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PowerSystemsEngineeringCenter
Preven&onofUninten&onalIslandsinPowerSystemswithDistributedResources
BenKroposkiNa3onalRenewableEnergyLaboratory
August2016
2
Presenta3onOutline
• TypesofislandsinpowersystemswithDR
• Issueswithuninten3onalislands• Methodsofprotec3ngagainstuninten3onalislands
• Standardtes3ngforuninten3onalislanding• Advancedtes3ngofinvertersforan3-islandingfunc3onality
• Probabilityofuninten3onalislanding• Thefutureofan3-islandingprotec3on• References
3
• AreaEPS–AreaElectricPowerSystem• LocalEPS–LocalElectricPowerSystem• PCC–PointofCommonCoupling• DR–DistributedResource(e.g.distributedgenera3on
(DG),distributedenergyresource(DER))• DER–DistributedEnergyResource(TheIEEE1547Working
GroupvotedanddecidedtochangeDRtoDERinthenextversion.DERwillNOTincludeDemandResponseasitdoesinsomecountries)
• An&-islanding(non-islandingprotec3on)–Theuseofrelaysorcontrolstopreventthecon3nuedexistenceofanuninten3onalisland
Terms
4
Island:Acondi3oninwhichapor3onofanAreaEPSisenergizedsolelybyoneormoreLocalEPSsthroughtheassociatedPCCswhilethatpor3onoftheAreaEPSiselectricallyseparatedfromtherestoftheAreaEPS.[1]
• Inten3onal(Planned)• Uninten3onal
(unplanned)
IslandDefini3on
DR
115kV
13.2kV
AdjacentFeeder
Islandformswhenbreakeropens
5
Inten3onalIslands(Microgrids)
IEEE1547.4isaguideforDesign,Opera3on,andIntegra3onofInten3onalIslands(e.g.Microgrids)[3]
(1)haveDRandload(2)havetheabilitytodisconnectfromandparallelwiththeareaEPS(3)includethelocalEPSandmayincludepor3onsoftheareaEPS,and(4)areinten3onallyplanned.
IEEE2030.7and2030.8–Indevelopmentandcovermicrogridcontroldesignandtes3ng
Distribution Feeder from Substation
Open for a Utility
Microgrid
DSDG Load Load
DG Load
MicrogridSwitch
Distributed Generation
Distributed Generation
Distributed Storage
Open for a Facility Microgrid
PossibleControl Systems
MicrogridSwitch
Source:Makingmicrogridswork[2]
6
• PersonnelSafety–Uninten3onalislandscancausehazardsforu3lityworkersiftheyassumedownedlinesarenotenergizedduringrestora3on
• Overvoltages–Transientovervoltagesduetorapidlossofloadarepossible.Ifanadequategroundsourceisnotpresentintheisland,agroundfaultcanresultinvoltagesthatexceed173%ontheunfaultedphases.
• Reconnec&onoutofphase-ThiscanresultinlargetransienttorquesappliedtomotorsconnectedtotheislandedareaEPSandtheirmechanicalsystems(e.g.,shacs,blowers,andpumps),whichcouldresultindamageorfailure.
• PowerQuality–UnplannedislandareaEPSmaynothavesuitablepowerqualityforloads
• Protec&on–Uninten3onalislandsmaynotprovidesufficientfaultcurrenttooperatefusesorovercurrentrelayprotec3ondevicesinsideisland
IssueswithUninten3onalIslanding
References[4]-[7]
7
• Synchronousgeneratorsarevoltagesourcedevicesthatcansupportislandedgridopera3ons.Synchronousgeneratorsaretypicalindieselornaturalgaspoweredengine-generators.
• Induc&ongeneratorsusuallywillnotbeabletosupportanislandbutwillinsteadceasetoproducecurrentbecauseofthelossofreac3vepower,whichisnecessarytosupportarota3ngmagne3cfieldwithinthegenerator.Ifsufficientcapaci3vereactanceisavailabletosupplythereac3vepowerrequirementsoftheinduc3ongeneratorfield,eitherthroughtheinstalla3onofpowerfactorcorrec3oncapacitorsorthepresenceofconsiderablecable-typepowerconductors,itmaybenecessarytoprovidefordirectdetec3onoffaultsinamannersimilartothatofsynchronousgenerators.[4]Induc3ongeneratorsarefoundinsomeengine-gensetsandwindturbines.
