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Prescribing psychotropics

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Page 1: Prescribing psychotropics - 16.10oxleas.nhs.uk/site-media/cms-downloads/Prescribing... · treatment should be continued longer term. • Non‐responders ‐severe or treatment resistant

Prescribing psychotropics

Page 2: Prescribing psychotropics - 16.10oxleas.nhs.uk/site-media/cms-downloads/Prescribing... · treatment should be continued longer term. • Non‐responders ‐severe or treatment resistant

Management of Psychosis in Primary Care

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Learning Outcomes

• Pathophysiology• Mode of action of antipsychotics• Side‐effects• Management of some of the challenges

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• Psychosis – Includes schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder

• 0.7% ‐ 1%• Reduced lifespan – metabolic disorder, suicide, • M:F• Lifelong• Suicide – 15%• Symptoms – +ve, ‐ve – quality of life• Cost >20 bn

Introduction

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Aetiology

• Genetic• Structural• Biochemical• Social – low socioeconomic status, poor housing, social isolation, loss of cultural identity and discrimination

• Environmental• Psychological – stressful life events

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Genetics of Schizophrenia

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A heterogeneous disorder or set of disorders. Often triggered by stress at puberty / early adulthoodBehavioural effects of disordered brain development then become manifest

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Neurodevelopmental structural changes

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Symptoms

• Hallucination• Delusion• Thought disorder

• Social withdrawal• Avolition/Apathy• Blunted affect• Poverty of speech

NegativePositive

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Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Hypoactivity in mesocortical pathway- Negative symptoms- Impaired learning and memory

Hyperactivity in the mesolimbic pathway-Positive symptoms

Normal dopamine activity in nigrostriatal pathway(involved in movement regulation)

Normal dopamine activity in tuberoinfundibularpathway(involved in prolactin regulation

Schizophrenia is associated with impaired dopaminergic neurotransmission in the brain

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Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

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The Dopamine Theory

• DA‐ergic hyperactivity in Mesolimbic forebrain areasD‐amphetamine causes paranoia, delusions & auditory hallucinations at high dosesStimulants can exacerbate psychosisAll typical neuroleptics block D2receptors & alleviate positive symptoms

• Structural changes – limbic forebrain smaller and disorganised

• Risk factors –stress, alcohol, drugs, smoking cannabis

• Reduction in  Mesocortical DA activity is known to be responsible for negative symptoms

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Effects of Dopamine agonism and antagonism

Mesocorticalpathway

Mesolimbic pathway

Nigrostriatal pathway

Dopamine receptor agonism

Increased attention and concentration1

Positive mood1

Euphoria/mania Psychoses

Motor activity2

Dopamine receptor antagonism

Decreased attention and concentration1

Negative mood1 Extrapyramidal symptoms2

1. Nutt DJ et al. J Psychopharmacol 2007;21:461–71; 2. Shiloh R, et al. Atlas of Psychiatric Pharmacotherapy. Second edition. Oxford: Taylor & Francis; 2007.

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More than dopamine!Effects of serotonin agonism and antagonism at main 5HT receptor subtypes in the brain

Effect at receptor

5HT1A 5HT2A 5HT2C

Agonist Anxiolytic effect1,2

Antidepressant effect1,2

Psychosis3

Hallucinations4

Insomnia5

Anxiety2

Satiety3

Antagonist Turns off autoreceptor activity3

Antidepressant effect2,6

Possible antipsychotic effect2,3

Can counteract EPS effect of D2blockade3

Possible increased appetite/weight4

1. Blier P et al. Biol Psychiatry 2003;53(3):193–236; 2. Hardman JG et al. (eds) Goodman and Gillman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. New York: McGraw Hill; 2001; 3. Correll C et al. J Clin Psych 2008; 69 (Suppl 4): 26–36; 4. Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006 Feb;31(2):431–41; 5. Quintin P et al. Encephale 2004;30:583–9; 6. Mann N. Engl J Med 2005;353:1819–34.

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• Serotonergic projections to prefrontal cortex mediate cognitive effects

• Mediates inhibition of DA release from dopaminergic pre‐synaptic neurones

• Second generation antipsychotics  have mixed 5‐HT profiles– Reduced extrapyramidal side profile– Some serotonergic side effects (weight gain‐5HT2C)

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Other receptor activitites affected by antipsychotics and effects

Receptor typeEffect at receptor

NoradrenalineAlpha 1 (α1)

NoradrenalineAlpha 2 (α2)

HistamineH1

AChM1

(central)

AChM2-M4

(peripheral)

Agonism Anxiety1

Anti-depressant1

Memory2

Attention2

Arousal 3

Insomnia3

Arousal4

Memory4

Seizures

Nausea3

Diarrhoea3

Bradycardia5

Antagonism3

Postural hypotensionDizzinessTachycardiaSyncope

Anti-depressantIncreased alertnessIncreased blood pressure

SedationAnxiolyticWeight gain

AmnesiaDecreased cognitionDry mouthAnti-EPS

Blurred visionConstipationUrinary retentionTachycardiaHypertension

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Antipsychotics

dopaminedopamine

5HT2

Typical pharmacology

Atypical pharmacology

Partial agonist

dopamine

HaloperidolZuclopenthixolFlupenthixolSulpiride

Clozapine AmisulprideOlanzapine LurasidoneQuetiapineRisperidone

Aripiprazole

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First-generation (“typical”) AP Side Effect Profiles

DrugUsual daily dose

Sedation Movement problems

Weight gain

Anticho-linergic

Sexual problems

Chlorpromazine 75-300mg • • • • • • • • • • • •Haloperidol 5-20mg • • • • • • • • • •Levomepromazine 100-200mg • • • • • • • • • • • •Pericyazine

