Present and future development in plastics from biomass

© 2009 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

*Correspondence to: Li Shen, University Utrecht - Group Science, Technology and Society (STS), Heidelberglaan 2 Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands.

E-mail: [email protected]

25

Perspective

Present and future development in plastics from biomassLi Shen,* Ernst Worrell and Martin Patel, University Utrecht, the Netherlands

Received August 13, 2009; revised version received September 23, 2009; accepted September 25, 2009

Published online December 7, 2009 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com); DOI: 10.1002/bbb.189;

Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 4:25–40 (2010)

Abstract: Biobased plastics have experienced fast growth in the past decade thanks to the public concerns over the

environment, climate change and the depletion of fossil fuels. This perspective provides an overview of the current

global market of biobased plastics, their material properties, technical substitution potential and future market (for

2020). In addition, the technology and market development of three biobased plastics, namely polylactide (PLA),

biobased polyethylene (PE) and biobased epoxy resin, are discussed in detail. The emerging biobased plastics mar-

ket is still small compared to traditional biobased polymers and biomaterials. The global capacity of the emerging

biobased plastics was only 0.36 million tonnes in 2007. However, the market grew strongly between 2003 and 2007

(approx. 40% per year). The technical substitution potential of biobased plastics replacing petrochemical plastics is

estimated at 90%, demonstrating the enormous potential of biobased plastics. Global capacity of biobased plastics

is expected to reach 3.45 million metric tonnes in 2020. Starch plastics, PLA, biobased PE, polyhydroxyalkano-

ates (PHA) and biobased epoxy resin are expected to be the major types of biobased plastics in the future. © 2009

Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Keywords: biobased plastics; biopolymer; market projection; production; material property; PLA; biobased PE;

epoxy resin

Introduction

Polymers abound in nature. Wood, leaves, fruit,

seeds and animal furs all contain natural polymers.

Biobased polymers have been used for food, furniture

and clothing for thousands of years. Every year about 17 x

1010 metric tonnes biomass are produced by nature, of which

only 3.5% are utilized by mankind.1 Apart from wood used

for conventional applications, for example energy, paper,

furniture and construction, only a minor part of the total

biomass is currently used for materials, for exampe clothing

and chemicals.

Th e subject of this perspective is biobased plastics. We

defi ne biobased plastics as man-made or man-processed

organic macromolecules derived from biological resources

and used for plastic and fi ber applications (without paper

and board). Table 1 lists the main types of emerging

biobased plastics.2

Biobased plastics have a history of more than a century –

much longer than petrochemical plastics. Th e fi rst artifi cial

thermoplastic – celluloid – was invented in the 1860s.3 Since

then, numerous inventions have been patented for new

compounds and materials made from biological resources,

such as ethylene produced by the dehydration of biobased

26 © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd | Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 4:25–40 (2010); DOI: 10.1002/bbb

L Shen et al. Perspective: Present and future development in plastics from biomass

Table 1. Main emerging biobased plastics for non-food applications.2

No Biobased plastics (group) Type of polymer Types/Structure/Production Method

1. Starch plastics PolysaccharidesPartially fermented starch; Thermoplastic starch (TPS); Chemically modifi ed starch (e.g., starch acetate)Starch blends; Starch composites

2. Cellulose polymers Polysaccharides Organic cellulose esters; Regenerated cellulose

3. Polylactide (PLA) PolyesterBiobased monomer (lactide) by fermentation, followed by polym-erisation

4 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) PolyesterBiobased 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO) by fermentation plus petro-chemical terephthalic acid (or DMT)

5. Polyamides (PA)

Polyamide

a. PA11 Biobased monomer 11-aminoundecanoic acid from castor oil

b. PA610 Monomer sebacic acid from castor oil

c. PA6 Biobased monomer caprolactam by fermentation of sugar

d. PA66 Biobased adipic acid by fermentation

e. PA69 Biobased monomer obtained from oleic acid via azelaic (di)acid

6. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Polyester Direct production of PHA by fermentation

7. Polyethylene (PE) Polyolefi nBiobased monomer (ethylene) obtained from ethanol which is produced by fermentation of sugar.

8. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) PolyvinylMonomer vinyl chloride can be obtained from biobased ethylene (from ethanol).

9. Other thermoplastics*

a. Other polyesters (PBT, PBS, PBSL, PBSA, PBST, PBAT, PET, PEIT PVAc, Polyacrylates, PTN, PTI, thermoplastic elastomers)

Polyester Various carboxylic acids, various alcohols

b. Other ethylene-based com-pounds (e.g., polystyrene and EPDM rubber)

VariousEthylene by dehydration of bio-ethanol, reacted with other com-pounds

c. Methanol-based compounds (e.g., phenolic resins, urea formal-dehyde resins, melamine formalde-hyde resins)

VariousSyngas by gasifi cation of biomass, and synthesis of methanol, reacted with other compounds

d. Propylene-based compounds (e.g., PP, polyacrylates, PUR, PA )

VariousThermochemical propylene production via bionaphtha plus steam-cracking or via biomethanol, followed by a methanol-to-olefi ns process and polymerisation.

10. Polyurethanes (PUR) Polyurethanes Biobased polyol from vegetable oils, plus petrochemical isocy-anate.

11. Thermosets Cross-linked polymers

a. Epoxy resins Epoxy resin

Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A derived from bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin (ECH). ECH produced by glycerine-to-epichlo-rohydrin (GTE) process; glycerine is a byproduct of bio-diesel production.

b. Epoxidized vegetable oils Epoxide Addition of oxygen to alkenes

c. Thermosets based on 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO

Unsaturated polyesterPolycondensation of unsaturated and saturated dicarboxylic acids with diols.

d. Alkyd resins Alkyd resinCondensation polymerization of polyols, organic acids and fatty acids or triglyceride oils.

*Abbreviations: DMT = Dimethyl terephthalate; PBT=polybutylene terephthalate; PBS=polybutylene succinate; PBSL=polybutylene succi-nate-co-lactate; PBAT=polybutylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate; PET=polyethylene terephthalate; PEIT=polyethylene-co-isosorbite terephthalate; PVAc=polyvinyl acetate; PTN=polytrimethylene naphthalate; PTI=polytrimethylene isophthalate; EPDM=ethylene propylene diene M-class rubber; PP=polypropylene.

