year prospective study of a large cohort of patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome, we validated our proposed new clinical diagnostic criteria for PLS that incor-porate different levels of certainty of diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP, based on the distri-bution of UMN symptoms over body regions. We found that the proportion of patients with typical PLS or ALS after follow-up was 17% in possible PLS, 38% in probable PLS and 100% in typical PLS. Importantly, a disease duration of <4 years, classified as unde-termined UMN syndrome, was associated with more rapid disease progression, shorter survival, and conversion to ALS. Mild clinical or EMG LMN signs (within the limits of

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our criteria), or any of the other clinical characteristics (bladder symptoms, age at onset) was not associated with change in diagnosis or PLS classification during follow-up, or with a difference in disease progression or survival.Since Pringle et al. proposed their PLS criteria in 1992,9 several patient series were reported that provided new insights, and adjusted criteria were put forward that, however, were not validated in prospective studies.1,14-17,19-21,24 To avoid overlap with HSP, one group required an age at onset after 40 in PLS.16,17 However, we and others showed that a diagnosis of PLS may be allowed at any adult age as the onset of HSP may be after the age of 40 and symptoms of typical PLS may start well before the age of 40: the earliest onset was 32 years in our study, and was 23 and 26 in other PLS studies.23 Importantly, previously proposed PLS criteria did not take into account the distribution of UMN symptoms over different body regions which appeared to be a major determinant of developing a PLS phenotype in our study. PLS studies that also included patients without bulbar region involvement, may be biased towards less disability, slower progression, and prolonged survival because these studies included patients who may have sporadic HSP.Similar to the criteria proposed by Pringle et al. and the inclusion criteria used in several other recent PLS series,9,15,19 but in contrast to adjusted PLS diagnostic criteria recently proposed by two other groups,1,16 we permitted mild clinical or EMG LMN signs in PLS. From results of retrospective studies it was proposed to classify patients with an UMN syndrome and mild LMN signs as ‘UMN-dominant ALS’ because more disability, more rapid progression, and shorter survival was observed in these patients than in those without any LMN signs classified as ‘pure PLS’.16 In our large prospective study, however, we found that a disease duration <4 years and rapid progression prior to inclusion, and not mild LMN loss, was associated with worse outcome. A possible explanation for this difference in results may be that the patients with ‘UMN-dominant ALS’ had a shorter disease duration (12.2 months) than those with ‘pure PLS’ patients (57.7 months),17 making the ‘UMN-dominant ALS’ patients more similar to the patients classified as undetermined UMN syndrome in our study. Another explanation may be the larger proportion of patients with bulbar region symptoms and therefore more disability in the ‘UMN-dominant ALS’ group (87%) compared to the ‘pure PLS’ group (22%).17 Our prospective findings show that a required disease duration of ≥4 years for a diagnosis of PLS is meaningful and that mild LMN signs may be allowed for clinical diagnosis of PLS. Mild LMN signs were also reported in patients with genetically proved HSP,23 in MS,31 and in hemiplegic stroke.32 This is in contrast to more pronounced LMN signs, fulfilling El Escorial criteria for probable (labo-ratory-supported) ALS, that should alert physicians that the disease converts to ALS even after many years.14,15 For that reason we avoided the term definite PLS, and used typical PLS instead for the most certain PLS diagnostic classification. Of the 7 patients in our study who developed ALS, 3 with undetermined UMN syndrome at inclusion showed a typical progressive and fatal type of ALS (median survival from onset of 2.7, range 2.3-3.7, years). In contrast, the other 4 patients who developed ALS (with probable PLS or typical PLS at inclusion) did so based only on EMG criteria,18 and only 1 of these 4 patients died

89


(8 years after onset), while the other 3 patients continued to progress relatively slowly, in-dicating that the type of ALS developing in PLS with a longer disease duration may be less aggressive. Within the diagnostic classifications disease progression still showed consid-erable variability. Patients who during follow-up were classified as typical PLS, but who nevertheless showed relatively rapid progression and reduced survival, indicate that PLS may not always be a relatively benign disorder. The single clinical characteristic at inclusion that was significantly and consistently associated with both more rapid functional decline during follow-up and shorter survival, was a higher rate of functional decline prior to inclusion (ALSFRS-rate). In addition to the diagnostic classification of patients as ‘typical PLS, probable PLS, possible PLS, or undetermined UMN syndrome, the ALSFRS-rate (weighed against our observed median rate of 1.1 per year and range of 0.2-8.6) may help clinicians to better estimate prognosis in individual patients.This study and our previous study,23 further showed that differentiation of apparently sporadic HSP from PLS in patients classified as possible PLS and probable PLS depends on genetic testing, which for most forms of HSP is currently not generally available.10 We tested only the SPG4, SPG7 and SPG17 genes to identify genetically proven HSP patients, but more extensive testing of currently known HSP genes would have identified only a relatively small number of additional patients among those who after follow-up classified as possible PLS or probable PLS after follow-up. The remaining currently known HSP genes are either associated with childhood-onset or complicated forms of HSP, or probably each account for less than 1% of HSP,10 with the exception of REEP1 mutations (reported in 3-6.5% of HSP patients).33

Patients may develop clinical features of other neurodegenerative diseases in addition to the PLS phenotype, for which we included in our criteria the separate classification as ‘PLS plus’. Our findings indicate that, as in ALS, FTD may develop as part of the clinico-path-ological spectrum of PLS. Parkinsonism developing in association with PLS (3 patients in our study) was reported previously,1,16 but it is not clear whether this represents a similar pathophysiological relationship, or chance association.The proposed criteria were not developed in an international consensus meeting which may be considered a weakness of the study. Instead, new insights from several cohort studies were incorporated and, importantly, validated in a large prospective study. Our proposed criteria may help to provide a more precise and meaningful diagnosis in patients with UMN degeneration, which is important for patients (genetic counselling, prognostication) and for future research (more homogeneous clinical groups for inclusion in etiological studies and clinical trials).

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References

Singer MA, Statland JM, Wolfe GI, Barohn RJ. Primary lateral sclerosis. Muscle Nerve 1. 2007;35:291-302.Charcot JM. Sclérose des cordons latéreaux de la moelle épiniére chez une femme hystérique 2. atteinte de contracture permanente de quatre members. Bull Soc Med Hop Paris 1865;2(suppl 2):24-42.Erb W. Ueber einen wenig bekannten spinalen Symptomencomplex. Berl Klin Wschr 3. 1875;12:357-359.Stark FM, Moersch FP. Primary Lateral Sclerosis. a distinct clinical entity. J Nerv Ment Dis 4. 1945;102:332-337.Wechsler IS, Brody S. The problem of primary lateral sclerosis. JAMA 1946;130:1196-1198.5. Fisher CM. Pure spastic paralysis of corticospinal origin. Can J Neurol Sci 1977;4:251-258.6. Beal MF, Richardson EP, Jr. Primary lateral sclerosis: a case report. Arch Neurol 1981;38:630-7. 633.Gastaut JL, Michel B, Figarella-Branger D, Somma-Mauvais H. Chronic progressive spinobulbar 8. spasticity. A rare form of primary lateral sclerosis. Arch Neurol 1988;45:509-513.Pringle CE, Hudson AJ, Munoz DG, Kiernan JA, Brown WF, Ebers GC. Primary lateral sclero-9. sis. Clinical features, neuropathology and diagnostic criteria. Brain 1992; 115:495-520.Salinas S, Proukakis C, Crosby A, Warner TT. Hereditary spastic paraplegia: clinical features 10. and pathogenetic mechanisms. Lancet Neurol 2008;7:1127-1138.Fink JK. Progressive spastic paraparesis: hereditary spastic paraplegia and its relation to primary 11. and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Semin Neurol 2001;21:199-207.Brugman F, Wokke JH, Scheffer H, Versteeg MH, Sistermans EA, van den Berg LH. Spastin mu-12. tations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Ann Neurol 2005;58:865-869.Brugman F, Scheffer H, Wokke JHJ, et al. Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper 13. motor neuron syndromes. Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505.Bruyn RP, Koelman JH, Troost D, de Jong JM. Motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral 14. sclerosis) arising from longstanding primary lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:742-744.Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 15. patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.Gordon PH, Cheng B, Katz IB et al. The natural history of primary lateral sclerosis. Neurology 16. 2006;66:647-653.Gordon PH, Cheng B, Katz IB et al. Clinical features that distinguish PLS, upper motor neuron-17. dominant ALS, and typical ALS. Neurology 2009;72:1948-1952.Brooks BR, Miller RG, Swash M, Munsat TL; World Federation of Neurology Research Group 18. on Motor Neuron Diseases. El Escorial revisited: revised criteria for the diagnosis of amyotroph-ic lateral sclerosis. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2000;1:293-299.Kuipers-Upmeijer J, de Jager AE, Hew JM, Snoek JW, van Weerden TW. Primary lateral sclero-Primary lateral sclero-19. sis: clinical, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-

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try 2001;71:615-620.Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Spelle L et al. Primary lateral sclerosis: further clarifi cation. J Neu-Primary lateral sclerosis: further clarification. J Neu-20. rol Sci 2001;185:95-100.Zhai P, Pagan F, Statland J, Butman JA, Floeter MK. Primary lateral sclerosis: A heterogeneous 21. disorder composed of different subtypes? Neurology 2003;60:1258-1265.Nielsen JE, Krabbe K, Jennum P et al. Autosomal dominant pure spastic paraplegia: a clinical, 22. paraclinical, and genetic study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:61-66.Brugman F, Veldink JH, Franssen H et al. Differentiation of hereditary spastic paraparesis from 23. primary lateral sclerosis in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Arch Neurol 2009;66:509-514.Tartaglia MC, Rowe A, Findlater K, Orange JB, Grace G, Strong MJ. Differentiation between 24. primary lateral sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: examination of symptoms and signs at disease onset and during follow-up. Arch Neurol 2007;64:232-236.Brugman F, Scheffer H, Schelhaas HJ et al. Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-25. onset upper motor neuron syndromes. J Neurol 2009;256:824-826.Brugman F, Eymard-Pierre E, van den Berg LH, Wokke JH, Gauthier-Barichard F, Boespflug-26. Tanguy O. Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 gene. Neurology 2007;69:702-704.Brooks, B. R. The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale: Assessment of activities of 27. daily living in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Arch.Neurol 1996;53:141-147.Bohannon RW, Smith MB. Interrater reliability of a modified Ashworth scale of muscle spastic-28. ity. Phys Ther 1987;67:206-207.Hallett M. NINDS myotatic reflex scale. Neurology 1993;43:2723.29. Medical Research Council. Aids to the examination of the peripheral nervous system. London: 30. H.M.S.O.;1976:1-2.Vogt J, Paul F, Aktas O et al. Lower motor neuron loss in multiple sclerosis and experimental 31. autoimmune encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2009;66:310-322. Brown WF, Snow R. Denervation in hemiplegic muscles. Stroke 1990;21:1700-1704.32. Beetz C, Schule R, Deconinck T et al. REEP1 mutation spectrum and genotype/phenotype cor-33. relation in hereditary spastic paraplegia type 31. Brain 2008;131:1078-1086.Brugman F, Wokke JH, Vianney de Jong JM, Franssen H, Faber CG, van den Berg LH. Primary 34. lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS. Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779.Dupré N, Valdmanis PN, Bouchard JP, Rouleau GA. Autosomal dominant primary lateral scle-Autosomal dominant primary lateral scle-35. rosis. Neurology 2007;68:1156-1157.