• Inverter-BasedDRaretypicallycurrent-sourcedevicesthatrequireavoltage-source(typicallytheu3litygrid)tosynchronizeto.Voltage-source(e.g.gridforming)invertersdohavetheabilitytosupportislandedopera3on.InvertersarefoundinPVsystems,windturbines,microturbines,fuelcells,andbaeeryenergystorage.
UnderstandingDRSources
References[4]
8
IEEE1547:Uninten3onalIslandingRequirement
Foranuninten3onalislandinwhichtheDRenergizesapor3onoftheAreaEPSthroughthePCC,theDRinterconnec3onsystemshalldetecttheislandandceasetoenergizetheAreaEPSwithintwosecondsoftheforma3onofanisland.[1]
IEEE1547-2003:4.4.1Uninten&onalIslandingRequirement
9
IEEE929[8]–EarlyPVInterconnec&onStandardthathasbeenreplacedbyIEEE1547• Definednonislandinginverterasaninverterthatwillceasetoenergizetheu3litylineinten
cyclesorlesswhensubjectedtoatypicalislandedloadinwhicheitherofthefollowingistrue:
a)Thereisatleasta50%mismatchinrealpowerloadtoinverteroutput(thatis,realpowerloadis<50%or>150%ofinverterpoweroutput).b)Theislanded-loadpowerfactoris<0.95(leadorlag).
• Ifthereal-power-genera3on-to-loadmatchiswithin50%andtheislanded-loadpowerfactoris>0.95,thenanonislandinginverterwillceasetoenergizetheu3litylinewithin2swhenevertheconnectedlinehasaqualityfactorof2.5orless.
IEEE1547-2003(EarlyDraYs)• DraY5–2secondtodetectandceasetoenergize• DRAFT6/7-Foranuninten3onalislandinwhichtheDRandapor3onoftheArea
EPSremainenergizedthroughthePCC,theDRshallceasetoenergizetheAreaEPSwithintensecondsoftheforma3onofanisland.Tensecondswasrecommendedbysynchronousgeneratormanufacturesasareasonablevalue.
• DraY8andbeyond–changeduninten3onalislandingrequirementto2secondstogetclosertoinstantaneousrecloserseings.InverterswerealreadyseenascapablefromIEEE929requirement.
Uninten3onalIslandingRequirementBackground
10
IEEE1547-2003:Uninten3onalIslandingRequirement
FootnotetoIEEE1547Requirement[1]Someexamplesbywhichthisrequirementmaybemetare:• TheDRaggregatecapacityislessthanone-thirdoftheminimumloadoftheLocalEPS.
• TheDRinstalla3oncontainsreverseorminimumpowerflowprotec3on,sensedbetweenthePointofDRConnec3onandthePCC,whichwilldisconnectorisolatetheDRifpowerflowfromtheAreaEPStotheLocalEPSreversesorfallsbelowasetthreshold.
• TheDRiscer3fiedtopassanapplicablenon-islandingtest.• TheDRcontainsothernon-islandingmeans,suchasa)forcedfrequencyorvoltageshicing,b)transfertrip,orc)governorandexcita3oncontrolsthatmaintainconstantpowerandconstantpowerfactor.
11
TheDRaggregatecapacityislessthanone-thirdoftheminimumloadoftheLocalEPS.
• IftheaggregateDRcapacityislessthanone-thirdofthelocalEPSload,itisgenerallyagreedthat,shouldanuninten3onalislandform,theDRwillbeunabletocon3nuetoenergizetheloadconnectedwithinthelocalEPSandmaintainacceptablevoltageandfrequency.[4]
• Theoriginofthis3-to-1load-to-genera3onfactorisanIEEEpaper[9]basedonsimula3onsandfieldtestsofinduc3onandsynchronousgenera3onislandedwithvariousamountsofpowerfactor-correc3ngcapaci3vekilovoltamperesreac3ve.
• Itwasshownthatasthepre-islandloadingapproachedthree3mesthegenera3on,noexcita3oncondi3oncouldexisttosupportthecon3nuedpowergenera3on.