© 2009 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd | Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 4:25–40 (2010); DOI: 10.1002/bbb 27

Perspective: Present and future development in plastics from biomass L Shen et al.

ethanol in the 1940s.4 However, many inventions made in

the 1930s and 1940s remained in the laboratories and were

never commercially exploited, due to the development of

cheap, synthetic polymers from crude oil in the 1950s. Th e

petrochemical industry has since taken off and plastics have

become a daily necessity.

In Western Europe in 2007, 43% of all plastics are used for

packaging, 21% are used in building and construction, 8%

for automobiles, 5% for electrical and electronic appliances,

and the remaining 23% are used for various other applica-

tions.5 Th e vast majority of the polymers used are polyole-

fi ns, i.e., polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) which

together represent 54%, followed by polyvinyl chloride

(PVC, 14%), which dominates in building and construction,

and polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 8%).5

Biobased plastics have experienced a renaissance in the last

few decades. Many new polymers from biobased feedstocks

were developed, for example polylactic acid (PLA) from

sugars. One of the earlier drivers was to provide the market

with biodegradable plastics in order to solve the problem of

increasing amounts of waste and limited landfi ll capacity.

Today, public concerns about the environment, climate

change and limited fossil fuel resources have become more

important drivers.

Th is perspective provides an overview of the market,

material properties, applications, the technical

substitution potential of emerging biobased plastics

between 2003 and 2007, and the projections of the future

market until 2020. An extensive description of all poly-

mers listed in Table 1 can be found in Shen et al.2 In this

perspective, three biobased plastics, namely PLA, biobased

PE and biobased epoxy resins, are highlighted for their

recent developments.

Market of biobased plastics

Current market volumes

Before discussing the market volume of emerging biobased

plastics, it is worthwhile to understand the market size of

traditional non-food biobased polymers and materials. Th ese

include paper and board, man-made cellulosics (fi bers and

modifi ed cellulose), non-food starch and alkyd resins. Th ese

biobased polymers and materials have been produced and

consumed in large quantities for long time. So far, the paper

industry has been the largest non-food biobased material

producer in the world. Th e global paper and board produc-

tion was approximately 365 million metric tonnes (Mt) in

2006.6 Together, non-food starch (without starch used for

fuel ethanol*), man-made cellulose polymer† and alkyd resin

account for approximately 20 Mt per year, of which non-

food starch takes the lion’s share (75%, without starch used

for fuel ethanol), followed by man-made cellulose polymers

(20%, without paper) and alkyd resin (5%).‡

Compared to the traditional non-food biobased polymer

and material market, the emerging biobased plastics market

is relatively small. Th e global capacity in 2007 was estimated

at 0.36 Mt, equivalent to only 0.1% of the world’s paper and

board production and 0.2% of the global petrochemical

plastics production. However, the emerging biobased plas-

tics market is growing rapidly. Between 2003 and 2007, the

average annual growth rate was close to 40% worldwide

(Fig. 1) and nearly 50% in Europe.§

Th e developments in the past fi ve years in emerging

biobased plastics are spectacular from a technological point

of view. Starch plastics and PLA have been the frontrunners

in the renaissance of biobased plastics. Th ey were the only

biobased plastics produced on a large scale in 20037 (Fig. 1).

Today, starch plastics and PLA are still the most important

biobased plastics in the market but other types of biobased

plastics will soon be produced on a large scale, such as

biobased polyethylene (PE) and biobased epoxy resin (made

from biobased ethylene and epichlorohydrin, respectively).

Recent technological breakthroughs have allowed the

substantially improvement in the material properties of novel

* In Europe starch used for fuel ethanol was approximately 1.9 Mt in 2007.2

† Including cellulose esters (e.g., cellulose acetate), cellulose ethers (e.g., car-

boxymethyl cellulose) and regenerated cellulose (e.g., viscose).

‡ The information on current capacity of the emerging biobased plastics was

collected from 30 companies who produced at least at pilot scale in 2007.

These 30 companies are the current major players of starch plastics (8 com-

panies), cellulose films (2), PLA (7), PTT (1), biobased PA (1), PHA (6), biobased

PE (1), biobased epichlorohydrin (1) and biobased PUR (3). The capacity

information for 2007 was collected by means of a questionnaire, via personal

communication with companies and industry associations and through publicly

available company announcements.

§ The capacity information for 2003 was obtained from Crank et al. 7 and up-

dated by personal communication with companies.



biobased plastics, such as heat-resistance (e.g., for PLA) and

tensile strength (e.g., for PHA). Th is makes biobased plastics

eligible for a wider variety of applications. Moreover, many

old processes have been revisited, with ethanol dehydration

probably the most prominent one. Many fi rst-of-its-kind

plants are being (or will be) constructed. Hence, we are at the

very beginning of the learning curve for biobased plastics.

Most of the plant capacities are still small (e.g., the capacity

of Tianan’s PHA plant is only 2 kt 8(metric kilotonnes)), but

others are very sizable (e.g., Braskem’s biobased PE plant will

be 200 kt9). With a growing demand for biobased plastics,

it can be expected that turn-key plants with large capaci-

ties will be commercially available within a few years, thus

allowing accelerated growth.

Technical substitution potential

Table 2 provides an overview of the typical physical,

mechanical and thermal properties of emerging biobased

plastics. Note that there are no diff erences in terms of mate-

rial properties between biobased plastics and their petro-

chemical counterparts which have identical chemical struc-

tures (e.g., PE).

In order to understand to what extent biobased plastics

could replace petrochemical plastics from a technical point

of view, we estimated the maximum technical substitution

potential. Th is was done by interviewing industrial experts

based on the material properties and applications of biobased

plastics. Th e outcome of the interview is shown in Table 3

(for plastics applications) and Table 4 (for fi bers) in ‘% substi-

tution’. Complete substitution (100%) is achieved when

petrochemical plastics are replaced by chemically identical

biobased plastics (e.g., PE). In all other cases, the substitu-

tion percentages are lower than 100% because petrochemical

plastics can only be replaced partially by fully biobased or

partially biobased plastics. Depending on the type of plastic,

between 20% and 100% of the current volume could be in

principle replaced by biobased plastics. Th e substitution

potentials of 8 out of the 16 plastics are 100% (Table 3).