Chapter Eight

Primary lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS

F. Brugman, J.H.J. Wokke, J.M.B. Vianney de Jong, H. Franssen, C.G. Faber, L.H. van den Berg

Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779

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Abstract

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with progressive spinob-ulbar spasticity and could be part of the clinical spectrum of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Unlike ALS, which is familial in 5-10% of the cases, PLS has been described as a sporadic disorder in adults. We report two patients with PLS from unrelated SOD1-neg-ative familial ALS families. These observations provide further evidence that PLS can be linked pathophysiologically to ALS.

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PLS as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS

Introduction

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with slowly progressive spinobulbar spasticity.1-4 PLS could be considered a clinical variant of ALS because PLS and ALS share a similar age of onset, male predominance, and both bulbar and spinal onset forms. Furthermore, transition of PLS to ALS can occur even after long-standing disease.5

Unlike ALS, which is familial in approximately 5-10% of the patients, PLS has been described as a sporadic disorder in adults.1-4 A familial PLS-like disorder with infantile or juvenile onset has been reported and is sometimes associated with alsin (ALS2) mutations.6,7 The diagnosis of PLS requires the absence of a positive family history according to proposed clinical diagnostic criteria.1 The phenotype of patients with familial ALS (FALS) has been described as heterogeneous, also within families, including mixed upper and lower as well as pure lower motor neuron syndromes.8 To further broaden the clinical spectrum of FALS, we report two patients with PLS who have a family history of FALS.

Case reports

The index patients were part of a cohort of 100 Dutch patients, who were identified after a nation-wide search for patients with PLS to participate in a natural history study. Other causes were excluded according to clinical diagnostic criteria.1 Direct sequencing of the superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) gene revealed no mutations in either index patient. The pedigrees are shown in the figure. Clinical features of affected individuals are summarized in the table.

Family Patient Diagnosis Onset site Onset age, y Disease duration, y

A II-7 PLS /ALS Spinal 50 32

A II-8 PLS Bulbar 50s >20

A III-9 ALS Bulbar 31 9 (dead)

B II-1 ALS Spinal 71 3 (dead)

B III-3 ALS Bulbar 65 3 (dead)

B III-12 ALS Bulbar 22 6 (dead)

B III-14 PLS Spinal 50 12

Table. Clinical characteristics of affected family members of family A and family B.

PLS = primary lateral sclerosis, ALS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

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Family A Patient II-8 (index patient). This 81-year-old man gradually developed slurring of speech during his 50s and gait unsteadiness and slowing of hand movements during his 60s. Neu-rologic examination at age 75 showed mild pseudobulbar dysarthria and a tetrapyramidal syndrome with slowed repetitive movements of tongue, fingers and feet and a mildly spastic gait. Atrophy and fasciculations were absent. At the age of 79, needle EMG of bulbar, cervical, thoracal and lumbosacral muscles was normal. Cortical magnetic stimulation showed abnormal central motor conduction to the arms and legs. He was diagnosed with PLS. At the last follow-up at age 80 neurological examination showed no signs of lower motor neuron involvement.Patient II-7. This is the 82-year-old brother of the index patient. From the age of 50 he expe-rienced difficulty with walking which was slowly progressive. Slurring of speech developed since age 75. At age 80 he noticed weakness of the arms. Neurologic examination at the last follow-up at age 82 showed pseudobulbar dysarthria and a tetrapyramidal syndrome. Fas-ciculations and mild atrophy were seen in the upper arms, not in the tongue. Needle EMG

I

II

III

8PLSPLS/ALS

1 2

1 6 75 9 3 42

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9ALS

5

I

II

III

IV

1ALS

14PLS

3

12ALS

15 16 10 11 13

1 2

3ALS

4 5 7 8 9 1 2 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

2

7

Figure. Pedigrees of Family A and Family B showing patients with primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) and ALS in the same family. Only offspring of affected family members are depicted if aged 18 or older.

Family A

Family B

97


at age 80 showed active denervation (fibrillations or positive sharp waves) and chronic den-ervation (polyphasic or large motorunit potentials) in the right abductor pollicis brevis muscle, chronic denervation in the left abductor digiti minimi muscle and in both anterior tibial muscles, but no abnormalities in the tongue. It was concluded that he had developed ALS, most likely following long-standing PLS.Patient III-9. This is the son of the index patient. He was diagnosed with bulbar onset ALS at age 35. He developed dysarthria from age 31. At age 33, he noticed weakness of the arms. Neurologic examination at age 35 showed pseudobulbar dysarthria. Fasciculations and atrophy of arm and hand muscles were noted; these were associated with brisk reflexes and a unilateral Babinski sign. He developed paralysis of the arms and severe weakness of the legs. By the time of his death, at age 40, he was anarthric and had to be fed through a percutaneous gastrostomy tube.

Family BPatient III-14 (index patient). This 62-year-old man noticed stiffness in the legs and gait unsteadiness since the age of 50. During his 50s arm movements became slower. Slurring of speech developed at age 60. Neurologic examination at age 62 showed a tetrapyramidal syndrome and mild pseudobulbar dysarthria, without atrophy or fasciculations. Cortical magnetic stimulation demonstrated impaired central motor conduction. Needle EMG at 53 and 55 years of age was normal. He was diagnosed with PLS. Repeated EMG at age 62 only showed chronic denervation in the right rectus femoris muscle.Patient III-12. This man, an older brother of the index patient, never married and had no children. Family members recalled that he developed progressive speech and swallowing disturbance from the age of 22. By the time of his death, at age 28, he could not speak or swallow, had lost a lot of weight and had severe dyspnea. There were no symptoms in the arms or legs. No medical records could be traced. The most likely diagnosis was ALS.Patient II-1. This woman was first seen by a local neurologist at age 71 for weakness of her left arm. At age 73, he documented the presence of bulbar paralysis, dysarthria, dysphagia, forced crying, reduced mobility of shoulder and hip joints and weakness of the arms. There was severe weight loss, but fasciculations were absent. Reflexes were low and plantar responses were normal. ALS was diagnosed. She died at age 74.Patient III-3. This man developed slurring of speech and swallowing difficulty at age 65. At age 68 he was anarthric and had arm weakness more prominent on the left side. He died at age 68 of respiratory insufficiency. Examination shortly before death revealed atrophy, fasciculations and weakness of the tongue and of shoulder muscles, and hyperre-flexia, including positive pseudobulbar reflexes. EMG at age 66 showed fasciculations and chronic denervation in the tongue, arms, and a lower leg muscle. Post-mortem examination of the brain and spinal cord showed abnormalities consistent with ALS and also features of Alzheimer disease.

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Discussion

We report two patients with PLS from unrelated families with a history of FALS. The phenotype of patients with FALS has been described as heterogeneous, also within families, but the occurrence of PLS and ALS within the same family has not been described before. Recognizing the PLS phenotype is important because it offers a much better prognosis than the ALS phenotype, which is also true for the patients described in this study.1-5 Both pedigrees suggest autosomal dominant inheritance, the most frequently observed pattern in FALS.8 The presence of an obligate carrier in family B (II-3) indicates incomplete pen-etrance, which is a feature of FALS.8 The affected brothers of family A (II-7 and II-8) could represent the first reported cases of familial PLS in adults because both had a similar phenotype of spinobulbar spasticity for many years, before lower motor neuron symptoms developed in the older brother (II-7). Patient II-7 probably represents a case of transition to ALS after long-standing PLS, as has been described previously.5 We believe that new diagnostic criteria for PLS should leave open the possibility of familial PLS, in contrast to the criteria proposed by Pringle et al. in 1992, which require absence of family history.1 The occurrence of ALS and PLS phenotypes in the same family suggests a common genetic defect leading to degeneration of motor neurons. Importantly, gene- or environmental-modifying factors may protect lower motor neurons in the patients with PLS or, alterna-tively, promote their degeneration in the patients with ALS in these families. Identification of such modifying factors is a major challenge in ALS research.9,10 It is important to note that most patients with PLS appear to occur sporadically, as we found only these two patients among a cohort of 100 Dutch patients with PLS. These observations show that PLS can be part of the clinical spectrum of FALS, providing further evidence that PLS is linked pathophysiologically to ALS, at least in a proportion of patients.

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References

Pringle CE, Hudson AJ, Munoz DG, Kiernan JA, Brown WF, Ebers GC. Primary lateral sclero-1. sis. Clinical features, neuropathology and diagnostic criteria. Brain 1992;115:495-520.Kuipers-Upmeijer J, de Jager AE, Hew JM, Snoek JW, van Weerden TW. Primary lateral sclero-2. sis: clinical, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-try 2001;71:615-620.Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A, et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 3. patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.Zhai P, Pagan F, Statland J, Butman JA, Floeter MK. Primary lateral sclerosis: A heterogeneous 4. disorder composed of different subtypes? Neurology 2003;60:1258-1265.Bruyn RP, Koelman JH, Troost D, de Jong JM. Motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral 5. sclerosis) arising from longstanding primary lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:742-744.Yang Y, Hentati A, Deng HX, et al. The gene encoding alsin, a protein with three guanine-nu-6. cleotide exchange factor domains, is mutated in a form of recessive amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nat Genet 2001;29:160-165.Eymard-Pierre E, Lesca G, Dollet S, et al. Infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis is 7. associated with mutations in the alsin gene. Am J Hum Genet 2002;71:518-527.de Belleroche J, Orrell R, King A. Familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neurone disease 8. (FALS): a review of current developments. J Med Genet 1995;32:841-847.Veldink JH, van den Berg LH, Wokke JH. The future of motor neuron disease. The challenge is 9. in the genes. J Neurol 2004;251:491-500.Armon C. An evidence-based medicine approach to the evaluation of the role of exogenous risk 10. factors in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroepidemiology 2003;22:217-228.

Chapter Nine

ALS pathology in a patient with clinical primary lateral sclerosis

F. Brugman, J.Y. Engelen-Lee, W.G.M. Spliet, L.H. van den Berg

Submitted

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Abstract

Whether primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a separate disorder or a variant of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is debated. We report autopsy findings in a patient with clinical PLS up to the time of death, after disease duration of 8 years. Post-mortem examination showed signs of generalized degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons, fitting the criteria of ALS. Our fi ndings strengthen the view that PLS is part of the clinico-path-Our findings strengthen the view that PLS is part of the clinico-path-ological spectrum of ALS.

103

ALS pathology in a patient with clinical PLS

Introduction

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with an adult-onset gradually progressive upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome.1,2 Whether PLS is a separate disorder or part of the clinico-pathological spectrum of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is debated.2-6 Autopsies would help to clarify this issue. However, there have been very few autopsies in PLS, including even fewer cases that were considered pathologically proven PLS, and most were performed before the widespread recognition of Bunina bodies and ubiquinated neuronal inclusions as key features of the pathology of ALS,7 which rendered the earlier autopsy studies in PLS invalid.2,4 We here report autopsy findings in a patient who fulfilled clinical criteria for PLS up to the time of death, after disease duration of 8 years.