DRAggregateCapacity
12
Methodsofprotec3ngagainstuninten3onalislands
• Reverse/MinimumImport/ExportRelays• PassiveAn3-islanding• Ac3veAn3-islanding
o e.g.instabilityinducedvoltageorfrequencydricand/orsystemimpedancemeasurementcoupledwithrelayfunc3ons
• Communica3on-BasedAn3-Islandingo Directtransfertrip(DTT)o Powerlinecarrier(PLC)o ImpedanceInser3on
• MethodsUnderDevelopmento Phasor-basedan3-islanding
References[10]-[37]
13
• Protec3veRelayFunc3on(ReversePower=32)
• UsedincaseswheretheDRisnotexpor3ngtothegrid
• LocalloadsaretypicallylargerthanDR
Reverse/MinimumImport/ExportRelays
DR
115kV
13.2kV
AdjacentFeeder
81O/U
59 27 32
14
• Over/undervoltageandfrequencytripseings
• Voltageandfrequencyrelayfunc3ons(81o,81u,27,59)
• SetaV/Fwindow–ifcondi3onsareoutsidewindow,thenDRtrips
• Non-detectzone(NDZ)existsbetweentrippoints
• Amendment1(IEEE1547a)allowsforadjustableclearing3mes
PassiveAn3-islanding
NewVoltageandFrequencyTripsSeingsfromAmendment1ofIEEE1547-2003[38]
15
• Rate-of-change-of-frequency(ROCOF)
• VoltageorCurrentHarmonicMonitoring–monitorvoltageharmonicdistor3on
• VoltagePhasejump-detectasudden“jump”inphasedisplacementbetweeninvertervoltageandoutputcurrent
OtherPassiveAn3-islanding
VoltagePhaseJump[15]
16
• ImpedanceMeasurement• Detec3onofImpedanceat
aSpecificFrequency• Slip-modeFrequencyShic• FrequencyBias• SandiaFrequencyShic• SandiaVoltageShic• FrequencyJump• ENSorMSD(adeviceusing
mul3plemethods)
Ac3veAn3-islanding
Ac3vemethodsgenerallyaeempttodetectalossingridbyac3velytryingtochangingthevoltageand/orfrequencyofthegrid,andthendetec3ngwhetherornotthegridchanged.
17
• PowerLineCarrier–Provideapermissiverunsignal,whensignalgoesaway,theDRceasestoenergizecircuit
• ImpedanceInser3on–RemotelyaddcapacitorsthatcausealargeenoughvoltagechangetotripO/Uvoltageprotec3on
• DTT–nextslide
Communica3ons-basedMethods
18
• DirectTransferTrip(DTT)providesacommunica3onssignalfromtheAreaelectricpowersystemcomponentsuchasafeederbreakerorautoma3clinesec3onalizingdevicestotheDRortheaddi3onofsync-checkrelayingorundervoltage-permissiverelayingatthefeederbreakerorautoma3clinesec3onalizingdevices.[4]
• DTTschemeisusedtoavoidaccidentalparallelingoflargerDRtothegrid.
• DTTmayrequirecommunica3onsnotonlyfromthesubsta3onbreakerbutalsofromanyautoma3clinesec3onalizingdevicesupstreamfromtheDR.
DirectTransferTrip(DTT)
• ExamplesofDTT(fromPG&Einterconnec3onrequirements[39]:o DirectFibertoSubsta3onwithproperinterfaceprovisioningo LicensedMicrowavewithproperinterfaceprovisioningo ClassADS04-WireLeaseLineprovisionsbyLocalExchangeCarrier(LEC)o addi3onalDirectTransferTrip(DTT)Telecommunica3onOp3onsviathenewClassB,T1
LeaseOp3ons• Drawback:DTTocenusesadedicatedfiberorothercommunica3ons
infrastructurewhichiscostlytoinstallandoperate.
AllFiberDTTProtec3onCircuit[39]
19
• Phasor-basedan3-islanding[31]
Methodsunderdevelopment
PhasorswhenGrid-connected
PhasorswhenIslanded
20
StandardUninten&onalIslandingTes&ng
21
• IEEE1547.1detailstes3ngrequirementsforuninten3onalislanding[40]
• UsesamatchedRLCloadandmeasurestrip3meswhenislandcondi3onoccurs
• TheRLCloadissettoaQualityfactor(Qf)=1.0
• Qfof1.0isequivalenttoaloaddisplacementpowerfactorof0.707.