By multiplying the substitution percentage by the

consumption volume of the respective petrochemical

polymer in 2007, volume estimates are obtained for each

biobased plastic. Th us, the overall maximum technical

substitution potential for plastic applications** is estimated

at 205 Mt, which corresponds to 90% of the total global

plastic consumption in 2007. For fi bers (Table 4), the substi-

tution potential is estimated at 35 Mt, or 87% of the world’s

fi ber consumption in 2007. Th erefore, the total maximum

technical substitution potential of biobased plastics and

fi bers replacing their petrochemical counterparts is esti-

mated at 240 Mt, or 90% of the total consumption of plas-

tics and fi bers in 2007. Th is substitution potential is purely

based on the technical properties of the biobased plastics.

It does not account for resource availability and economic

viability. As a note of caution, the substitution potential of

90% should be regarded as indicative because it has not yet

been proven that the large-scale production of all biobased

plastics (including fi bers) shown in Table 3 and Table 4 is

technically feasible.

Market projections of biobased plastics

Th e market projections of biobased plastics for 2020 were

carried out as follows:

** Important plastic applications are injection moulding, blow moulding, extru-

sion and foaming; in contrast, the use of polymers for coatings and fibres is

usually excluded.

Figure 1. Global production capacities of emerging biobased plastics in 20037 and 2007.

2007: 360 kt

Starchplastics 43%

PLA 42%

Cellulosefilm/PHA/PTT/P

A/PUR 11%

Bio-basedmonomers

(e.g., ethylene,ECH) 3%

2003: 100 kt

Starchplastics

25%

PLA 75%

Growth 38% per year



Tab

le 2

. Typ

ical

phy

sica

l and

the

rmal

pro

per

ties

, ren

ewab

le c

ont

ents

, bio

deg

rad

abili

ty a

nd c

om

mer

cial

isat

ion

stag

es o

f em

erg

ing

b

iob

ased

pla

stic

s.i D

ensi

ty(g

/cm

3 )

Tens

ile

stre

ngth

(M

Pa)

Youn

g’s

mod

ulus

(GP

a)

Flex

ural

m

odul

us(G

Pa)

T m (o C)

T g (o C)

Ren

ewab

le

cont

ent

(wt

%)

Bio

de-

grad

able

Dev

elop

men

t p

hase

, end

of

2008

Sta

rch

pla

stic

s [1

]1.

20-1

.35

20-4

01.

0-1.

7-

h~

60-

40-1

00%

Yes

& N

oaLa

rge

scal

e

PLA

[2]b

1.24

53-1

00-

3.83

140,

220

55 t

o 70

100%

Yes

Larg

e sc

ale

PH

A [3

]c1.

17-1

.25

18-4

01.

2-3.

0-

50-1

90-1

3 to

410

0%Ye

sP

ilot

scal

e

Cel

lulo

se fi

lm1.

45 [4

]70

-125

[5]

--

--

100%

Yes

Med

ium

sca

le

Bio

bas

ed P

TT [6

]d1.

3566

n/a

2.7

228

45 t

o 55

35%

No

Sm

all s

cale

Bio

bas

ed P

ET

[7]d

1.31

522.

7-

220-

225

75~

30%

No

Res

earc

h

Bio

bas

ed L

DP

E [4

]d0.

9210

-18

0.15

-0.2

010

5-13

0-3

010

0%N

oP

ilot

Bio

bas

ed P

P[8

]d, e

0.

9133

-35

-1.

45-1

.55

160-

170

-13

to 0

f

-18

to -

15 g

100%

No

Pilo

t

PA11

[9,1

0]1.

0557

-1.

1718

0-18

945

100%

No

Med

ium

sca

le

PA61

0 [1

1]1.

0855

-2.

0022

5-

~60

%N

oS

mal

l sca

le

Bio

bas

ed P

A66

[9]d

1.14

83-

2.83

269

65 t

o 85

100%

No

Res

earc

h

Bio

bas

ed P

A6

[9]d

1.14

81-

2.70

228

65 t

o 75

100%

No

Res

earc

h

Bio

bas

ed P

UR

--

--

--

8-90

% [1

2]N

oS

mal

l sca

le

Bio

bas

ed L

ER

d, j

--

--

--

30%

No

Sm

all s

cale

a Th

e b

iod

egra

dab

ility

of s

tarc

h p

last

ics

dep

end

s on

the

cop

olym

er b

lend

ed w

ith

ther

mop

last

ic s

tarc

h (T

PS

). S

tarc

h p

last

ics

are

only

bio

deg

rad

able

if t

he c

opol

ymer

is

also

bio

deg

rad

able

.bTh

e th

erm

al p

rop

erty

of P

LA is

for

amor

pho

us, s

emi-

crys

talli

ne a

nd c

ryst

allin

e P

LA.

c PH

As

here

incl

ude

P(3

HB

), P

(3H

B-c

o-H

V),

P(3

HB

-co-

HH

x) a

nd P

(3H

B-c

o-H

A).

dTh

ese

bio

bas

ed p

last

ics

are

chem

ical

ly id

entic

al w

ith t

heir

pet

roch

emic

al c

ount

er-

par

ts. T

here

fore

, the

phy

sica

l and

the

rmal

pro

per

ties

are

also

iden

tical

.e R

efer

s to

PP

hom

opol

ymer

f For

isot

actic

PP

g For

atac

tic P

Ph N

ot a

pp

licab

le o

r no

t av

aila

ble

i See

the

full

nam

es o

f the

ab

bre

viat

ions

in T

able

1.

j LER

= L

iqui

d E

pox

y R

esin

.

[1] D

ata

from

var

ious

sta

rch

pla

stic

s p

rod

ucer

s; s

ee S

hen

et a

l.2 .[2

] Nat

ureW

orks

LLC

10; P

UR

AC

11

[3] S

udes

h et

al.12

[4] S

chm

itz &

Jan

ocha

13

[5] I

nnov

ia14

[6] K

uria

n15

[7] K

öpni

ck e

t al

.16

[8] W

hite

ley

et a

l.17

[9] K

ohan

et

al.18

[10]

Ark

ema19

[11]

Tor

ay20

[12]

Dat

a fr

om v

ario

us b

iob

ased

pol

yol/P

UR

pro

duc

ers;

see

She

n et

al.2



Tab

le 3

. Tec

hnic

al s

ubst

itut

ion

po

tent

ial o

f bio

bas

ed p

last

ics

(pla

stic

ap

plic

atio

ns in

clud

ing

the

rmo

pla

stic

s an

d

ther

mo

sets

, exc

lud

ing

fib

ers)

.