Case report

At age 61, a man with no significant medical history gradually developed slowing and slurring of speech, and difficulty swallowing fluids. Neurologic examination at age 63 showed pseudobulbar dysarthria, slowed tongue movements, and pseudobulbar affect. By age 66, he was anarthric and he required placement of a percutaneous gastrostomy tube for feeding. He was still able to make long walks and to perform heavy labour in his garden. Neurologic examination showed isolated pseudobulbar paralysis. From age 67 he noted stiffness in the legs and some walking difficulty. Neurologic examination now also showed hyperreflexia and dysdiadochokinesia of the right leg. At age 69 he noted stiffness in his right arm and walking became limited to a few metres with support. Subsequently he caught pneumonia due to aspiration, and died 8 years from symptom onset, aged 69 years and 7 months. The last neurologic examination a few weeks prior to his death showed pseudob-ulbar paralysis and an asymmetrical (right more than left) tetra-pyramidal syndrome. At that time, there were no symptoms suggestive of night-time hypoventilation and capillary blood gas analysis was normal, but vital capacity could not be measured due to pseudobul-bar paralysis. Importantly, at none of the neurologic examinations could any sign of clinical lower motor neuron (LMN) involvement be detected. Extensive concentric needle EMG examinations of bulbar, cervical, thoracic, and lumbosacral muscles at age 63, 64, and age 66 were normal, and at age 68 showed signs of denervation and re-innervation in only 1 lower leg muscle. Further additional laboratory investigations that were performed to exclude other causes included serum biochemistry, plasma levels of vitamins B12 and E, thyrotropin, and very-long-chain fatty acids; biliary alcohol levels in urine; serologic testing for syphilis, Lyme disease, human T-lymphotropic virus 1, and HIV infection; and MRI of the brain.Post-mortem macroscopic examination of the brain showed no specific abnormalities with post-fixation weight of 1505 gram. There was no obvious atrophy of the precentral gyri.

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Microscopic examination showed degeneration of UMNs represented by loss of Betz-cells, neuronophagy, demyelization in the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts. Examination of the spinal cord showed a mild decrease of LMNs with presence of Bunina bodies, ubiquitin and p62 positive skein-like inclusions and spherical bodies in all levels of the spinal cord. In conclusion, histological examination of this patient showed signs of generalized degenera-tion of both upper and lower motor neurons, fitting the criteria of ALS.7

Discussion

Only 6 autopsies in PLS that included studies on ubiquinated inclusions and Bunina bodies were previously reported.2,4 Of these 6 autopsy patients, 5 had PLS associated with parkinsonian features or dementia (complicated PLS2). Only in 1 of the 5 patients with complicated PLS, no ALS inclusions could be detected at autopsy and was the pathology therefore considered completely compatible with PLS rather than ALS.4 The one autopsy

Figure A: Detail of layer 5 of the precentral gyrus. Between 2 Betz cells (arrowheads) is a group of foamy mac-rophages indicating neuronophagy (Luxol Fast Blue combined with PAS staining).B: Transverse section of the thoracic spinal cord. There is asymmetrical degeneration with loss of myelin in the lateral corticospinal tract (Luxol fast Blue combined with PAS staining).C: Detail of the anterior horn of the thoracic spinal cord. Two of the remaining motor neurons are swollen with displacement of the Nissl substance. The motor neuron on the right contains a Bunina body (arrow; HE staining)D and E: Two motor neurons in the lumbar spinal cord containing a skein-like inclusion (D) and a rounded inclusion (E) (p62 immunohistochemistry).

105

ALS pathology in a patient with clinical PLS

patient with clinically pure PLS also had evidence of ALS pathology, but had a disease duration of 3 years and 3 months that would be considered too short for a diagnosis of PLS according to recent insights (at least 4 years).5

Our patient fulfilled clinical diagnostic criteria for PLS.1 EMG results were entirely normal at 5 years from onset and showed minimal changes in only 1 lower leg muscle (not fulfill-ing EMG revised El Escorial criteria for ALS) at the last EMG at 6.5 years from onset. Minimal EMG changes were reported and accepted by many authors in PLS,1,3 although some authors preferred to label such patients as UMN-dominant ALS,5,6 a term that in our patient would adequately describe the combined clinical and pathological findings.Our findings strengthen the view that PLS is a variant within the clinico-pathological spectrum of ALS. However, more autopsies are needed to verify if pathologically pure PLS may exist as a disorder separate from ALS.

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References

Pringle CE, Hudson AJ, Munoz DG, Kiernan JA, Brown WF, Ebers GC. Primary lateral sclero-1. sis. Clinical features, neuropathology and diagnostic criteria. Brain 1992;115:495-520.Singer MA, Statland JM, Wolfe GI, Barohn RJ. Primary lateral sclerosis. Muscle Nerve 2. 2007;35:291-302.Le Forestier N, Maisonobe T, Piquard A, et al. Does primary lateral sclerosis exist? A study of 20 3. patients and a review of the literature. Brain 2001;124:1989-1999.Rowland LP. Primary lateral sclerosis, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and mutations in the alsin 4. gene: historical background for the first International Conference. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2005;6:67-76.Gordon PH, Cheng B, Katz IB, et al. The natural history of primary lateral sclerosis. Neurology 5. 2006;66:647-653.Gordon PH, Cheng B, Katz IB, et al. Clinical features that distinguish PLS, upper motor neu-Clinical features that distinguish PLS, upper motor neu-6. ron-dominant ALS, and typical ALS. Neurology 2009;72:1948-1952.Lowe J. New pathological findings in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 1994;124 7. (suppl):38-51.

Chapter Ten

General Discussion

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General Discussion

Diagnostic boundaries

Diagnosis of primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) has been and remains by exclusion of other disorders of upper motor neurons (UMNs). The studies described in this thesis and recent studies by other authors,1-5 however, have provided new insights that improve the ability to differentiate PLS from sporadic presentation of hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Differentiation of PLS, HSP and ALS is important for genetic counselling of family members and for prognostication. Prognosis is generally more favorable in HSP compared to PLS, and more favorable in PLS compared to ALS.

PLS and HSPWith the advent of genetic tests for forms of HSP, improvement has been made regarding the exclusion of sporadic presentations of HSP. We described in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 that mutations in the spastin gene (SPG4)6 and paraplegin gene (SPG7)7 are a frequent cause of apparently sporadic spastic paraparesis (each in ~12% of the patients). We found no mutations of exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene (SPG17), or of the alsin gene (ALS2, associated with juvenile-onset UMN diseases) in our patients with adult-onset sporadic UMN syndromes (Chapter 4 and Chapter 5). However, the number of reported genetic types of HSP is expanding and for many forms the causative gene is not yet identified (Table 1).8 Currently, in only 50-60% of HSP families a causative mutation can be identi-fied. Therefore, the differentiation between sporadic HSP and PLS remains problematic.In this thesis we demonstrated that most clinical characteristics are not useful to differenti-ate HSP from PLS, although onset in the arms or bulbar region, or development of bulbar region symptoms after onset in the legs may favor a diagnosis of PLS(Chapter 6).9 The ob-servation that the distribution of UMN symptoms across the body regions determines the certainty of diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP led us to design new PLS diagnostic criteria (Table 2). These PLS diagnostic criteria classify patients with disease duration ≥4 years as possible PLS if only legs are affected, as probable PLS if legs and arms are affected, and as typical PLS if the bulbar region is affected. In a prospective validation study we showed that this PLS classification was able to differentiate PLS from HSP in different levels of certainty (Chapter 7). In addition, all patients with a disease duration <4 years were classi-fied as undetermined UMN syndrome and these patients showed an overall more rapid de-terioration of functional status and muscle strength, and a much shorter survival compared to all other patients, including some patients who progressed to typical rapidly progressive and fatal ALS.

PLS and ALSThe diagnostic boundary between PLS and ALS has been subject of debate since the first publications on PLS at the end of the 19th century.10-15 Many authors have viewed PLS as a variant within the clinical spectrum of ALS.15,16 This view is further supported by several observations reported in this thesis: we described patients who converted from PLS to ALS

112

Chapter 10

Inhe

ritan

ceLo

cus

Prot

ein

Clin

ical

feat

ures

Freq

uenc

y

L1C

AM

(SPG

1)X

-link

edX

q28

L1 ce

ll ad

hesio

n m

olec

ule

Men

tal r

etar

datio

n, h

ypop

lasia

of c

orpu

s cal

losu

m, a

dduc

ted

thum

bs, h

ydro

ceph

alus

Ove

r 100

fam

ilial

ca

ses

PLP1

(SPG

2)X

-link

edX

q21

Prot

eolip

opro

tein

1Q

uadr

iple

gia,

nysta

gmus

, men

tal r

etar

datio

n, se

izur

es<1

00 fa

mili

al ca

ses

SPG

3AA

D14

q12-

q21

Atla

stin

Early

-ons

et p

ure,

slow

pro

gres

sion

HSP

<10%

AD

HSP

SPA

ST (S

PG4)

AD

2p22

Spas

tinVa

riabl

e-on

set m

ainl

y pur

e HSP

40%

of p

ure A

D H

SP

CY

P7B1

(SPG

5A)

AR

8pC

ytoc

hrom

e P45

0-7B

1Va

riabl

e-on

set p

ure H

SP~2

0 fa

mili

es

NIP

A1

(SPG

6)A

D15

q11.

2-q1

2N

on-im

prin

ted

in

Prad

er-W

illi/

Ang

elm

an

synd

rom

e reg

ion

prot

ein

1

Adu

lt-on

set p

ure H

SP~1

0 fa

mili

es

SPG

7A

R16

qPa

rapl

egin

Varia

ble o

nset

, cer

ebel

lar s

igns

, opt

ic at

roph

y, ne

urop

athy

~30

fam

ilies

KIA

A01

96 (S

PG8)

AD

8q24

Stru

mpe

llin

Adu

lt-on

set p

ure H

SP, m

arke

d sp

astic

ity<1

0 fa

mili

es

SPG

9A

D10

q23.

3-q2

4.2

..C

atar

acts

, mot

or n

euro

path

y, sk

elet

al ab

norm

aliti

es, g

astr

o-oe

soph

agea

l refl

ux1

fam

ily

KIF

5A (S

PG10

)A

D12

q13

Kin

esin

fam

ily m

embe

r 5A

Early

-ons

et p

ure H

SP, c

an b

e com

plic

ated

with

dist

al

amyo

trop

hy<1

0 fa

mili

es

SPG

11A

R15

qSp

atac

sinC

hild

hood

to ea

rly ad

ult o

nset

, thi

n co

rpus

callo

sum

, co

gniti

ve im

pairm

ent,

neur

opat

hyM

any f

amili

es

SPG

12A

D19

q13

..Ea

rly-o

nset

pur

e HSP

<10

fam

ilies

HSP

D1

(SPG

13)

AD

2q24

-q34

Hea

t sho

ck p

rote

in 6

0A

dult-

onse

t pur

e HSP

<10

fam

ilies

SPG

14A

R3q

27-q

38..

Varia

ble o

nset

, mot

or n

euro

path

y, m

enta

l ret

arda

tion

1 fa

mily

ZFY

VE2

6 (S

PG15

)A

R14

qSp

astiz

inK

jelli

n sy

ndro

me:

adol

esce

nt o

nset

, pig

men

ted

retin

opat

hy,

cere

bella

r sig

ns, m

enta

l ret

arda

tion

<10

fam

ilies

Tab

le 1

. Gen

etic

form

s of H

SP (a

dapt

ed fr

om S

alin

as et

al.

2008

8 , upd

ated

for t

his t

hesis

Oct

ober

200

9).