• Distribu3oncircuitstypicallyoperateatavaluegreaterthan0.75p.f.
• Conductedat100%,66%,and33%ratedpower
• Thetestistoberepeatedwiththereac3veload(eithercapaci3veorinduc3ve)adjustedin1%incrementsoralterna3velywiththereac3vepoweroutputoftheEUTadjustedin1%incrementsfrom95%to105%oftheini3albalancedloadcomponentvalue.Ifunitshutdown3mesares3llincreasingatthe95%or105%points,addi3onal1%incrementsshallbetakenun3ltrip3mesbegindecreasing.
IEEE1547.1–Uninten3onalIslandingTest
Figure2—Uninten3onalislandingtestconfigura3onfromIEEE1547.1
• AQfof2.5wasusedinIEEE929-2000andisequivalenttoaloaddisplacementpowerfactorof0.37.[8]
• Qfwasreducedto1.0duringevalua3onofIEEE1547.1toreducetes3ngburdensincerunon3meswerenotsignificantlylongerat2.5
22
• Loadismatchedinrealandreac3vepower[40]
• Testedat:o MinimumLoadatunity1.0p.f.
o Maximumrealloadatunity1.0p.f.
o Maximumrealloadatratedp.f.lagging
o Maximumrealloadatratedp.f.leading
Uninten3onalIslandingTestforSynchronousGenerators
Figure3—Uninten3onalislandingtestforsynchronousgeneratorsconfigura3on
fromIEEE1547.1
23
• Tomeettheuninten3onalislandingrequirementin1547,theDRinstalla3onmaycontainreverseorminimumimportpower-flowprotec3on[40]
• SensedbetweenthepointofDRconnec3onandthePCC,itdisconnectsorisolatestheDRifpowerflowfromtheareaEPStothelocalEPSreversesorfallsbelowasetthreshold.
• IEEE1547.1testsevaluatethemagnitudeand3meofthereverse/minimumpowerflowprotec3vedevice.
ReversePowerFlow(foruninten3onalislanding)
24
AdvancedTes&ng
25
EnergySystemsIntegra3onFacility(ESIF)
OfficesHPC-DCLaboratoriesUniqueCapabili3es• Mul3pleparallelACandDCexperimental
busses(MWpowerlevel)withgridsimula3onandloads
• Flexibleinterconnec3onpointsforelectricity,thermal,andfuels
• Mediumvoltage(15kV)microgridtestbed
• Virtualu3lityopera3onscenterandvisualiza3onrooms
• Smartgridtes3nglabforadvancedcommunica3onsandcontrol
• Interconnec3vitytoexternalfieldsitesfordatafeedsandmodelvalida3on
• PetascaleHPCanddatamgmtsysteminshowcaseenergyefficientdatacenter
• MW-scalePowerhardware-in-the-loop(PHIL)simula3oncapabilitytotestgridscenarioswithhighpenetra3onsofcleanenergytechnologies
Shortening the time between innovation
and practice
hep://www.nrel.gov/esif
26
EnergySystemsIntegra3onFacility(ESIF)
Smartbuildings&controllableloads
PowerSystemsIntegra&onGridSimulators-Microgrids
EnergySystemsIntegra&onFuelCells,Electrolyzers
OutdoorTestAreasEVs,Transformers,CapacitorBanks,VoltageRegulators
RooYopPV EnergyStorage-Residen3al,Community&GridScaleStorage
HPC&DataCenter
AdvancedDistribu&onManagement
Systems
hep://www.nrel.gov/esif/
27
• PowerHardwareintheLoop(PHIL)–replicateloadsandsomegridcomponentofthetestinsimula3on
• ThevariableRLCloadPHILapproachiseffec3veforachievingcondi3onsthataredifficulttoreplicatewithdiscretehardware[42][43]
• Maynotworkonallac3veAImethods
AdvancedTes3ng-PHIL
28
• SandiaTes3ng[44]–examined4inverters/singlePCC(demonstratedthatmul3pleinverterss3llmeet2secrequirement).