% s

ubst

itutio

n*LD

PE

HD

PE

PP

PV

CP

S *

*P

ET

PU

RPA

AB

S†

PC

PB

TP

MM

AO

ther

P

olya

cr-

ylat

es

Ep

oxy

resi

nS

ynth

. ru

bb

erO

ther

Sta

rch

pla

stic

s8

88

88

4

PLA

1010

1020

105

PH

A20

2010

1020

1010

105

Cel

lulo

se fi

lms

1010

1015

Bio

bas

ed P

E72

62

Bio

bas

ed P

P57

Bio

bas

ed P

VC

‡80

Bio

bas

ed P

ET‡

35

Bio

bas

ed P

TT‡

520

3020

100

5

Bio

bas

ed P

UR

‡80

Bio

bas

ed P

A30

Bio

bas

ed p

olya

cr-

ylat

es‡

100

Bio

bas

ed e

pox

y re

sin‡

75

Bio

bas

ed A

BS

‡90

Bio

bas

ed P

B‡

80

Sum

per

cent

ages

100

100

100

100

4810

098

7010

020

100

1910

075

800

(1,0

00 t

)LD

PE

HD

PE

PP

PV

CP

S *

PE

TP

UR

PAA

BS

†P

CP

BT

PM

MA

Oth

er

Pol

yacr

-yl

ates

Ep

oxy

resi

nS

ynth

. ru

bb

erO

ther

Tota

l%

su

bst

2007

Glo

bal

co

nsum

ptio

n §

37,1

0030

,700

44,9

0035

,280

16,1

0515

,498

12,2

852,

730

7,45

53,

150

954

1,40

066

01,

150

10,8

896,

930

227,

186

100

Tech

nica

lly

rep

lace

able

vo

lum

es37

,100

30,7

0044

,900

35,2

807,

730

15,4

9812

,039

1,91

17,

455

630

954

266

660

863

8,71

10

204,

698

90

Not

e: S

ee a

bb

revi

atio

ns in

Tab

le 1

.*T

he v

alue

s on

sub

stitu

tion

pot

entia

l (in

the

up

per

tab

le) w

ere

esta

blis

hed

bas

ed o

n in

terv

iew

s w

ith in

dus

tria

l exp

erts

(see

tex

t).**

PS

(all

typ

es) a

nd E

PS

† AB

S/S

AN

, inc

lud

ing

also

oth

er s

tyre

ne c

opol

ymer

s.‡ P

artia

lly b

iob

ased

pol

ymer

.§ Fo

r P

E, P

P, P

VC

, PS

, PU

R, A

BS

, PA

, PC

and

PB

T, d

ata

are

for

2007

bas

ed o

n th

e p

roje

ctio

n of

Kun

stst

offe

.21 T

he P

ET

dat

a is

als

o p

roje

cted

for

2007

but

bas

ed o

n th

e d

ata

for

2006

from

Pla

stic

sEur

ope22

and

ann

ual g

row

th p

roje

ctio

n ac

cord

ing

to K

unst

stof

fe.21

For

PM

MA

, the

con

sum

ptio

n d

ata

is fo

r 20

06;21

no

pro

ject

ion

for

2007

is a

vaila

ble

. For

oth

er

pol

yacr

ylat

es, d

ata

are

for

2003

23. F

or e

pox

y re

sin

and

syn

thet

ic r

ubb

er, c

onsu

mp

tion

dat

a ar

e fo

r 20

00.24

,25



1. Th e companies’ expected production capacity was

collected by a questionnaire, via personal communica-

tion with companies and with the industry associations

European Bioplastics and Japan Bioplastics Association,

and through publicly available company announce-

ments. About 70 companies worldwide were investi-

gated in our market projection, including both current

producers and the future producers of biobased plastics.

Th e current activities range from lab scale to large,

commercial scale.

Th e questionnaire was sent to all the member compa-

nies of the European Bioplastics association. Seven out

of about 50 companies replied. About 25 companies’

data were collected via personal communication or

communication with industry associations. Company

capacity data which could not be obtained by the ques-

tionnaire or personal communication was collected

from company announcements in the public domain.

Th e companies were requested to provide projections

of their planned capacity expansion. Th e companies’

views were collected in the fi rst half of 2008 and

once more in March 2009 in order to account for the

economic crisis.

Our questions primarily focused on the period

2007–2020. Th e projections for 2009–2013 are based on

concrete plans, which are currently being implemented;

in contrast, the statements made for the year 2020 have

more of a visionary character. Th e projection prepared

on this basis is referred to as ‘projection based on

company announcements’.

Th e result of Step I was compared to the technical market

potentials of biobased plastics and fi bers.

2. In the survey, we also asked companies to provide their

expectations of the growth rate of the biobased plastics

sector as a whole, for the next 10–20 years. We then used

the average growth rate to derive the projection for 2020,

which we refer to as the ‘projection based on industry

expectations’.

3. Th ree scenarios (BAU, HIGH and LOW) were

constructed in the third step not only taking into

account the companies’ announcements and their

expectations but also considering technical barriers, the

estimated market size for bulk applications, cost compet-

itiveness and the raw material availability for the produc-

tion of biobased plastics until 2020. Th ese scenarios are

referred to as ‘PRO-BIP 2009 Scenarios’.††

4. Finally, the outcome from Steps 1, 2 and 3 was compared

to the projections prepared in the earlier study by Crank

et al.7

Table 4. Technical substitution potential of biobased man-made fibers (both staple fibers and filament).

% Substitution* PET PA Acrylic Other Synthetic CellulosicPLA 10 0 5 0 5

PTT 20 20 5 0 5

PHA 5 0 5 0 5

Biobased PET 65 0 0 0 0

Biobased PA6, PA66 0 80 0 0 0

Sum Percentages 100 100 15 0 15

(1,000 t) PET PA Acrylic Other Synthetic Cellulosic Total % subst.2007 World fi ber consumption26 30,804 3,836 2,407 575 3,081 40,703 100

Technically replaceable volumes

30,804 3,836 361 0 462 35,463 87

Note: See abbreviations in Table 1. *The values on substitution potential (in the upper table) were established based on interviews with industrial experts (see text).

†† PRO-BIP is the short name of the project ‘Product overview and market

projection of emerging bio-based plastics’. See Shen et al.2



Projection based on company announcements (Step 1)

According to company announcements, the worldwide

capacity of biobased plastics is expected to increase from 0.36

Mt in 2007 to 2.32 Mt in 2013 and to 3.45 Mt in 2020 (Fig. 2).