113

General Discussion

SPG

16X

-link

edX

q11.

2..

HSP

with

ons

et in

infa

ncy,

apha

sia, s

phin

cter

dist

urba

nce,

men

tal r

etar

datio

n1

fam

ily

BSC

L2 (S

PG17

)A

D11

q12-

q14

Seip

inSi

lver

synd

rom

e: va

riabl

e ons

et, d

istal

amyo

trop

hy in

han

ds

mor

e tha

n in

feet

<20

fam

ilies

SPG

18A

DR

eser

ved

..

SPG

19A

D9q

33-q

34..

Adu

lt-on

set p

ure H

SP1

fam

ily

SPG

20A

R13

qSp

artin

Troy

er sy

ndro

me:

child

hood

ons

et, a

myo

trop

hy, c

ereb

ella

r sig

ns, d

evel

opm

enta

l del

ayFo

unde

r mut

atio

n in

A

mish

com

mun

ity

SPG

21A

R15

qM

aspa

rdin

Mas

t syn

drom

e: ea

rly ad

ult o

nset

, thi

n co

rpus

callo

sum

, co

gniti

ve d

eclin

e, ex

trap

yram

idal

feat

ures

, cer

ebel

lar s

igns

Foun

der m

utat

ion

in

Am

ish co

mm

unity

SPG

23A

R1q

24-q

32..

Liso

n sy

ndro

me:

child

hood

ons

et, p

igm

enta

ry ab

norm

aliti

es,

faci

al an

d sk

elet

al d

ysm

orph

ism, c

ogni

tive d

eclin

e, tr

emor

1 fa

mily

SPG

24A

R13

q14

..C

hild

hood

-ons

et p

ure H

SP, p

seud

obul

bar s

igns

1 fa

mily

SPG

25A

R6q

23-q

24..

Adu

lt on

set,

cata

ract

s, pr

olap

sed

inte

rver

tebr

al d

iscs

1 fa

mily

SPG

26A

R12

p11.

1-q1

4..

Adu

lt on

set,

neur

opat

hy an

d di

stal w

astin

g, in

telle

ctua

l im

pairm

ent

2 fa

mili

es

SPG

27A

R10

q22.

1-q2

4.1

..Va

riabl

e ons

et, c

ereb

ella

r sig

ns, n

euro

path

y, m

enta

l ret

arda

tion,

m

icro

ceph

aly

2 fa

mili

es

SPG

28A

R14

q21.

3-q2

2.3

..Ea

rly-o

nset

pur

e HSP

1 fa

mily

SPG

29A

D1p

31-p

21..

Sens

orin

eura

l dea

fnes

s, hi

atus

her

nia,

pes c

avus

, hy

perb

iliru

bina

emia

1 fa

mily

SPG

30A

R2q

37..

Ado

lesc

ent-o

nset

pur

e HSP

, sen

sory

neu

ropa

thy

1 fa

mily

REE

P1 (S

PG31

)A

D2p

12R

ecep

tor e

xpre

ssio

n-en

hanc

ing p

rote

in 1

Varia

ble-

onse

t pur

e HSP

8% o

f AD

pur

e HSP

SPG

32A

R14

q12-

q21

..C

hild

hood

ons

et, m

enta

l ret

arda

tion,

thin

corp

us ca

llosu

m,

pont

ine d

ysra

phism

1 fa

mily

Tab

le 1

. Con

tinue

d.

114

Chapter 10

SPG

34A

DR

eser

ved

..

SPG

35A

R16

q21-

q23

..C

hild

hood

ons

et, i

ntel

lect

ual d

eclin

e, se

izur

es1

fam

ily

SPG

36A

D12

q23-

q24

..

SPG

37A

D8p

21.1

-q13

.3..

SPG

38A

D4p

16-p

15..

Dist

al am

yotr

ophy

(Silv

er sy

ndro

me)

1 fa

mily

SPG

39A

R19

p13

Neu

ropa

thy t

arge

t est

eras

eC

hild

hood

ons

et, m

arke

d di

stal w

astin

g in

all f

our l

imbs

2 fa

mili

es

SPG

41A

D11

p14.

1-p1

1.2

..

SPG

42A

D3q

24-q

26ac

etyl

-CoA

tran

spor

ter

(SLC

33A

1)1

fam

ily

SPG

45A

R10

q24.

3-q2

5.1

..1

fam

ily

Tab

le 1

. Con

tinue

d.

If th

e SPG

gen

e sym

bol h

as b

een

repl

aced

by t

he H

UG

O G

ene N

omen

clat

ure C

omm

ittee

, the

new

sym

bol i

s list

ed, w

ith th

e ori

gina

l sym

bol i

n pa

rent

hese

s (ht

tp://

ww

w.ge

ne-

nam

es.o

rg).

AD

=Aut

osom

al d

omin

ant.

AR=

auto

som

al re

cess

ive.

..=un

know

n.

115

General Discussion

Requirements for the diagnosisPresence of:

Gradually progressive UMN syndromeAdult onset

Absence of:LMN signs*Sensory signs on examinationFamily history of HSP#

Additional neuroimaging and laboratory findings that allow diagnosis of another conditionEMG findings fulfilling revised El Escorial criteria for probable laboratory-supported ALSGenetic defect of HSP gene if phenotype overlaps with HSP

Levels of certainty of the clinical diagnosis of PLSClinically Typical PLS

Presence of UMN signs in at least the bulbar region (duration ≥4 years)Clinically Probable PLS

Presence of UMN signs in arms and legs (duration ≥4 years)Clinically Possible PLS

Presence of UMN signs in legs only (duration ≥4 years)Undetermined UMN syndrome

Presence of UMN signs in bulbar or spinal regions (duration <4 years)

Other classifications of PLSPLS Plus Syndromes

PLS presents in association with clinical features of other neurological diseases whichdevelop in addition to the PLS phenotype, e.g. extra-pyramidal features or dementia.

Table 2. New proposed diagnostic criteria for PLS (this thesis)

(Chapter 7), patients with PLS as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS (Chapter 8),17 and a patient who had clinical PLS but ALS pathology at autopsy (Chapter 9). Further, many patients had mild clinical or electrophysiological lower motor neuron (LMN) signs that did not fulfil (revised) El Escorial criteria for ALS (Chapter 6). However, presence of such mild LMN signs not necessarily proves that the disorder is part of the pathophysiologi-cal spectrum of ALS, because it was also found in some patients with genetically confirmed HSP,9 and even in multiple sclerosis18and stroke.19 In addition, we found in our prospective study that presence of mild LMN signs was not associated with more rapid disease pro-

PLS = primary lateral sclerosis. UMN = upper motor neuron. *LMN signs = clinical LMN signs more than mild focal amyotrophy of the interosseus muscles of the hands or of the anterior tibial or calf muscles, or fasciculation. #Negative family history does not exclude HSP and rarely PLS may be a phenotypic manifesta-tion of familial ALS,34 or very rarely of familial PLS.35 HSP = hereditary spastic paraparesis. UMN signs in bulbar region = pseudobulbar dysarthria. UMN signs in legs or arms = evident hypertonia (defined as modified Ashworth scale score ≥2), obvious dexterity loss due to spasticity, pathological hyperreflexia (defined as NINDS reflex scale score 4 or 5 or extensor plantar response) or UMN weakness.

Additional investigations include: MRI of brain and spinal cord; CSF studies, serum biochemistry, serum copper, vitamin B12 and E, TSH, plasma VLCFAs; urine biliary alcohols; serology for lues, borrelia, HTLV1 and HIV.

116

Chapter 10

gression or shorter survival (Chapter 7). Although PLS in many cases may be part of the clinicopathological spectrum of ALS, the overall more favorable prognosis compared to ALS justifies the use of the separate diagnostic label of PLS in patients with predominant UMN degeneration.

Etiology

The cause of PLS remains unknown. The current evidence indicates that patients fulfilling clinical criteria for PLS comprise at least 2 separate pathophysiological groups: (1) patients who represent a pure or predominant upper motor neuron variant of ALS, and (2) patients who have sporadic presentation of HSP. The first group probably includes many, if not all, of the patients with typical PLS according to our proposed PLS criteria (disease duration ≥4 years and at least bulbar region involvement) and an unknown smaller proportion of the other diagnostic groups (probable PLS, possible PLS, and undetermined UMN syndrome). In this group, as in ALS,20 the clinical spectrum is broader and includes frontotemporal dementia (FTD), which may develop in addition to the PLS phenotype. The second group of patients fulfil our criteria for possible PLS or probable PLS, after exclusion of mutations of relevant known HSP genes. In time, an increasing number, but probably never 100%, of the patients belonging to the second group, who represent sporadic presentation of HSP, will in the future be identified by genetic testing, as the number of known HSP genes is expanding rapidly.8 Whether PLS may also exist as a disorder pathophysiologically separate from ALS and HSP remains uncertain. There have been very few autopsies in PLS, and no convincing autopsy case of clinically and pathologically pure PLS was reported that included observations on ALS inclusions, which are now considered key features of ALS pathology (Bunina bodies and ubiquinated neuronal inclusions).21 More autopsies may clarify this issue, although it may never be possible to rule out that a patient with clinical and autopsy findings of pure PLS, if he or she had lived longer, would later have developed lower motor neuron ALS pathology.The current hypotheses regarding the etiology of ALS may also apply to many patients with PLS, as in a proportion of the patients the clinical syndrome of PLS probably is a variant within the clinico-pathological spectrum of ALS. In ALS, only a minority of around 10% of cases is familial and a number of genes have been identified that together explain around 25% of the pedigrees.20 Similarly, in a small minority the syndrome of adult-onset PLS seems to represent a mono-genetic disorder: 1 family with an adult-onset autosomal dominant PLS-like disorder associated with a locus on chromosome 4 was reported,22,23 and we described 2 patients in this thesis who had PLS as a phenotypical manifestation of familial ALS.17 Interestingly, in these families gene- or environment-modifying factors may protect lower motor neurons or, alternatively, promote their degeneration in the patients with ALS. Identification of such modifying factors is a major challenge in ALS research. Sporadic ALS, which represents around 90% of ALS cases, is viewed as a complex disorder,

117

General Discussion

with many interacting environmental and genetic susceptibility and modifying factors contributing to disease. Several genome-wide studies have recently been conducted in ALS, and have identified some possible risk genes for ALS, although results from different studies were not consistent.20 Suggested environmental risk factors include excessive physical activity, military service, smoking, electric shock and exposure to pesticides, but many of these associations were weak and inconsistent.24

As mentioned, some patients diagnosed as (possible or probable) PLS may represent a sporadic presentation of HSP, so in these patients the disorder is a monogenetic disorder, with distinct pathophysiology. In HSP, pathophysiological mechanisms are emerging, including, most importantly, abnormal axonal transport and membrane trafficking, and abnormal mitochondrial function, which may explain why the long axons of spinal upper motor neurons are predominantly affected.8

Biomarkers

There is currently no specific biomarker for PLS or ALS. In ALS, abnormalities in various physiopathologic pathways, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and excitotoxicity, have been reported in blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and muscle biopsies.25 Further, a number of studies in both ALS and PLS patients have indicated that nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can detect corticospinal lesions.25 However, because of their relative lack of sensitivity and specificity, these techniques are currently inadequate for use as diagnostic tools in individual patients.