• NRELTes3ngwithSolarCity&HECO[45]-examined1)theimpactsofbothgridsupportfunc3onsand2)mul3-inverter(3)/mul3PCCislandsonan3-islandingeffec3veness.o Showedthatwithgridsupportfunc3ons(volt/varandfrequency/wae)enabled,the2secrequirementiss3llmet.
o Showedthatmul3plePCCsdidnotcausetrip3mesbeyond2seconds(regardlessofsystemtopology)
o Resultsonlyvalidoninverters/designsthatweretested
Mul3pleInverterTes3ng
29
ProbabilityofUninten&onalIslands
30
• Tocreateanelectricalisland,therealandreac3vepowerflowsbetweenDRandloadsmustbeexactlymatched
• Whatistheprobabilityofthishappening?
• IEAPVPSTask5–Study[46]o The“benchmark”riskthatalreadyexistsfornetworkoperatorsand
customersisoftheorderof10-6peryearforanindividualpersono TheriskofelectricshockassociatedwithislandingofPVsystems
underworst-casePVpenetra3onscenariostobothnetworkoperatorsandcustomersistypically<10-9peryear
o Thus,theaddi3onalriskpresentedbyislandingdoesnotmateriallyincreasetheriskthatalreadyexistsaslongastheriskismanagedproperly
o Balancedcondi3onsoccurveryrarelyforlow,mediumandhighpenetra3onlevelsofPV-systems.
• Theprobabilitythatbalancedcondi3onsarepresentinthepowernetworkandthatthepowernetworkisdisconnectedatthatexact3meisvirtuallyzero.[47][48]
ProbabilityofIslanding
31
SuggestedGuidelinesforAssessmentofDGUninten3onalIslandingRisk–SandiaReport[49]• CasesinWhichUninten3onalIslandingcanbeRuledOut
o AggregatedACra3ngofallDGwithinthepoten3alislandislessthansomefrac3onoftheminimumrealpowerloadwithinthepoten3alisland
o Notpossibletobalancereac3vepowersupplyanddemandwithinthepoten3alisland.
o DTT/PLCPisused• CasesinWhichAddi3onalStudyMayBeConsidered
o Poten3alislandcontainslargecapacitors,andistunedsuchthatthepowerfactorwithinapoten3alislandisverycloseto1.0
o Verylargenumbersofinverterso Invertersfromseveraldifferentmanufacturerso Includebothinvertersandrota3nggenerators
GuidelinesforAssessmentofDGUninten3onalIslandingRisk
32
• PassiveislandingocenhasaNDZ,butitishardforpowersystemstomaintainagenera3on/loadbalanceforextendedperiodsof3me(beyond10s)[50]
• Ac3vean3-islandingtechniquesarefastandworkbeston“s3ff”grids.Mosttechniquesworkwhenasignificantchangeinsystemcharacteris3csoccurbecauseofislandforma3on.
• Newintegra3onrequirementsareopeningupvoltageandfrequencytrippointstoenablegridstabilityathighDRpenetra3ons
• Mul3plesofac3vean3-islandingtechniquesmayormaynotworkagainsteachother.
• Futurepowersystemsmaynotbeass3ffwithreduceduseofsynchronousgenerators.
TheFutureofAn3-islandingProtec3on
33
• 2srequirement–Isthistherightnumber?o Tooslowforinstantaneous/fastreclosingo Toofastforsomecommunica3onsbasedAImethodso Needac3veAItoachievethiswithmatchedload
• Ac3veAn3-islanding–Isitneeded?o WhathappenswhenyouhavethousandsofdifferenttechniquesanddeployedDR?
o Shouldtherebe1methodthateveryonemustuse?(triedbefore,butpatentsgotintheway)
o Willac3veAIworkagainstmaintaininggridstabilityathighpenetra3onlevels?