Th e announced capacities are (ordered by size): starch plastics

(1.30 Mt), PLA (0.83 Mt), biobased ethylene (0.61Mt), PHA

(0.44 Mt), biobased epichlorohydrin (ECH, 0.21 Mt) and other

biobased plastics such as biobased PTT, PA 11, PA 610 and

biobased PUR (total approximately 0.06 Mt). Based on these

announcements, the capacity breakdown can be presented by

regions over time. As shown in Fig. 3, the leading position of

the USA and Europe in the years 2003 and 2007 changes to a

more balanced regional distribution by the year 2020.

During the preparation of this study, the world economy

experienced a dramatic downturn, with very serious

decreases in demand (in 2008/2009). As a consequence,

the oil prices dropped from $130/barrel in July 2008 to

$40/barrel in December 2008, followed by an oil price level

of $40–60/barrel in the fi rst half of 2009. Most interviewed

companies are still optimistic about their long-term plans

(we re-contacted the major players in March 2009). Some

companies have, however, delayed their expansion plans.

For instance, Dow announced that its bio-PE project will

be delayed to 201227 and Telles postponed the start-up of

its 50 kt PHA plant from end 2008 to the second quarter of

2009.28 However, it is not clear whether these delays are the

Figure 2. Worldwide capacities of biobased plastics until 2020 based on company

announcements (the most recent data used for making this graph were received in

March 2009; the reported values refer to the capacities at the end of each year).

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

2003 2007 2013 (projection) 2020 (projection)

Cap

acit

y (m

illio

n t

on

nes

per

yea

r)

Note: Category “other” includes cellulose films, PTT from bio-based 1,3-PDO,bio-based polyamide andPUR from bio-based polyols; category “Bio-based monomers” includes primarily bio-based

epichlorohydrin.

OtherBio-based monomersPHABio-based EthylenePLAStarch plastics

Figure 3. Breakdown of worldwide capacity of biobased plastics by region, projection of 2020 is based on company

announcements (the most recent data used for making this graph were received in March 2009; the reported values refer to

the capacities at the end of each year).

Note: "Unspecified region" in the right figure means that there are no concrete plans about the location of these capacities.

2020: 3.45 million tonnes

Europe 26%

US 30%

Asia-pacific

19%

S.America18%

Unspeci- fied 7%


Europe25%

USA 74%

Asia- Pacific 1%


Europe 36%

USA 33%

Asia- Pacific

29%

S.America 1%



consequence of the global economic crisis or whether there

are other reasons.

As described earlier, the maximum technical substitu-

tion potential of biobased plastics is 240 Mt. Th e worldwide

capacity of biobased plastics in 2007, i.e., 360 kt, was only

0.15% of this potential market; and even the projected

capacity in 2020 will only meet approximately 1.5% of the

technical potential market (Fig. 4).

Projection based on biobased plastics industry

expectations (Step 2)

Our company survey also included the question about

the development of the biobased plastics sector as a whole

(Step 2). According to this survey, the biobased plastics

industry expects that production will grow on average by

19% per year during 2007 and 2020. Th e resulting projec-

tion in 2020 (3.44 Mt) is very close to the projection for 2020

from Step I), which is based on company announcements

(3.45 Mt).

PRO-BIP 2009 scenarios: BAU, HIGH and LOW (Step 3)

Th e projections based on the company announcements

are not necessarily consistent across the various types of

biobased plastics. For example, starch plastics producers

are rather optimistic about their future development, in

comparison with PLA producers. For this reason, inde-

pendent projections have been prepared. Th ree scenarios

were built for 2020 (Step 3): business-as-usual (BAU), HIGH

and LOW. Th ese scenarios were designed considering

four major infl uencing factors, namely technical barriers,

Figure 4. Comparing the projections for 2020, based on company announcements with the market potential,

based on the maximum technical substitution.

0%

10%70%

80%

90%

100%

Plastics (including thermoplastics and thermosets)Synthetic fibres (including staple and filament)Capacity of bioplastics (including plastics and fibres)Potential capacity of bioplastics on a technical basis

267,900 kt

240,000 kt

360 kt

3,450kt

World plastics consumption

2007†

Max. technicalsubsitution

potential of biobased plastics†

World biobased plastics

capacityin 2007‡

World biobased plastics

capacityin 2020‡

† See data in Table 3 and Table 4. The overall maximum technical substitution potential for plastics and fibres is 89% (the blue line in the graph).‡ See data in Figure 3. The projection in 2020 is based on company announcements. The most recent data used for making this graph were received in March 2009; the reported values refer to the capacities at the end of each year.

236,550 kt technical substitution potential



bulk applications, cost competitiveness and raw material

availability. We identify starch plastics, PLA, biobased PE

and biobased epoxy resin as the four most important plastics

for the future biobased plastic sector.

Th e BAU scenario assumes a steady growth of the four

key plastics and a modest growth for cellulose fi lms, PHA

and biobased PUR. Th e remaining plastics are expected to

contribute little to the overall growth. Th e BAU projection

results in a global production capacity of approximately 3 Mt

for 2020, which is somewhat more modest compared to the

companies’ targets (approx. 3.45 Mt).

Th e HIGH scenario shows an optimistic future and a fast-

growing sector. Th e four key plastics will grow strongly and

a steady growth rate is assumed for cellulose fi lms, PHA

and biobased PUR. Th e major technical barriers will be

overcome for biobased succinic acid, biobased PA6, PA66

and biobased PP. Th e HIGH scenario projects that the global

production will reach 4.40 Mt by 2020, approximately 30%

higher than the projections aimed at by the companies

(approx. 3.45 Mt).

Th e LOW scenario describes a relatively pessimistic future.

Th e four key plastics will have slow growth rates and the

growth from the remaining plastics will be insignifi cant. Th e

LOW scenario projects that only 1.47 Mt capacity will be

installed by 2020. Th is is approximately 60% lower than the

projections aimed at by the companies (approx. 3.45 Mt).

Comparison with Crank et al.7 (Step 4)

Table 5 shows the comparison with an earlier projection

made by Crank et al. (i.e., PRO-BIP 2005). For 2020, the

projections based on company announcements (3450 kt),

based on the industry expectation (3440 kt) and based on

the PRO-BIP 2009 BAU scenario (3000 kt), lie between the

former projection with and without policy and measures

(PM). Th us the 2020 projections from this study coincide

well with the earlier projections published in 2005 by Crank

et al. (2005).