Therapy

Currently, there is no known therapy that modifies disease progression in PLS. Therefore, therapy in PLS relies on symptomatic treatment including supportive care and prescrip-tion of drugs that may influence symptoms such as spasticity, urinary urgency, dysarthria, swallowing problems, excess of saliva, and forced laughter and/or crying. In ALS, riluzole currently remains the only treatment with a proved, although modest, effect on survival.26 We performed a pilot randomized single-blind trial with riluzole in PLS that, however, was hampered by various factors (such as prior treatment with riluzole, clinical indication for prescribing riluzole, change of diagnosis to HSP) leading to inclusion of no more than 36 patients in the final intention-to-treat analysis (20 randomized to riluzole-treatment, 16 to no treatment). The available data, however, provided no evidence for a large beneficial effect of riluzole on disease progression or survival in PLS. In PLS, we currently consider riluzole treatment only in those patients with short disease duration (<4 years) and relatively fast progression, as these patients may still develop typical rapidly progressive and fatal ALS.

118

Chapter 10

Future research

Important strategies for future research to identify genetic and environmental causative and modifying factors in PLS include those that have been recently been introduced or proposed in ALS studies. Genome wide association studies and gene expression profiling are valuable new research methods for multifactorial diseases,20 but in PLS these strategies may be seriously hampered by the large numbers of patients required. More feasible and promising for PLS are new techniques that would make it possible to perform studies on motor neuron cultures from individual patients.27 For the detection of biomarkers there is currently much interest in the use of high-throughput techniques such as transcriptom-ics, proteomics, and metabolomics.25 In the future, a combination of biologic, radiologic, electrophysiological markers, rather than a single marker, may prove a useful tool for the diagnosis and follow-up of ALS and PLS patients.Animal models for typical PLS do not exist. ALS2 knock-out mice have been developed, as ALS2 mutations cause autosomal recessive disorders decribed as autosomal recessive juvenile PLS, infantile ascending hereditary spastic paraparesis, and juvenile ALS.28 Although ALS2 knock-out mice did not develop overt motor neuron disease, they did show signs of corticospinal tract degeneration,29 and further studies may provide new insights in processes involved in UMN degeneration. If a causative gene would be found in the one reported family with autosomal dominant adult-onset PLS,22,23 this would offer similar possibilities for the development of animal models for this hereditary form of adult-onset PLS. For some HSP types animal models have been developed30 and will hopefully increase the understanding of corticospinal tract degeneration in these disorders, which may also have relevance for other UMN disorders including PLS. In addition to pathophysiological studies such animal models may be used to test possible therapies. Possible disease modifying treatments worthy for study in PLS have to include those that (hopefully) will show efficacy in current and future studies in other disorders in which degeneration of upper motor neurons occurs, particularly in ALS and HSP. Disappoint-ingly, riluzole has remained the only proven (modestly) effective disease-modifying drug in ALS, despite a large number of clinical trials that often followed promising results in animal models.31 In HSP there is currently no known treatment that slows disease progres-sion. However, for many forms of HSP the causative genes are identified and the underlying pathophysiological processes are being unraveled, which should help to find potential ther-apeutic solutions,8 which may also have future therapeutic implications for other motor neuron disorders, including as PLS and ALS.Some of the newer developments in symptomatic treatment that seem worthwhile to study further in PLS include the use of botulinum toxin injections (in specific muscles for severe spasticity,32 in bladder wall muscles for urinary urgency,33 in saliva glands for saliva excess34), intrathecal baclophen infusion for generalized spasticity,35 and medical cannabis for spasticity.36

Because overall disease progression in PLS is relatively slow, future therapeutic studies will

119

General Discussion

require relatively large numbers of patients and/or long follow-up durations in order to have sufficient power to detect a significant effect of a treatment on progression. The same holds for etiological studies were large numbers of patients are needed to enable detection of multiple genetic and/or environmental factors that may individually have only small effect sizes. Given the rarity of PLS, such future studies will require large-scale interna-tional cooperation. To achieve an effective international cooperation is probably the most important next step in PLS research. Further international studies will benefit from di-agnostic criteria that help to identify patients who are likely to have the same underlying pathology. Our proposed new PLS diagnostic criteria, which identify patients with typical PLS, and patients in whom the diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP is less certain (possible and probable PLS), are intented and hoped to facilitate these important further international studies.

120

Chapter 10

References

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autoimmune encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2009;66:310-322.Brown WF, Snow R. Denervation in hemiplegic muscles. Stroke 1990;21:1700-1704.19. Van Damme P, Robberecht W. Recent advances in motor neuron disease. Curr Opin Neurol 20. 2009;22:486-492.Lowe J. New pathological findings in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 1994;124 21. (suppl):38-51.Dupré N, Valdmanis PN, Bouchard JP, Rouleau GA. Autosomal dominant primary lateral scle-22. rosis. Neurology 2007;68:1156-1157.Valdmanis PN, Dupre N, Rouleau GA. A locus for primary lateral sclerosis on chromosome 23. 4ptel-4p16.1. Arch Neurol 2008;65:383-386.Phukan J, Hardiman O. The management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol 2009;256:176-24. 186.Turner MR, Kiernan MC, Leigh PN, Talbot K. Biomarkers in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lan-25. cet Neurol 2009;8:94-109.Miller RG, Mitchell JD, Lyon M, Moore DH. Riluzole for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/26. motor neuron disease (MND). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;CD001447Dimos JT, Rodolfa KT, Niakan KK et al. Induced pluripotent stem cells generated from patients 27. with ALS can be differentiated into motor neurons. Science 2008;321:1218-1221.Eymard-Pierre E, Lesca G, Dollet S et al. Infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis is 28. associated with mutations in the alsin gene. Am J Hum Genet 2002;71:518-527.Cai H, Shim H, Lai C et al. ALS2/alsin knockout mice and motor neuron diseases. Neurode-29. gener Dis 2008;5:359-366.Kasher PR, De Vos KJ, Wharton SB et al. Direct evidence for axonal transport defects in a novel 30. mouse model of mutant spastin-induced hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and human HSP patients. J Neurochem 2009;110:34-44.Aggarwal S, Cudkowicz M. ALS drug development: reflections from the past and a way forward. 31. Neurotherapeutics 2008;5:516-527.Hecht MJ, Stolze H, uf dem BM et al. Botulinum neurotoxin type A injections reduce spasticity 32. in mild to moderate hereditary spastic paraplegia--report of 19 cases. Mov Disord 2008;23:228-233.Braschinsky M, Zopp I, Kals M, Haldre, Gross-Paju K. Bladder Dysfunction in Hereditary Spas-33. tic Paraplegia: What to Expect? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009 (in press).Costa J, Rocha ML, Ferreira J, Evangelista T, Coelho M, de Carvalho M. Botulinum toxin type-B 34. improves sialorrhea and quality of life in bulbar-onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol 2008;255:545-550.Klebe S, Stolze H, Kopper F et al. Objective assessment of gait after intrathecal baclofen in he-35. reditary spastic paraplegia. J Neurol 2005;252:991-993.Collin C, Davies P, Mutiboko IK, Ratcliffe S. Randomized controlled trial of cannabis-based 36. medicine in spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol 2007;14:290-296.

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Chapter 1. General introductionThe first chapter was written in 2002, and updated in 2004, before the start of the studiesdescribed in this thesis. It provides an overview of the knowledge and unresolved questions at that time regarding primary lateral sclerosis (PLS). The chapter describes that PLS is an idiopathic adult-onset non-familial neuro-degenerative disorder of upper motor neurons, presenting as a slowly progressive pyramidal tract and/or pseudobulbar syndrome. Disease onset is usually between 40 and 60 years with symptoms starting in the legs, but onset in the arms or in the bulbar region is also possible. Ultimately, a tetrapyramidal and pseudobulbar syndrome may develop. Life expectancy is probably normal. The etiology is not known. PLS is considered by many to be a variant of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The annual incidence and the prevalence of PLS may be roughly estimated to 1 in 1.000.000 and 10-20 in 1.000.000, respectively. Treatment of PLS is symptomatic and may involve prescription of antispasticity medication and rehabilitation care.

(Adapted from: Orphanet Encyclopedia 2004, www.orpha.net)

Chapter 2. Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesMutation of the spastin gene (SPG4, autosomal dominant) is the single most common cause of pure hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP). In patients with an unexplained sporadic upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome, clinical distinction between PLS and sporadic HSP may be problematic. To investigate whether spastin mutations are present in patients with PLS and sporadic HSP, we screened the spastin gene in 99 Dutch patients with an unexplained, apparently sporadic, adult-onset UMN syndrome. We found 6 mutations, of which 4 were novel, in the subgroup of 47 patients with UMN symptoms restricted to the legs (13%). Another novel spastin mutation was found in a patient with a rapidly progres-sive spinal and bulbar UMN syndrome that progressed to ALS. In the patients with arm or bulbar UMN symptoms and slow progression, no spastin mutations were found. This study shows that spastin mutations are a frequent cause of apparently sporadic spastic paraparesis, but not of PLS.

(Annals of Neurology 2005;58:865-869)

Chapter 3. Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesMutations of the paraplegin gene (SPG7) cause 1.5-6% of autosomal recessive HSP and are associated with both pure and complex phenotypes, with onset in childhood or adulthood. As HSP may occur sporadically, clinical differentiation from PLS may be problematic. In the study described in this chapter, we analyzed the paraplegin gene in 98 Dutch patients with sporadic adult-onset UMN syndromes, in whom in whom spastin gene mutations had been excluded previously. Seven patients had homozygous or compound heterozy-

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gous pathogenic paraplegin mutations: six patients had UMN symptoms restricted to the legs and one had UMN symptoms in legs and arms. No mutations were found in the 33 patients with UMN involvement of the bulbar region. Age at onset was lower in the seven patients with paraplegin mutations (37 years, range 34-42) than in the 91 patients without mutations (51 years, range 18-77, p = 0.001). Three of the seven patients with paraplegin mutations and none of the patients without mutations developed cerebellar signs during follow-up. This study shows that paraplegin mutations are a frequent cause in patients with sporadic spastic paraparesis who are negative for spastin mutation (paraplegin mutations in 12%), less so in patients who also have UMN symptoms in the arms (6%), and not in patients with UMN involvement of the bulbar region.

(Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505)

Chapter 4. Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesTwo known mutations (c.263G>A/p.N88S and c.269C>T/p.S90L) in exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene (SPG17) can cause a range of autosomal dominant (mixed) upper and lower motor neuron disorders, including pure and complicated forms of HSP, which may also present as a sporadic disease. This chapter describes our study that investigated whether these two seipin/BSCL2 mutations are present in patients with sporadic HSP and PLS. We screened exon 3 of the seipin/BSCL2 gene in 86 Dutch patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome, who were negative for spastin gene and paraplegin gene mutations. No exon 3 mutations were detected, indicating that the seipin/BSCL2 exon 3 mutations are not a common cause of sporadic pure HSP and PLS. Therefore, the results of this study do not support including the Seipin/BSCL2 gene in the group of first-choice HSP genes to screen for mutations during the diagnostic work-up of sporadic HSP and PLS.

( Journal of Neurology 2009;256:824-826)

Chapter 5. Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 geneAdult-onset PLS is almost always sporadic; it can, however, be a rare manifestation of familial ALS. Homozygous mutations in the alsin gene (ALS2) cause early-onset autosomal recessive forms of UMN diseases described as infantile ascending hereditary spastic paralysis, juvenile PLS, and juvenile ALS (if associated with lower motor neuron involvement). Whether alsin mutations may also cause adult-onset PLS is not known. We, therefore, analyzed the alsin gene in 51 Dutch patients with adult-onset PLS. No mutations were found, indicating that mutations of the alsin gene are not a common cause of adult-onset PLS.