ItemsforDiscussion
34
[1]1547™-2003IEEEStandardforInterconnec3ngDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystems
[2]Kroposki,B.,Lasseter,R.,Ise,T.,Morozumi,S.Papathanassiou,S.,andHatziargyriou,N.,“Makingmicrogridswork”,IEEEPowerandEnergyMagazine,Vol.6,Issue3,pp.40-53,2008
[3]IEEE1547.4™-2011IEEEGuideforDesign,Opera3on,andIntegra3onofDistributedResourceIslandSystemswithElectricPowerSystems
[4]IEEE1547.2™-2008IEEEApplica3onGuideforIEEEStd1547™,IEEEStandardforInterconnec3ngDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystems
[5]Walling,R.,Miller,N.“DistributedGenera3onIslanding–Implica3onsonPowerSystemDynamicPerformance”,IEEEPowerEngineeringSocietySummerMee3ng,pp.92-96,2002
[6]Barker,P.,deMello,R.,“DeterminingtheImpactofDistributedGenera3ononPowerSystems:Part1–RadialDistribu3onSystem”,PowerengineeringSocietySummerMee3ng,pp.1645-1655,2000
[7]Stevens,J.,Bonn,R.,Ginn,J.,Gonzalez,S.,Kern,G.,“DevelopmentandTes3ngofanApproachtoAn3-islandinginU3lity-InterconnectedPhotovoltaicSystems”SandiaReportSAND-2000-1939,August2000
[8]IEEE929-2000IEEERecommendedPrac3ceforU3lityInterfaceofPhotovoltaic(PV)Systems
[9]Gish,W.B.,Greuel,S.,andFeero,W.E.,“Ferroresonanceandloadingrela3onshipsforDSGinstalla3ons,”IEEETransac3onsonPowerDelivery,Vol.PWRD-2,no.3,pp.953–959,July1987
[10]Kobayashi,H.Takigawa,K,Hashimoto,E.,Kitamura,A.,Matsuda,H.,“MethodforPreven3ngIslandingPhenomenoninU3lityGridwithaNumberofSmallScalePVSystems”,IEEEPhotovoltaicSpecialistsConference,pp.695-700,1991IEEE
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[12]Begovic,M.,Ropp,M.,Rohatgi,A.,Pregelj,A.,“DeterminingtheSufficiencyofStandardProtec3veRelayingforIslandingPreven3oninGrid-ConnectedPVSystems”,2ndWorldConferenceandExhibi3ononPhotovoltaicSolarEnergyConversion,pp.2519-2524,1998
[13]Ropp,M.,Begovic,M.,Rohatgi,A.,“AnalysisandPerformanceAssessmentoftheAc3veFrequencyDricMethodofIslandingPreven3on”,IEEETransac3onsonEnergyConversion,Vol.14,No.3,1999
[14]Ropp,M.,Aaker,K.,Haigh,J.,Sabbah,N.“UsingPowerLineCarrierCommunica3onstoPreventIslanding”,IEEEPhotovoltaicSpecialistConference,pp.1675-1678,2000
[15]Bower,W.,Ropp,M.,“Evalua3onofIslandingDetec3onMethodsforU3lity-Interac3veInvertersinPhotovoltaicSystems”,SandiaReportSAND-2002-3591,2002
[16]Ye,Z.,Kolwalker,A.,Zhang,Y.,Du,P.,Walling,R.,“Evalua3onofAn3-IslandingSchemesBasedonNondetec3onZoneConcept”,IEEETransac3onsonPowerElectronics,Vol.19,No.5,September2004
[17]Ye,Z.,Walling,R.,Garces,L.,Zhou,R.,Li,L.,Wang,T.,“StudyandDevelopmentofAn3-islandingControlforGrid-ConnectedInverters”,NRELReportNREL/SR-560-36243,May2004
[18]Yin,J.,Chang,L.,Diduch,C.,“ANewAdap3veLogicPhase-ShicAlgorithmforAn3-islandingProtec3oninInverter-BasedDGSystems”,IEEE36thPowerElectronicsSpecialistConference,2005
[19]DeMango,F.,Liserre,M.,Dell’Aquila,A.,Pigazo,A.,“OverviewofAn3-islandingalgorithmsforPVSystems.PartI:PassiveMethods”,pp.1878-1883,PowerElectronicsandMo3onControlConference,2006
[20]DeMango,F.,Liserre,M.,Dell’Aquila,A.,Pigazo,A.,“OverviewofAn3-islandingalgorithmsforPVSystems.PartII:Ac3veMethods”,pp.1884-1889,PowerElectronicsandMo3onControlConference,2006