Production, properties and applications of three selected biobased plastics: PLA, biobased PE and partially biobased epoxy resin

Emerging biobased plastics are still at an early stage of

commercialization. Only a few have entered large-scale

production, while most are still in the pilot or R&D stage

(Table 2). In the past, for starch plastics and PLA, eff orts

have been made to overcome key technical challenges. In

the past decade, the fi rst large-scale plants have been set up

and a niche market has been established. For starch plastics,

the technique of native starch blend-extruded with other

compounds is nowadays well understood and applied by

multiple players. For PLA, important remaining challenges

include downstream processing of lactic acid, alternative raw

materials, plastic processing and material property improve-

ments. For biobased PE, PA 11 and cellulose fi lms, the tech-

nologies are relatively mature and therefore relatively little

technical challenges will be encountered. For PHA, compa-

nies’ expectations are high and the fi rst large-scale plant (50

kt p.a.) is currently being constructed. However, the time

and eff ort required to overcome the technical challenges,

the market price and the material properties will strongly

determine the market uptake of PHA. Being the fi rst large-

scale plant of its type, the uncertainties are still relatively

Table 5. Worldwide production capacity of biobased plastics until 2020, comparison of old and new projections.

All values in kt

Announced by companies

Expected by industry

PRO-BIP 2009 For comparisons

BAU HIGH LOWCrank et al. without PM 7

Crank et al. with PM 7

2003 100 100 100 100 100 71 71

2007 360 360 360 360 360

2010 1,275 2,200

2013 2,320

2020 3,450 3,440 3,000 4,400 1,470 2,500 4,175



high. Shen et al.2 elaborated in detail on the production,

properties and application of the biobased plastics listed in

Tables 1 and 2.

In this perspective, we select three biobased plastics as

examples and report the latest technology and market devel-

opments. Th e three types of plastics are PLA (polyester),

biobased PE (polyolefi n) and (partially) biobased epoxy resin

(thermoset). PLA is one of the most important biobased

plastics today (Fig. 1); biobased PE is likely to be produced

on a large scale (>500 kt) in the near future and will be oper-

ated by big chemical companies; and biobased epoxy resin is

an emerging opportunity for renewably sourced thermosets.

PLA

PLA is an aliphatic polyester, produced via the polymeriza-

tion of lactic acid which is a sugar fermentation product.

With the start of the NatureWork’s production plant in

2002, PLA became the fi rst biobased plastic produced on a

large-scale (name plate capacity 150 kt p.a. in 2009). In 2007,

the world’s largest lactic acid producer PURAC started to

produce lactide for technical applications on a large scale

(capacity 75 kt p.a. lactide in 2008, plant located in Th ai-

land). Recently, a new company, Pyramid, announced its

plan to produce 60 kt p.a. PLA in 2012 in Germany.

Production and material properties of PLA

Lactic acid is produced by fermenting glucose, which can be

obtained from various sugar sources. NatureWorks’ PLA is

produced from maize and PURAC’s lactides are produced

from cane sugar, potato starch and tapioca starch. In the

future, it is expected that cellulosic biomass will be used to

produce PLA. NatureWorks expects to use cellulosic feed-

stocks to produce PLA in the timeframe 2013–2018.29

Specifi c production of either of the isomers of lactic acid

– i.e., L (+) or D (-) lactic acid – can be achieved by using

an appropriate lactobacillus.30 Polymerization of L-lactide

results in PLLA and polymerization of D-lactide results

in PDLA. Th e majority of current commercial PLA is poly

(meso-lactide), which is a mix of L-lactide (> 95%) and D-

lactide (<5%).

Poly (meso-lactide) can be used in a wide range of applica-

tions, such as fi lm- and tray- packaging, bottle packaging and

textiles. Th is type of PLA exhibits no stereochemical struc-

ture. It is highly amorphous, does not rotate polarized light

and is optically inactive. It has a relatively low glass-transition

temperature (Tg = 55-60 oC), low vicat-soft ening point and

low heat-defl ection temperature. End products made from this

PLA are not suitable for applications requiring high tempera-

tures (similar to PET).

Th e recently announced heat-resistant PLA is based on

stereocomplex technology. Stereocomplex formation between

PLLA and PDLA occurs when L-lactide unit sequences and

D-lactide unit sequences coexist in one system.31 PURAC

describes the synthesis as a transesterifi cation process in the

presence of a catalyst; the starting materials are obtained

from separately polymerized L-lactide and D-lactide.32

Stereocomplexation of PLA sometimes is also called stereo-

complex (sc) crystallization or racemic crystallization. Melt-

blending PLLA and PDLA with a D/L ratio of 1:1 produces

sc-PLA crystals with a melting temperature (Tm) of 210-240 oC, which is about 30–60 oC higher than the Tm of homo-

crystalline PLLA. Th e crystal growth rate of sc-PLA was

reported to be comparable with that of PA6 and PE.32

Current and future applications of PLA

Th e current applications of PLA cover a wide range, for

example packaging (cups, bottles, fi lms and container),

textiles (shirts, furniture textiles), non-wovens (diapers),

agricultural mulch fi lms (usually blended with TPS) and

cutlery. Stereocomplex PLA is potentially suitable for melt-

spun fi bers and biaxially stretched fi lms. An example is

the heat-resistant PLA fi bers used for automobile textiles,

developed by Mazda and Teijin.33 Also, there is a potential

of foamed PLA used as insulation material, for example PLA

foam developed by Synbra, Sulzer and PURAC; foamed PLA

is a biobased alternative for expanded polystyrene (EPS)

foam.34 Furthermore, PLA blends and composite products

experience increasing demand. For example, NEC and

UNITIKA announced a mobile phone housing made from

PLA reinforced with kenaf fi ber.35 Mazda, PURAC and

Nishikawa Rubber of Japan collaborated on the development

of heat-resistant automotive interior parts based on a combi-

nation of starch with stereocomplex PLA (Reichert R and

van der Pol M, PURAC, private communication).

Table 6 shows the results of interviews on current and

future market shares of PLA. Presently NatureWorks’ PLA

is primarily used in the packaging and the textile sector.

For the future, NatureWorks sees the market potential not



only in textile and packaging, but also in transportation and

E&E (electrical appliances and electronics). PURAC sees the

future PLA market mainly in textiles, buildings and trans-

portation, while packaging and E&E have a relatively lower

importance.