(Neurology 2007;69:702-704)

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Chapter 6. Differentiation of hereditary spastic paraparesis from primary lateral sclerosis in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromesIn this chapter, we describe our study on whether clinical characteristics can differenti-ate sporadic presentations of HSP from PLS. Differentiation between these diseases is important for genetic counseling and prognostication. We studied a cohort of 104 patients with an adult-onset, sporadic UMN syndrome of at least 3 years’ duration, that included 14 patients with genetically confirmed HSP (7 with spastin/SPG4 and 7 with paraplegin/SPG7 mutations). All 14 patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation had symptom onset in the legs, and 1 of the patients with the SPG7 mutation also developed symptoms in the arms. Of the other 90 patients, 36 had a typical PLS phenotype (bulbar region involve-ment), 15 had a phenotype that was difficult to classify as similar to HSP or PLS (involve-ment of legs and arms only), and 39 had a phenotype similar to typical HSP (involvement of the legs only). We found that the median age at onset was lower in patients with the SPG4 or SPG7 mutation (39 [range, 29-69] years), but there was considerable overlap with patients with the PLS phenotype (52 [range, 32-76] years). No differences were found in the features used by previous studies to distinguish HSP from PLS, including evidence of mild dorsal column impairment (decreased vibratory sense or abnormal leg abnormal leg somatosensory evoked potentials), symptoms of urinary urgency, or mild EMG abnormali-ties. We conclude that in patients with an apparently sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome and symptom onset in the legs, differentiation of sporadic presentations of HSP from PLS based on clinical characteristics is unreliable and therefore depends on genetic test results. Disease onset in the arms or bulbar region, development of bulbar region involvement, or marked asymmetry during the disease course may support a diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP.

(Archives of Neurology 2009;66:509-514)

Chapter 7. Proposed new diagnostic criteria for primary lateral sclerosis: a prospective valida-tion studyWe designed new diagnostic criteria for PLS that incorporate different levels of certainty of diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP, based on the distribution of UMN symptoms over the body regions. To study the significance in PLS, mild lower motor neuron (LMN) signs, bladder symptoms due to UMN dysfunction, and any adult onset age were allowed. To validate our criteria, 89 patients with a sporadic adult-onset UMN syndrome were included in a 3-year prospective study. Patients with disease duration ≥4 years were classi-fied as typical PLS (UMN signs in at least the bulbar region, n=25), probable PLS (UMN signs in arms and legs, n= 13), or possible PLS (UMN signs only in legs, n=30), and those with duration <4 years as undetermined UMN syndrome (n=21). We found that classify-ing patients with a disease duration ≥4 years according to our criteria was able to differenti-ate PLS from HSP in levels of certainty (p<0.001): after follow-up all typical PLS patients remained typical PLS (92%) or had developed ALS (8%), whereas 38% of ‘probable PLS’

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developed typical PLS (n=3) or ALS (n=2), and 17% of possible PLS developed typical PLS. Disease duration <4 years and a higher rate of functional decline prior to inclusion, but not mild LMN signs, was associated with faster progression, shorter survival, and con-version to rapidly progressive ALS. We conclude that these new PLS diagnostic criteria help to provide a more accurate diagnosis in patients with sporadic UMN degeneration, which is important for patients and for future research.

(Submitted)

Chapter 8. Primary lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALSPLS is a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with progressive spino-bulbar spasticity and could be part of the clinical spectrum of ALS. Unlike ALS, which is familial in 5-10% of the cases, PLS has been described as a sporadic disorder in adults. The diagnosis of PLS requires the absence of a positive family history according to proposed clinical diagnostic criteria. We report two patients with PLS from unrelated SOD1-negative FALS families. These observations broaden the clinical spectrum of FALS and provide further evidence that PLS can be linked pathophysiologically to ALS.

(Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779)

Chapter 9. ALS pathology in a patient with clinical primary lateral sclerosisWhether PLS is a separate disorder or part of the clinico-pathological spectrum of ALS is debated. Autopsies could help to clarify this issue, but there have only been very few autopsies in PLS and most were performed before the widespread recognition of Bunina bodies and ubiquinated neuronal inclusions as key features of the pathology of ALS. In this chapter we describe the autopsy findings in a patient who clinically had PLS up to the time of death, after disease duration of 8 years. Histological examination showed signs of gen-Histological examination showed signs of gen-eralized degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons, fitting the criteria of ALS. These findings strengthen the view that PLS is a variant within the clinico-pathological spectrum of ALS.

(Submitted)

Chapter 10. General discussionIn this final chapter, the results of the studies in this thesis and directions for future research are discussed. Diagnosis of PLS remains by exclusion of other disorders and the etiology of PLS remains unknown. The current evidence indicates that patients fulfilling clinical criteria for PLS comprise at least 2 separate pathophysiological groups: patients who represent a pure or predominant UMN variant of ALS, and those who have sporadic HSP (who would among patient classified as possible PLS or probable PLS according to our proposed new diagnostic criteria). Whether PLS also exists as a pathophysiologically

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separate disorder remains uncertain. The overall more favourable prognosis compared to ALS justifies the use of a separate diagnostic label of PLS. There is currently no known therapy that modifies disease progression in PLS. Therefore, therapy in PLS relies on symptomatic treatment including supportive care and certain drugs. Strategies and topics for future etiological and therapeutical research in PLS include those currently apllied in ALS and HSP. Given the rarity of PLS, such future studies will require large-scale interna-tional cooperation. To achieve an effective international cooperation is probably the most important next step in PLS research. Our proposed new PLS diagnostic criteria, which identify patients with typical PLS, and patients in whom the diagnosis of PLS instead of HSP is less certain (possible and probable PLS), are intented to facilitate these important further international studies.

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Hoofdstuk 1. Algemene inleidingDit eerste hoofdstuk is geschreven in 2002, en bijgewerkt in 2004, vóór de aanvang van de studies beschreven in dit proefschrift. Het biedt een overzicht van de kennis en de on-beantwoorde vragen op dat moment met betrekking tot primaire laterale sclerose (PLS). Het hoofdstuk beschrijft dat PLS een niet-erfelijke neuro-degeneratieve aandoening van de centrale motorische neuronen is, met debuut op volwassen leeftijd, zich presenterend als langzaam progressieve spasticiteit. De ziekte debuteert gewoonlijk tussen het 40e en 60e levensjaar met symptomen in de benen, maar een debuut in de armen of in de bulbaire regio (met symptomen in het hoofd/hals-gebied) is ook mogelijk. Uiteindelijk kan de spasticiteit zich over het gehele lichaam (benen, armen, hoofd/hals) uitbreiden. De levensverwachting is waarschijnlijk normaal. De oorzaak is onbekend. PLS wordt veelal beschouwd als een variant van amyotrofe laterale sclerose (ALS). The jaarlijkse incidentie en prevalentie van PLS bedraagt volgens een ruwe schatting 1 per 1.000.000 en 10-20 per 1.000.000, respec-tievelijk. Behandeling van PLS is symptomatisch en kan o.a. behandeling met antispastici-teitsmedicatie en revalidatiegeneeskundige begeleiding omvatten.

(Gebaseerd op: Orphanet Encyclopedia 2004, www.orpha.net)

Hoofdstuk 2. Spastine mutaties bij sporadische centraal motorisch neuron syndromen met debuut op volwassen leeftijdMutatie van het spastine gen (SPG4, autosomaal dominant) is de meest voorkomende oorzaak van pure hereditaire spastische paraparese (HSP). Bij patiënten met een onver-klaard sporadisch centraal motorisch neuron (CMN) syndroom is het klinisch onder-scheid tussen PLS and sporadische HSP problematisch. Om te onderzoeken of spastine mutaties voorkomen bij patiënten met PLS en sporadische HSP, hebben we het spastine gen gescreened bij 99 Nederlandse patiënten met een onverklaard schijnbaar sporadisch CMN syndroom met debuut op volwassen leeftijd. We vonden 6 mutaties, waarvan 4 niet eerder beschreven, in de subgroep van 47 patiënten met een CMN symptomen beperkt tot de benen (13%). Een andere niet eerder beschreven spastine mutatie werd gevonden bij een patiënt met een snel progressief spinaal and bulbair CMN syndroom dat overging in ALS. Bij de patiënten met symptomen in de armen of de bulbaire regio en langzame progres-sie werden geen spastine mutaties gevonden. Deze studie laat zien dat spastine mutaties een frequente oorzaak zijn van schijnbaar sporadische spastische paraparese, maar niet van PLS.

(Annals of Neurology 2005;58:865-869)

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Hoofdstuk 3. Paraplegine mutaties bij sporadische centraal motorisch neuron syndromen met debuut op volwassen leeftijdMutaties van het paraplegine gen (SPG7) veroorzaken 1.5-6% van autosomaal recessieve HSP en zijn geassocieerd met zowel pure als complexe fenotypes, met een debuut in de jeugd of op volwassen leeftijd. Omdat HSP sporadisch kan voorkomen is klinische differentiatie van PLS problematisch. In de studie die in dit hoofdstuk beschreven wordt hebben we het paraplegine gen geanalyseerd bij 98 Nederlandse patiënten met een sporadisch CMN syndroom met debuut op volwassen leeftijd, bij wie spastine gen mutatie eerder was uit-gesloten. Zeven patiënten hadden homozygote of samengesteld heterozygote pathogene paraplegine mutaties: zes patiënten hadden CMN symptomen beperkt tot de benen en één patiënt had CMN symptomen in benen en armen. Er werden geen mutaties gevonden bij de 33 patiënten met CMN betrokkenheid van de bulbaire regio. De debuutleeftijd was lager in de zeven patiënten met paraplegine mutaties (37 jaar, spreiding 34-42) dan in de 91 patiënten zonder mutaties (51 jaar, spreiding 18-77, p = 0.001). Drie van de zeven patiënten met paraplegine mutaties en geen van de patiënten zonder mutaties ontwikkelden cerebel-laire symptomen tijdens de vervolgstudie. Deze studie laat zien dat paraplegine mutaties een frequente oorzaak zijn bij patiënten met sporadische spastische paraparese die negatief zijn voor spastine mutaties (paraplegine mutaties bij 12%), in mindere mate bij patiënten die ook CMN symptomen hebben in de armen (6%), en niet bij patiënten met CMN betrokkenheid van de bulbaire regio.

(Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505)

Hoofdstuk 4. Seipine/BSCL2 mutatie screening bij sporadische centraal motorisch neuron syndromen met debuut op volwassen leeftijdTwee bekende mutaties (c.263G>A/p.N88S and c.269C>T/p.S90L) in exon 3 van het seipine/BSCL2 gen (SPG17) kunnen een spectrum van autosomaal dominante (gemengde) centrale en perifere motor neuron aandoeningen veroorzaken, waaronder pure en gecom-pliceerde vormen van HSP, die ook kunnen presenteren als een sporadische ziekte. Dit hoofdstuk beschrijft onze studie die onderzocht of deze twee seipine/BSCL2 mutaties voorkomen bij patiënten met sporadische HSP en PLS. We onderzochten exon 3 van het seipine/BSCL2 gen bij 86 Nederlandse patiënten met een sporadisch CMN syndroom met debuut op volwassen leeftijd, die negatief waren voor mutaties in het spastine gen en paraplegine gen. Er werden geen exon 3 mutaties gevonden. Dit geeft aan dat de seipine/BSCL2 exon 3 mutaties niet een frequente oorzaak zijn van sporadische pure HSP en PLS. De resultaten van deze studie ondersteunen daarom het toevoegen van het seipine/BSCL2 gen aan the groep van eerste keus HSP genen, om te onderzoeken bij de diagnostiek van sporadische HSP en PLS, niet.

