IE 20303

What is a Protocol?

• Allows entities (i.e. application programs) from different systems to communicate

• Shared conventions for communicating information are called protocols

• Defines a set of rules that govern the exchange of data

• Includes syntax, semantics, and timing

Why Use Protocol Architecture?

• Data communications requires complex procedures– Sender identifies data path/receiver– Systems negotiate preparedness– Applications negotiate preparedness– Translation of file formats

• For all tasks to occur, high level of cooperation is required

Modular Approach

• Breaks complex tasks into subtasks• Each module handles specific subset of tasks• Communication occurs– between different modules on the same system– between similar modules on different systems

Advantages of Modularity

• Easier application development• Network can change without all programs

being modified

Three-Layer Model

• Distributed data communications involves three primary components:– Networks– Computers– Applications

• Three corresponding layers– Network access layer– Transport layer– Application layer

Network Access Layer

• Concerned with exchange of data between computer and network

• Includes addressing, routing, prioritizing, etc• Different networks require different software

at this layer• Example: X.25 standard for network access

procedures on packet-switching networks

Transport Layer

• Concerned with reliable transfer of information between applications

• Independent of the nature of the application• Includes aspects like flow control and error

checking

Application Layer

• Logic needed to support various applications• Each type of application (file transfer, remote

access) requires different software on this layer

Addressing

• Each computer on a network requires a unique address on that network

• Each application requires a unique address within the computer to allow support for multiple applications (service access points, or SAP)

Data Transmission

• Application layer creates data block• Transport layer appends header to create PDU (protocol data unit)

– Destination SAP, Sequence #, Error-Detection Code• Network layer appends another header

– Destination computer, facilities (e.g. “priority”)

Protocol Architectures

Protocols in a Simplified Architecture

Transport PDU Headers

• Source port: indicates the application that sent the data

• Destination port: the appplication that the data is to be delivered to

• Sequence number: provides sequential ordering of segments

• Error-detection code: code that is a function of the contents of a segment (e.g., checksum or frame check sequence)

Network Access PDU (Packet Header)

• Source computer address: indicates the source of the packet

• Destination computer address: indicates the computer that the data is to be delivered to

• Facilities requests: indicates if the network is to make use of certain facilities such as priority

Standardized Protocol Architectures

• Vendors like standards because they make their products more marketable

• Customers like standards because they enable products from different vendors to interoperate

• Two protocol standards are well-known:– TCP/IP: widely implemented– OSI: less used, but widely known and still useful for

modeling/conceptualizing

TCP/IP

• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

• Developed by DARPA• No official protocol standard

• Identifies 5 Layers– Application– Host-to-Host (transport)– Internet– Network Access– Physical

TCP/IP Physical Layer

• Physical interface between a DTE (e.g. computer or terminal) and a transmission medium

• Specifies:– Characteristics of medium– Nature of signals– Data rate

TCP/IP Network Access Layer

• Exchange of data between systems on a shared network

• Utilizes address of host and destination• Can also prioritize transmission• Software at this layer depends on network

(e.g. X.25 vs. Ethernet)• Segregation means that no other software

needs to be concerned about net specifics

TCP/IP Internet Layer

• An Internet is an interconnection of two or more networks

• Internet layer handles tasks similar to network access layer, but between networks rather than between nodes on a network

• Uses IP for addressing and routing across networks• Implemented in workstations and routers

TCP/IP Transport Layer

• Also called host-to-host layer• Reliable exchange of data between

applications• Uses TCP protocols for transmission

TCP/IP Application Layer

• Logic needed to support variety of applications

• Separate module supports each type of application (e.g. file transfer)

Operation of TCP/IP

TCP & UDP

• Most TCP/IP applications use TCP for transport layer• TCP provides a connection (logical association)

between two entities to regulate flow check errors• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) does not maintain a

connection, and therefore does not guarantee delivery, preserve sequences, or protect against duplication

TCP & UDP

IP and IPv6

• IP provides for 32-bit source and destination addresses

• IPv6 (1996 standard) provides for 128-bit addresses

• Migraqtion to IPv6 will be a very slow process

IP Headers

TCP/IP Applications

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)– Basic e-mail facility, transferring messages among hosts

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)– Sends files from one system to another on user command

• SSH (Secure Shell)– Secure remote login capability, allowing a user to remotely

logon to a computer

Internetworking

• Interconnected networks, usually implies TCP/IP

• Can appear to users as a single large network• The global Internet is the largest example, but

intranets and extranets are also examples

Routers

• Equipment used to interconnect independent networks

• Several essential functions– Provide a link between networks– Provide routing and delivery of data between

processes on systems from different networks– Provide these functions without requiring

modification of networking architecture

Router Issues

• Addressing schemes• Maximum packet size• Interfaces• Reliability

Operation of TCP/IP: Action at the Sender

Operation of TCP/IP: Action at the Router

Operation of TCP/IP: Action at the Receiver

Why Study OSI?

• Still an excellent model for conceptualizing and understanding protocol architectures

• Key points:– Modular– Hierarchical– Boundaries between layers=interfaces

OSI

• Open Systems Interconnection

• Developed by ISO

• Contains seven layers

OSI Lower Layers

• Physical• Data Link• Network

OSI Physical Layer

• Responsible for transmission of bits• Always implemented through hardware• Encompasses mechanical, electrical, and

functional interfaces• e.g. RS-232

OSI Data Link Layer

• Responsible for error-free, reliable transmission of data

• Flow control, error correction• e.g. HDLC

OSI Network Layer

• Responsible for routing of messages through network

• Concerned with type of switching used (circuit v. packet)

• Handles routing between networks, as well as through packet-switching networks

OSI Upper Layers

• Transport• Session• Presentation• Application

OSI Transport Layer

• Isolates messages from lower and upper layers• Breaks down message size• Monitors quality of communications channel• Selects most efficient communication service

necessary for a given transmission

OSI Session Layer

• Establishes logical connections between systems

• Manages log-ons, password exchange, log-offs• Terminates connection at end of session

OSI Presentation Layer

• Provides format and code conversion services• Examples – File conversion from ASCII to EBDIC– Invoking character sequences to generate bold,

italics, etc on a printer

OSI Application Layer

• Provides access to network for end-user• User’s capabilities are determined by what

items are available on this layer

The OSI Environment

TCP/IP - OSI Comparison

IPSec

• Developed by the Internet Architecture Board in 1994 (RFC 1636)

• Examples of Applications include:-Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet-Secure remote access over the Internet-Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with partners-Enhancing electronic security

Benefits of IPSec

• Provides stronger secuirty to routers and firewalls

• Is resistant to bypass within a firewall• Is transparent to applications • Is transparent to end users• Can provide security to end-users