Biobased PE

Biobased polyethylene (PE) is produced from biobased

ethylene. In nature, many plants produce ethylene when their

fruit are ripening. Industrial biobased ethylene is produced

from ethanol through a chemical dehydration process. Th e

emergence of biobased PE on the market is not a new phenom-

enon. In the 1970s, India used a small amount of its ethanol to

produce ethylene and subsequently, PE, PVC (polyvinyl chlo-

ride) and styrene.36 In the 1980s, subsidized by the Brazilian

Government, small producers in Brazil produced in total 150

kt of ethylene per year; this ethylene was then converted into

PE and PVC.37 In the early 1990s, the subsidies for biobased

ethylene were stopped in Brazil, due to low oil prices. Conse-

quently, production ceased. Today, given the public concern

about global warming and limited fossil fuels and as a result

of the increased oil price prior to the economic crisis in 2009,

biobased PE has become attractive again. In 2007, three large

chemical companies, namely Braskem, Dow-Crystalsev and

Solvay, announced the production of biobased ethylene on

a large scale in Brazil; the planned annual capacities are 200

kt of PE in 2010 by Braskem, 350 kt of PE in 2012 by Dow-

Crystalsev and 60 kt of ethylene in 2010 by Solvay.27, 38-40

Table 6. Main applications for PLA – share of total production by market sector (interview results).

Sector

% of total production

2007 2020

Nature Works Nature Works PURACPackaging 70 20 10

Building 20

Agriculture 1

Transportation 20 20

Electrical appli-ances and elec-tronics (E&E)

1 10 10

Textiles (fi bers and fabrics)

28 50 40

Total 100 100 100

Production of biobased ethylene

At present, biobased PE is exclusively produced from sugar-

cane-based ethanol. In a sugar mill, the harvested sugarcane

is cleaned, sliced and shredded, resulting in sugarcane juice

as the main product and bagasse as the byproduct. In Brazil,

the bagasse is typically combusted to generate heat and power

to fuel the sugar mill. Th e power surplus from bagasse is

usually sold to the grid. Th e sugarcane juice is then fermented

to ethanol under anaerobic conditions. Ethanol is distilled to

yield hydrous ethanol (95.5 vol.-%).41 Ethylene is produced by

dehydrating ethanol at temperatures varying from 300oC to

600oC in the presence of heterogeneous catalysts.42

Biobased ethylene as a building block

Ethylene is an important platform chemical in the chemical

industry. PE is by far the most important product made

from ethylene (Fig. 5). In addition, ethylene is an important

intermediate to produce PVC, PET, PS and polyols for poly-

urethanes (PUR). Figure 5 shows the intermediate chemi-

cals and fi nal plastics which can be derived from ethylene.

In 2007, the global consumption of all ethylene-derived

polymers was approximately 185 million tonnes including

plastics and fi bers.21 Today, biobased PE and PVC have been

scheduled for production on a large scale. In the future, more

biobased plastics may be expected from biobased ethylene.

Applications of biobased PE

Biobased PE can, just as petrochemical PE, be used for a

large variety of applications (Table 7). For biobased PE,

Braskem will off er grades for food packaging, cosmetics

and personal care, automotive parts and toys.38 Dow-

Crystalsev will produce biobased PE mainly for food pack-

aging industry and for agricultural and industrial purposes

(Gregorio M; Dow Chemical, private communication).

Partially biobased epoxy resin

Approximately 75% of all epoxy resins are liquid epoxy

resins (LER), which are derived from diglycidyl ether of

bisphenol A; the remaining 25% are composed of various

epoxy resins.24 In this perspective, we limit ourselves to

LER. Th e key materials to produce LER are epichlorohydrin

(ECH) and bisphenol A. Today, bisphenol A is exclusively

manufactured from petrochemical resources, whereas ECH

can be produced from biobased glycerol.



fi ve years, this production process has become superfl uous

because of the large availability of biobased glycerol as a

byproduct of biodiesel production. Th us the reverse process,

which produces ECH from glycerol, has now become

economically attractive.

In the 1920s and 1930s, several publications and patents

described the synthesis of glycerol-derived ECH or dichlo-

ropropanol by the reaction of glycerol with HCl (aqueous

or gasous), in the presence of catalysts (e.g., acetic acid).44-48

However, these approaches were never used to produce ECH

and subsequently, epoxy resin.

In April 2007, Solvay started the production of ECH

from biobased glycerol in Tavaux, France (10 kt per year)

based on its EpicerolTM process patent.49 Meanwhile,

Solvay announced the building of a biobased ECH plant in

Th ailand with an annual capacity of 100 kt and which will

start production in 2009.50 In 2007, Dow Epoxy announced

the set up of a glycerol-to-ECH plant (150 kt per year) in

Shanghai, using Dow’s proprietary technology. Th e plants

are scheduled to start up in 2009/2010.51

Figure 5. Ethylene as a platform chemical.

Ethylene (100%)

Polymerization

Ethylene oxideproduction

Ethylbenzeneproduction

Ethylene dichloride(EDC) production

Ethylene glycolproduction

Styreneproduction

Meltpolymerization

Polyurethaneproduction

LDPE, LLDPE,HDPE

EDC

VCM

Polymerization

PVC

Styrene

EPS, HIPS,GPPS

SAN, ABS

Ethylbenzene Ethylene oxide

Ethylene glycol

PET

Terephthalicacid

PUR

Polymeri-zation

Polymeri-zation

58% 13% 7% 13%

Others

9%

Note: percentages showed in the graph are on weight basis, according to globalethylene consumption in 200443.

Vinyl chloridemonomer (VCM)

production

Table 7. Market segments in Western Europe (figures in % for 2005) for HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE.21

Market segment HDPE LDPE LLDPEFilms 18% 74% 82%

Blow moulding small parts 19% 1% 5%

Blow moulding large parts 12%

Pipes and extruded products 19% 4% 3%

Extruded coating 11% 1%

Caps and closures 4%

Petro tanks 3%

Injection moulded parts 14%* 4% 5%

Cable 4% 3%

Textiles 3%

Other 8% 2% 1%

Total: 12.7 (Mt) 5.2 (Mt) 4.3 (Mt) 3.1 (Mt)

*Excluding injection moulded HDPE caps, closures and petro tanks.