( Journal of Neurology 2009;256:824-826)

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Hoofdstuk 5. Primaire laterale sclerose met debuut op volwassen leeftijd is niet geassocieerd met mutaties in het ALS2 genPLS met debuut op volwassen leeftijd is vrijwel altijd sporadisch; het kan echter een zeldzame manifestatie zijn van familiale ALS. Homozygote mutaties van het alsine gen (ALS2) ver-oorzaken autosomaal recessieve vormen van CMN aandoeningen met een vroeg debuut, beschreven als infantiele opstijgende hereditaire spastische paralyse, juveniele PLS en juveniele ALS (indien geassocieerd met betrokkenheid van perifere motorische neuronen). Of alsine mutaties ook PLS met debuut op volwassen leeftijd kunnen veroorzaken is niet bekend. Daarom analyseerden we het alsine gen bij 51 Nederlandse patiënten met PLS. Er werden geen mutaties gevonden, hetgeen aangeeft dat mutaties van het alsine gen niet een frequente oorzaak zijn van PLS met debuut op de volwassen leeftijd.

(Neurology 2007;69:702-704)

Hoofdstuk 6. Differentiatie van hereditaire spastische paraparese van primaire laterale sclerose bij sporadische centraal motorisch neuron syndromen met debuut op volwassen leeftijdIn dit hoofdstuk beschrijven we onze studie naar de vraag of klinische karakteristieken spo-radische presentaties van HSP kunnen differentiëren van PLS. Differentiatie tussen deze aandoeningen is belangrijk voor advisering van patiënten over erfelijkheid en prognose. We bestudeerden een cohort van 104 patiënten met een sporadisch CMN syndroom met debuut op volwassen leeftijd met een ziekteduur van tenminste 3 jaar, onder wie 14 patiënten met genetisch bevestigde HSP (7 met SPG4 en 7 met SPG7 mutaties). Alle 14 patiënten met SPG4 of SPG7 mutatie hadden een debuut in de benen en 1 van de patiënten met SPG7 mutatie ontwikkelde daarnaast ook symptomen in de armen. Van de overige 90 patiënten hadden 36 een typisch PLS fenotype (betrokkenheid van de bulbaire regio), 15 hadden een fenotype dat moeilijk was te classificeren als vergelijkbaar met HSP of passend bij PLS (betrokkenheid van armen en benen) en 39 hadden een fenotype vergelijkbaar met typische HSP (betrokkenheid van alleen de benen). We vonden dat de mediane debuutleef-tijd lager was bij patiënten met SPG4 of SPG7 mutatie (39 [spreiding, 29-69] jaar), maar er was aanzienlijke overlap met patiënten met het PLS fenotype (52 [spreiding, 32-76] jaar). Er waren geen verschillen in de kenmerken die door eerdere studies werden gebruikt om HSP van PLS te onderscheiden, waaronder tekenen van milde betrokkenheid van de ach-terstrengen (verminderde vibratiezin of afwijkende somatosensory evoked potentials van de benen), symptomen van urgente mictie, of milde EMG afwijkingen. We concluderen dat bij patiënten met een schijnbaar sporadisch CMN syndroom debuterend aan de benen op volwassen leeftijd, differentiatie van sporadische presentaties van HSP van PLS gebaseerd op klinische kenmerken onbetrouwbaar is en daarom afhankelijk is van genetische tests. Een debuut in de armen of de bulbaire regio, het ontwikkelen van betrokkenheid van de bulbaire regio, of opvallende asymmetrie tijdens het ziektebeloop, kan de diagnose PLS in plaats van HSP ondersteunen.

(Archives of Neurology 2009;66:509-514)

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Hoofdstuk 7. Voorgestelde nieuwe diagnostische criteria voor primaire laterale sclerose: een prospectieve validatie studieOp basis van onze eerdere studies stelden we nieuwe diagnostische criteria voor PLS op, die verschillende niveau’s bevatten van zekerheid van de diagnose PLS in plaats van HSP, gebaseerd op de verdeling van de CMN symptomen over de lichaamsregio’s. Teneinde de betekenis ervan bij PLS te bestuderen, werden milde perifeer motorisch neuron (PMN) afwijkingen, symptomen van de blaas door CMN dysfunctie en iedere volwassen debuut-leeftijd toegestaan. Ter validatie van onze criteria werden 89 patiënten met een sporadisch CMN syndroom met debuut op volwassen leeftijd geïncludeerd in een 3-jarige prospec-tieve studie. Patiënten met een ziekteduur ≥4 jaar werden geclassificeerd als ‘typical’ PLS (CMN verschijnselen in tenminste de bulbaire regio, n=25), ‘probable’ PLS (CMN ver-schijnselen in armen en benen, n= 13), of ‘possible’ PLS (CMN verschijnselen alleen in de benen, n=30), en diegenen met een ziekteduur <4 jaar als ‘undetermined’ CMN syndroom (n=21). We vonden dat classificatie, volgens onze criteria, van patiënten met een ziekteduur ≥4 jaar in staat was om PLS van HSP te onderscheiden in niveaus van zekerheid (p<0.001): alle t́ypical´ PLS patienten behielden na follow-up ‘typical’ PLS (92%) of hadden ALS ontwikkeld (8%), terwijl van ‘probable’ PLS 38% ‘typical’ PLS (n=3) of ALS (n=2) ontwik-kelde, en van ‘possible’ PLS ontwikkelde 17% ‘typical’ PLS. Een ziekteduur <4 jaar en een hogere snelheid van functionele achteruitgang vóór inclusie, echter niet milde PMN af-wijkingen, waren geassocieerd met snellere progressie, kortere overleving en overgang naar snel progressieve ALS. We concluderen dat deze nieuwe PLS diagnostische criteria helpen om een meer accurate diagnose te stellen bij patiënten met sporadische CMN degeneratie, hetgeen belangrijk is voor patiënten en voor toekomstig wetenschappelijk onderzoek.

(Aangeboden voor publicatie)

Hoofdstuk 8. Primaire laterale sclerose als een fenotypische manifestatie van familiale ALSPLS is een per exclusionem diagnose bij patiënten met progressieve spino-bulbaire spastici-teit en maakt mogelijk deel uit van het klinische spectrum van ALS. Anders dan bij ALS, dat in 5-10% van de gevallen familiaal is (FALS), is PLS bij volwassenen beschreven als een sporadische aandoening. De diagnose PLS vereist een negatieve familie-anamnese volgens eerder voorgestelde klinische diagnostische criteria. In dit hoofdstuk rapporteren we twee patiënten met PLS afkomstig van ongerelateerde SOD1-negatieve FALS families. Deze ob-servaties verbreden het klinische spectrum van FALS en verschaffen aanvullend bewijs dat PLS pathofysiologisch gerelateerd kan zijn aan ALS.

(Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779)

Hoofdstuk 9. ALS pathologie bij een patiënt met klinische primaire laterale scleroseOf PLS een afzonderlijke ziekte is, of deel uitmaakt van het klinisch-pathologische spectrum van ALS is, staat ter discussie. Autopsieën zouden kunnen helpen om deze

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kwestie te verhelderen, maar er zijn slechts zeer weinig autopsieën bij PLS verricht en de meesten hiervan vonden plaats vóór de brede erkenning van Bunina lichaampjes en ge-ubiquineerde neuronale inclusies als essentiële kenmerken van de pathologie van ALS. In dit hoofdstuk beschrijven we de autopsie bevindingen bij een patiënt die klinisch PLS had tot het moment van overlijden na een ziekteduur van 8 jaar. Histologisch onderzoek toonde tekenen van gegeneraliseerde degeneratie van zowel centrale als perifere motorische neuronen, overeenstemmend met de criteria voor ALS. Deze bevindingen steunen het ge-zichtspunt dat PLS een variant is binnen het klinisch-pathologische spectrum van ALS.

(Aangeboden voor publicatie)

Hoofdstuk 10. Algemene discussieIn dit afsluitende hoofdstuk worden de resultaten van de studies in dit proefschrift en sug-gesties voor toekomstig wetenschappelijk onderzoek besproken. De diagnose PLS blijft op basis van uitsluiting van andere aandoeningen en de oorzaak van PLS is nog onbekend. De huidige kennis geeft aan dat patiënten die voldoen aan de klinische criteria voor PLS tenminste 2 afzonderlijke pathofysiologische groepen bevatten: patiënten die een pure CMN of hoofdzakelijk CMN variant van ALS vertegenwoordigen, en diegenen die spo-radische HSP hebben (deze patiënten zouden volgens onze voorgestelde nieuwe criteria binnen de classificatie ‘possible’ PLS of ‘probable’ PLS vallen). Of PLS daarnaast ook bestaat als pathofysiologisch afzonderlijke aandoening blijft onzeker. De over het algemeen veel gunstiger prognose, vergeleken met ALS, rechtvaardigt het gebruik van het afzonder-lijke diagnostisch label PLS. Er is momenteel geen therapie bekend die het ziektebeloop van PLS beïnvloedt. Daarom berust de behandeling op symptoombestrijding met behulp van o.a. medicatie en revalidatiegeneeskundige begeleiding. Strategieën en hoofdpunten voor toekomstig etiologisch en therapeutisch onderzoek bij PLS omvatten o.a. dezelfde die momenteel worden toegepast bij ALS en HSP. Vanwege de zeldzaamheid van PLS vereisen dergelijke studies grootschalige internationale samenwerking. Het bereiken van een ef-fectieve internationale samenwerking is waarschijnlijk de belangrijkste volgende stap voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek naar PLS. Onze voorgestelde nieuwe diagnostische criteria voor PLS, die patiënten identificeren met typische PLS en patiënten met een minder zekere diagnose van PLS in plaats van HSP (‘possible’ en ‘probable’ PLS), zijn bedoeld om deze belangrijke verdere internationale studies te faciliteren.

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Op de eerste plaats wil ik alle patiënten die hebben deelgenomen aan de studies beschreven in dit proefschrift bedanken. Het herhaaldelijke en intensieve contact was cruciaal voor het onderzoek en beschouw ik persoonlijk ook als zeer waardevol. Ik ben onder de indruk van het grote doorzettingsvermogen en de positieve instelling van velen van u, ondanks de beperkingen en ongemakken door de ziekte.

Prof. Dr. L.H. van den Berg, beste Leonard, bedankt voor je prettige stijl van begeleiden en voor alles dat je achter de schermen hebt gedaan om het onderzoek praktisch en financieel mogelijk te maken, waardoor ik mij over die zaken nooit zorgen hoefde te maken. Je effec-tieve ‘evidence-based writing’ methode en je vasthoudendheid ten aanzien van kwaliteit, waren essentieel voor de mooie publicaties.