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[21]Xu,W.,Zhang,G.,Li,C.,Wang,W.,Wang,W.,Kliber,J.,“APowerLineSignalingBasedTechniqueforAn3-IslandingProtec3onofDistributedGenerators–PartI:SchemeandAnalysis”,IEEETransac3onsonPowerDelivery,Vo.22,No.3,July2007
[22]Hamzeh,M.,Farhangi,S.,Farhangi,B.,“ANewControlMethodinPVGridConnectedInvertersforAn3-IslandingProtec3onbyImpedanceMonitoring”,11thWorkshoponControlandModelingforPowerElectronics,2008
[23]Kunte,R.,Gao,W.,“ComparisonandReviewofIslandingDetec3onTechniquesforDistributedEnergyResources,”40thNorthAmericanPowerSymposium,2008
[24]Chiang,W.,Jou,H.,Wu,J.,Wu,K.,Feng,Y.,“Ac3veislandingdetec3onmethodforthegrid-connectedphotovoltaicgenera3onsystem”,ElectricPowerSystemsResearch,Vol80,pp.372–379,2009
[25]Wang,X.,Freitas,W.,Dinavahi,V.,Xu,W.,“Inves3ga3onofPosi3veFeedbackAn3-IslandingControlforMul3pleInverter-BasedDistributedGenerator”,IEEETransac3onsonPowerSystems,Vol.24,No.2,May2009
[26]Timbus,A.,Oudalov,A.,Ho,C.,“Islandingdetec3oninsmartgrids”,IEEEEnergyConversionCongressandExposi3on,2010
[27]Velasco,D.,Trujillo,C.Garcera,G.,Figueres,E.,“Reviewofan3-islandingtechniquesindistributedgenerators”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews,Vol.14,pp.1608–1614,2010
[28]Yu,B.,Matsui,M.,Yu,G.,“Areviewofcurrentan3-islandingmethodsforphotovoltaicpowersystem”,SolarEnergy,Bol.84,pp.745-754,2010
[29]M.Hanif,M.BasuandK.Gaughan,:“ADiscussionofAn3-islandingProtec3onSchemesIncorporatedinaInverterBasedDG”,Interna3onalConferenceonEnvironmentandElectricalEngineering(EEEIC)2011,10thInterna3onal,8-11May2011
[30]Teoh,W.,Tan,C.,“AnOverviewofIslandingDetec3onMethodsinPhotovoltaicSystems”,Interna3onalJournalofElectrical,Computer,Energe3c,ElectronicandCommunica3onEngineeringVol:5,No:10,2011
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[31]Mills-Price,M.Scharf,M.,Hummel,S.,Ropp,M.Joshi,D.,Zweigle,G.,Ravikumar,K.,Flerchinger,B.,“SolarGenera3onControlWithTime-SynchronizedPhasors”64thAnnualConferenceforProtec3veRelayEngineers,2011
[32]Ropp,M.“AssessmentoftheUniversalFeasibilityofUsingpowerSystemHarmonicsasalossofMainsDetec3onforDistributedEnergyResources”,ReportfromContractRDF-3-21
[33]Khamis,A.,Shareef,H.Bizkevelci,E.,Kha3b,T.,“Areviewofislandingdetec3ontechniquesforrenewabledistributedgenera3onsystems”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews,Vol.28,pp.483–493,2013
[34]Ahmad,K.,Selvaraj,J.,Rahim,N.,“Areviewoftheislandingdetec3onmethodsingrid-connectedPVinverters”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews,Vol.21,pp.756–766,2013
[35]Daea,A.,Saha,D,Ray,A.,Das,P.,“An3-islandingselec3onforgrid-connectedsolarphotovoltaicsystemapplica3ons:AMCDMbaseddistanceapproach”,SolarEnergy,Vol110,pp.519-532,2014
[36]Guo,X.,Xu,D.,Wu,B,“Overviewofan3-islandingUSpatentsforgrid-connectedinverters”,RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews,Vol.40,pp.311–317,2014
[38]Amendment1to1547™-2003IEEEStandardforInterconnec3ngDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystems
[39]PG&ETransmissionInterconnec3onHandbook–AppendixF:TelemeteringandTransferTripforTransmissionGenera3onEn33es,2014,hep://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/rates/tari~ook/ferc/3h/app_f.pdf
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