Th e conventional, petrochemical process to produce ECH

is the chlorohydrination of allyl chloride, which in turn is

produced by propylene chlorination. Until recently, ECH

was also used to produce glycerol. However, in the past



Production of biobased ECH from glycerol

In biodiesel production, glycerol is obtained as a byproduct

of the transesterifi cation of crude vegetable oil. For example,

in palm oil biodiesel production, approximately 10 kg of

glycerol is obtained for every 100 kg biodiesel.52 According to

Solvay’s patent,53 glycerol reacts with HCl at a temperature of

80–120 oC. Th e reaction is carried out with catalysts such as

hexanedioic acid. Th e output of the reaction is a pseudoazeo-

tropic mixture, containing 1,3-dichloropropanol, HCl and

water. Th rough either steam stripping or distillation, HCl

and water are separated from 1,3-dichloropropanol, which

is then further purifi ed and dehydrochlorinated into ECH

(Fig. 6). Solvay claims that this process leads to fewer byprod-

ucts and lower water consumption.

Partially biobased epoxy resin in the future

For every 100 kg LER, approximately 30 kg ECH and 80 kg

bisphenol A are required based on the reaction stoichiometry.

Since bisphenol A is petrochemically derived, the share of

the biobased component in LER is approximately 30 wt-%.

Th e global consumption of epoxy resins was estimated at

1.15 Mt for the year 2000,24 of which LER accounted for 860

kt (76%). If all these LER were obtained from biobased ECH,

260 kt per year of biobased ECH would be required (860 kt ×

30 kg ECH/100 kg LER). It is likely that a substantial part of

demand for ECH in 2010 can be covered by the biobased ECH

capacities announced by Dow (150 kt) and Solvay (110 kt).

Applications of epoxy resin

Epoxy resins are primarily used for protective coatings and

in electrical and structural applications. Biobased LER is

chemically identical with petrochemical LER and therefore

there are no diff erences regarding applications.

Conclusions

Th e historical use of natural products for plastics production

demonstrates that biobased products are neither fi ctional

nor new. Instead, for many decades, biobased products have

been an industrial reality on a million-tonne scale (e.g.,

paper and board). Today, the combined volume of non-food

and non-plastics applications of starch and man-made cellu-

lose fi bers is 55 times larger than the total of all emerging

biobased plastics (approx. 20 Mt versus approx. 0.36 Mt in

2007). Th is demonstrates that the production of biobased

products on very large scale is not unprecedented and that

related challenges, for example concerning logistics, can be

mastered. If emerging biobased plastics succeed in following

this example, it is possible that they can substitute their

petrochemical counterparts in large quantities.

Between 2003 and 2007, the annual growth rate of the

emerging biobased plastics was nearly 40%, resulting in a

global capacity of the emerging biobased plastics of 0.36

million tonnes in 2007. Th e global production of biobased

plastics is likely to grow strongly in the next decade and

to reach 2.3 million tonnes in 2013 and 3.5 million tonnes

in 2020. Th e maximum technical substitution potential of

biobased plastics (including man-made fi bers) replacing

their petrochemical counterparts is estimated at 240 million

tonnes, or 90% of the total plastics and fi bers based on the

2007 market demand. Based exclusively on the technical

feasibility (and hence disregarding economic and other

aspects), the growth potential for biobased plastics is hence

enormous.

Of all the emerging biobased plastics, we highlighted

three products –PLA, biobased PE and partially biobased

epoxy resins. PLA is a new polymer. In the past decade,

it has experienced technological breakthroughs that will

allow a wider range of applications. Biobased PE, which was

applied on a large scale in India and Brazil before the 1990s

is now being revisited. Th e economic feasibility of biobased

ethylene opens up enormous opportunities for renewably

sourced ethylene-derived chemicals and plastics in the

future. Th e increasing availability of biobased glycerol from

biodiesel production makes it possible to produce biobased

Figure 6. Conversion of glycerol into epichlorohydrin according to the Solvay EpicerolTM

process.

O

ClH2O

BaseClCH2-CHOH-CH2Cl

HClcatalyst

OHCH2-CHOH-CH2OH

(glycerol) (1,3-dichloropropanol) (epichlorohydrin)



epichlorohydrin. Based on the announced capacity expan-

sions, it is likely that by 2010 a large part of liquid epoxy

resins in the market will be partially renewably sourced.

To conclude, several factors clearly speak for biobased plas-

tics. Th ese are the limited and uncertain supply of fossil fuels

(i.e., oil and gas), economic viability, environmental consider-

ations (e.g., savings of non-renewable energy and greenhouse

gas abatement), innovation off ering new opportunities (tech-

nical, employment, etc.) and rejuvenation in all steps from

chemical research to the fi nal product and waste manage-

ment. Challenges that need to be successfully addressed in

the next years and decades are the low performance of some

biobased plastics (e.g., thermoplastic starch), their relatively

high cost for production and processing and the need to

minimize agricultural land use and forests, in order to avoid

competition with food production and adverse eff ects on

biodiversity and other environmental impacts.

Acknowledgements

Th e authors thank European Bioplastics (www.

europeanbioplastics.org) and the European Polysaccha-

ride Network of Excellence (EPNOE, www.epnoe.org) who

funded the PRO-BIP 2009 study,2 on which is article is based.

Th e authors also thank Juliane Haufe for her contribution for

the section on biobased PE, Ruud Reichert and Hans van der

Pol from PURAC (the Netherlands), and Erwin Vink from

NatureWorks LLC for their valuable comments.

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Li Shen (MSc)

Li Shen (MSc) is a junior researcher and PhD

candidate at the Department of Science,

Technology and Society (STS), Utrecht Uni-

versity, the Netherlands. Her current research

focuses on the environmental impact assess-

ments of biobased products (mainly fibers

and plastics), as well as recycled products.

Prof. Dr Ernst Worrell

Prof. Dr Ernst Worrell is Professor of Energy,

Materials and the Environment at Utrecht

University, and Director of Energy Use & Ef-

ficiency at Ecofys. He previously worked at

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and

Princeton University. His research focuses on

energy and material efficiency improvement,

as well as waste management.

Dr Martin Patel

Dr Martin Patel is Assistant Professor at

Utrecht University in the Department of Sci-

ence, Technology and Society (STS) where he

is co-ordinating the research cluster ‘Energy

and Materials Demand and Efficiency’. The

cluster has its core expertise in the process

industries and is known for the assessment of

biobased chemicals.

Documents

Present and future development in plastics from biomass