Prof. Dr. J.H.J. Wokke, beste John, bedankt voor de geboden kans om onderzoek te gaan doen naar de zeer intrigerende aandoening PLS, die duidelijk je speciale persoonlijke interesse had en heeft. Je enthousiasme en trots over het Utrechtse onderzoek naar PLS was telkens een bijzondere steun.

Dr. J.H. Veldink, beste Jan, bedankt voor je onmisbare hulp bij het onderzoek. Jouw ervaring op het gebied van de zorg voor patiënten met PLS en ALS, in combinatie met je kennis van epidemiologie en statistische analyse, waren cruciaal voor mij om het laatste en moeilijkste deel van het onderzoek te analyseren en te publiceren. Jij wist feilloos achter mijn eindeloze kolommen met data de patiënten en de klinisch relevante vraagstellingen te blijven zien.

Dr. H. Franssen, beste Hessel, bedankt voor het vele nauwgezette naald-electromyografi-sche werk ten behoeve van het onderzoek. Het is bijzonder te bedenken dat waarschijnlijk niemand ter wereld zo veel mensen met PLS heeft gezien als jij en ik. Dank ook voor je goede adviezen bij het schrijven van de manuscripten en voor je prachtige anekdotes.

Gerda Valk, volgens jouw eigen woorden, die ik natuurlijk geloof, komt jou de eer toe de eigenlijke bedenker te zijn van het onderzoek naar PLS. Hiervoor en voor je onmisbare hulp bij het onderzoek wil ik je bedanken. Je nuchtere, maar zeer betrokken manier van benaderen van patiënten met ernstige aandoeningen, beschouw ik als een waardevol voorbeeld.Nienke de Goeijen, heel veel dank voor je vele praktische hulp bij het onderzoek, bij het contact met de patiënten en voor de zeer prettige manier van samenwerken.

Ben Fengler, bedankt voor je hulp als fysiotherapeut bij de krachtmetingen en voor je tips over geschikte effect-apparatuur voor de elektrische gitaar.

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Annet Gisolf en Tim Waning, (destijds) studenten, bedankt voor jullie inzet en hulp bij onderzoek. Veel succes met jullie verdere carrière.Alle mede-auteurs van de verschillende artikelen wil ik bedanken voor de waardevolle bijdragen. In het bijzonder dank ik Wim Robberecht voor de gastvrijheid en hulp in Leuven bij het includeren van Vlaamse patiënten in het onderzoek. Alle neurologen in Nederland die patiënten hebben verwezen voor deelname aan het onderzoek wil ik hiervoor hartelijk danken. De Vereniging Spierziekten Nederland (VSN) ben ik dankbaar voor de samenwerking en de onmisbare hulp bij het benaderen van mensen met PLS voor deelname aan het onderzoek.

Prof. Dr. J. van Gijn en Prof. Dr. J.H.J. Wokke wil ik danken voor het voorrecht door hen opgeleid te worden tot neuroloog.

Renske van den Berg-Vos, Hylke Blauw, Elisabeth Cats, Perry van Doormalen, Marijke Eurelings, Ewout Groen, Geert-Jan Groeneveld, Mark Huisman, Sonja de Jong, Jikke-Mien Niermeijer, Sanne Piepers, Tom Snijders, Jan Stork, Nadia Sutedja, Esther Verstraete, Nora Visser, Paul van Vught, bedankt voor jullie steun en de gezelligheid als kamergenoten op de ‘kopkamer’, op ‘kamer 4’, of, tijdens de allerlaatste periode van mijn onderzoek, op het laboratorium experimentele neurologie (hierdoor kan ik toch nog zeggen dat ik in het in het laboratorium heb gewerkt, al is het enige ‘natte’ labwerk dat ik heb verricht het zetten van koffie voor de vaste koffiepauzes…).

Alle collega arts-assistenten neurologie, bedankt voor de goede sfeer tijdens en ook buiten het werk!

Alle familie, kennissen en vrienden wil ik danken voor de interesse en alle gezelligheid.

Beste vrienden van Caboose, met velen van jullie maak ik nu al 15 jaar muziek en wat mij betreft kan het ‘concept’ nog vele jaren mee! Ik zie uit naar alle volgende repetities, optredens, Caboose-kerstdiners en weekendjes!Mede-muzikanten van ‘small bigband’ JustUs, bedankt voor het speelplezier op de woens-dagavonden in Woerden en tijdens de ‘gigs’…let’s rock!

Beste ‘LCT-ers’ (Karen, Frank, Ellen, Marnix, Eveline, Roger, Anneke en Léon) en ‘GGE-ers’ (Arno, Koen, Dennis en Christel), bedankt voor de gezelligheid, jullie humor en de onvergetelijke weekendjes…to be continued!

Beste Robert en Arno, bedankt dat jullie mijn paranimfen willen zijn! Bedankt voor jullie hulp en steun rondom de promotie en voor jullie vriendschap. Het spreekwoord ‘een goede buur is beter dan een verre vriend’ gaat in dit geval niet op, want ik prijs me gelukkig

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met zowel een ‘goede buur’ als een goede ‘verre vriend’. Arno, de adviezen rondom proef-schrift en promotie van een ‘goede buur’ en ervaringsdeskundige waren van grote waarde, bedankt! Robert, ‘verre vriend’ is eigenlijk geen passende omschrijving, want gelukkig blijkt de afstand Enschede-Utrecht in de praktijk niet te groot en is de sfeer altijd meteen weer als vanouds.

Beste Dave, deze laatste opmerking geldt ook helemaal voor jou. Fijn dat Marieke en jij aanwezig zullen zijn bij de promotie en bij het diner.

Lieve pa en ma, bedankt voor jullie onvoorwaardelijke steun bij alles, altijd. Lieve zus Dorien, Peter, neefje Bram en nichtje Eva, ik vind het altijd ontzettend fijn jullie te zien en verheug me er op daar meer tijd voor te hebben.Theo en Yvonne, Jorg en Mariëlle, bedankt voor de altijd hartelijke en warme sfeer, voor jullie interesse en behulpzaamheid en voor alle gezelligheid.

Lieve Karin, met jou is het fijn en voel ik me thuis. Ik zie heel erg uit naar het moment dat we allebei meer tijd zullen hebben voor alle fijne en écht belangrijke dingen in het leven…

List of Publications

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List of publications

Brugman F1. , Veldink JH, Franssen H, de Visser M, de Jong JMBV, Faber CG, Kremer HPH, Schelhaas HJ, van Doorn PA, Verschuuren JJGM, Bruyn RPM, Kuks JBM, Robberecht W, Wokke JHJ, van den Berg LH. Proposed new diagnostic criteria for primary lateral sclerosis: a prospective validation study. Submitted.

Van der Graaff MM, Lavini C, Akkerman EM, Majoie CB, Nederveen AJ, Caan M, 2. Zwinderman AH, Brugman F, van den Berg LH, de Rijk M, van Doorn PA, de Jong JMBV, de Visser M. MR spectroscopy findings in recent onset motor neuron disease: a longitudinal study. In preparation.

Brugman F3. , Engelen-Lee JY, Spliet WGM, van den Berg. ALS pathology in a patient with clinical primary lateral sclerosis. Submitted.

Piepers S, van der Pol WL, 4. Brugman F, Wokke JH, van den Berg LH. Natural history of SMA IIIb: muscle strength decreases in a predictable sequence and magnitude. Neurology 2009;72:2057-2058.

Brugman F5. , Scheffer H, Schelhaas HJ, Nillesen WM, Wokke JHJ, van de Warren-burg BPC, van den Berg LH. Seipin/BSCL2 mutation screening in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. J Neurol 2009;256:824-826.

Brugman F6. , Veldink JH, Franssen H, de Visser M, de Jong JMBV, Faber CG, Kremer HPH, Schelhaas HJ, van Doorn PA, Verschuuren JJGM, Bruyn RPM, Kuks JBM, Robberecht W, Wokke JHJ, van den Berg LH. Differentiation of hereditary spastic paraparesis from primary lateral sclerosis in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Archives of Neurology 2009;66:509-514.

Brugman F7. , Scheffer H, Wokke JH, Nillesen WM, de Visser M, Aronica E, Veldink JH, van den Berg LH. Paraplegin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Neurology 2008;71:1500-1505.

Piepers S, van den Berg LH, 8. Brugman F, Scheffer H, Ruiterkamp-Versteeg M, van Engelen BG, Faber CG, de Visser M, van der Pol WL, Wokke JH. A natural history study of late onset spinal muscular atrophy types 3b and 4. J Neurol 2008;255:1400-1404.

Brugman F9. , Eymard-Pierre E, van den Berg LH, Wokke JH, Gauthier-Barichard F, Boespflug-Tanguy O. Adult-onset primary lateral sclerosis is not associated with mutations in the ALS2 gene. Neurology 2007;69:702-704.

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Brugman F10. , Wokke JH, Scheffer H, Versteeg MH, Sistermans EA, van den Berg LH. Spastin mutations in sporadic adult-onset upper motor neuron syndromes. Ann Neurol 2005;58:865-869.

Vrancken AF, Kalmijn S, 11. Brugman F, Rinkel GJ, Notermans NC. The meaning of distal sensory loss and absent ankle reflexes in relation to age: a meta-analysis. J Neurol 2006;253:578-89.

Brugman F12. , Wokke JH, Vianney de Jong JM, Franssen H, Faber CG, Van den Berg LH. Primary lateral sclerosis as a phenotypic manifestation of familial ALS. Neurology 2005;64:1778-1779.

Brugman F13. , Wokke JHJ. Primary lateral sclerosis. Orphanet Encyclopedia (www.orpha.net). April 2004.

CurriculumVitae

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Curriculum Vitae

Frans Brugman werd op 30 juni 1975 geboren te Enschede. Hij behaalde in 1993 zijn gymnasium diploma aan het Jacobus College te Enschede. Na een jaar geschiedenis gestu-deerd te hebben aan de Universiteit Utrecht begon hij in 1994 aan de studie geneeskunde aan dezelfde universiteit. In het kader van zijn wetenschappelijke stage verrichte hij bij de afdeling interne geneeskunde van het UMC Utrecht (dr. M. Castro Cabezas) onderzoek op het gebied van het chylomicron metabolisme. Na het doctoraalexamen geneeskunde in 1999 volgde hij een klinische stage op de afdeling neurologie van de Hospitais da Univer-didade de Coimbra, Portugal (prof.dr. A. Freire Gonçalves). Tijdens een keuze-coschap bij de afdeling neuromusculaire ziekten van het UMC Utrecht (dr. A.F.J.E. Vrancken en dr. N.C. Notermans) verrichtte hij onderzoek naar de betekenis van distale sensibiliteitsstoor-nissen en afwezige achillespeesreflexen in relatie met leeftijd. Na het behalen van het arts-examen in 2001 begon hij als arts-assistent neurologie in het UMC Utrecht, vanaf 2002 in opleiding tot neuroloog (opleiders prof.dr. J. van Gijn en prof.dr. J.H.J. Wokke). Eind 2002 begon hij met het wetenschappelijke werk dat in dit proefschrift wordt beschreven. In juni 2010 hoopt hij de opleiding tot neuroloog af te ronden.Vanaf 1996 is hij gitarist van coverband ‘Caboose’ uit Utrecht en sinds 2005 trompettist bij ‘small’ bigband ‘JustUs’ uit Woerden. Hij is sinds 2002 samen met Karin Gerritsen.

Documents

Primary Lateral Sclerosis: diagnostic boundaries and outcome