5-20mg • • • • • • • • • • • •Perphenazine 12-24mg • • • • • • • • • • •Sulpiride 400-

1,600mg • • • • • • • • •Trifluoperazine 5-15mg • • • • • • • • • •

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Second-generation (“atypical”) AP Side Effect Profiles

Drug Usual daily dose

Sedation Movement problems

Weight gain

Anticholinergic

Sexual problems

Amisulpride(Solian®)

400-800mg • • • • • • • • •Aripiprazole(Abilify®)

15-30mg • • † † †Clozapine(Clozaril®, Denzapine®, Zaponex®)

Usually300-600mg

• • • • • • • • • • •Olanzapine(Zyprexa®)

10-20mg • • • • • • • • •Paliperidone(Invega®)

6mg • • • • • • • •Risperidone (Risperdal®)

4-6mg • • • • • • • •Quetiapine(Seroquel®)

Around 600mg • • • • • • • •

Zotepine(Zoleptil®)

Up to 300mg • • • • • • • • • • •

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19 November, 2019

NICE CG187 guidancePrimary care

20

• Referral from primary care 

• Monitoring and follow up

• Promote wellbeing and relapse prevention

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Management of Challenges in Clinical Practice

Non‐adherence Shared decision, Reasons explored, Depot, Psychological intervention, Increased follow up, CBT

Physical monitoring(Intervention – smoking, diabetes, obesity, lipids)

Q‐RISKYearly – ECG, Lipids, Weight, BP, Pulse, HbA1c, 

Side‐effect:  GASS, clozapineGASS

Weight gain & Metabolic disorder

Diet & exercise, CBT

Movement disorders Dose adjustment, procyclidine, second generation AP

Sexual dysfunction Prolactin level, management of mental condition

Sedation Dose adjustment and time of administration

Constipation Laxatives prophylaxis, diet and lifestyle

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19 November, 2019

Management of Challenges in Clinical Practice

22

Information PILs

Off label prescribing Information, discussion, consent, documentation

Interaction:

Smoking Smoking cessation, monitoring

Other medication ‐ carbamazepine Avoid with clozapine, dose adjustment

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Management of Depression in Primary Care

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Introduction

• Increasing prevalence• High risk of mortality• 21% suicide rate• F>M• Social, economic, ethnic factors

• Associated with increased comorbidity of psychiatric and medical conditions

• Worsens outcome of general medical conditions

Morbidity/mortality post‐myocardial infarction Risk of mortality in nursing home patients Morbidity post‐stroke May worsen outcomes in cancer and HIV

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Pathophysiology

• Genetic – altered    neurotransmitter and receptor activity in response to triggers.

• The two hypothesis are high level of cortisol and functional deficit of noradrenaline, serotonin, GABA and dopamine  transmission in the central nervous system.

• Structural brain changes have been noted in severe depression: ventricular enlargement; reduced grey matter in left hippocampus, basal ganglia and thalamus.

Risk Factors:

• Family history, early life adverse experience, life events such as divorce, pregnancy, physical conditions e.g. Diabetes, CVD, other mental condition, changes in sleep patter, social isolation, abuse, medication e.g. isotretinoin, alcohol, personality traits, social circumstances. 

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Present in many mental and physical processes:

• Anxiety• Pain perception• Vasoconstriction• Urethral sphincter contraction• Bladder wall relaxation• Gastrointestinal motility• Pilomotor contraction

Role of Serotonin and Noradrenaline in Mental & Physical Processes

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19 November, 2019

Symptom classification for depression –more than feeling sad!

27

Emotional Symptoms

Cognitive Symptoms

Behavioural Symptoms

Physical Symptoms

Low Mood

Guilt

Worthlessness

Suicidal Thoughts, Ideas or Actions

Reduced Confidence

Reduced Attention

Reduced Concentration

Anhedonia

Tearfulness

Irritability

Anxiety

Social Withdrawal

Low Energy

Reduced Sleep

Reduced Appetite

Reduced Libido

Painful Symptoms

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19 November, 2019

Diagnosis

28

• NICE recommends PHQ‐9, BDl‐ll, HADS when examining mental state through observation and direct questioning, against the DSM‐5 or ICD11 criteria. Five or more of these symptoms must have been present during the same two‐week period and represent a change from previous functioning. 

• Differential diagnosis such as hypothyroidism, low folate as well as other prescribed medication e.g steroids should be considered, investigated and managed. 

• The severity of the depression is based on the number of symptoms the patient has in addition to the two core symptoms of low mood and lack of interest or enjoyment as well as loss of daily living functions

Symptoms:

• A:    Depressed mood present most of day and almost every day

• B:   Loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities

• C:  Decreased energy or increased fatigability

• D:  Loss of confidence or self‐esteem• E:   Unreasonable feelings of guilt• F:   Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide

• G:  Complaints of diminished ability to think or concentrate

• H:  Change in psychomotor activity, with agitation or retardation

• I:    Sleep disturbance• J:   Change in appetite

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19 November, 2019

NICE CG90 Depression

29

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19 November, 2019

Management: 

30

Treatment AimThe aim of treatment is to eliminate symptoms, improve functioning and prevent risk of suicide (mortality). 

• Recover• Remission• Response 

• Pharmacological• Psychological• Lifestyle/Social/Environmental

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19 November, 2019

Antidepressants

31

• Mechanism of action – increased level of serotonin and noradrenaline in the synaptic cleft.

• Cipriani 2018 – meta analysis – double blind RCTs – all antidepressants are equally effective v placebo.

• Up to 60‐70% respond to antidepressants at first trial, the remaining 25% with treatment failures require a switch to an alternative agent, optimisation of medication therapy or  combination of psychological intervention.

• Antidepressants are licensed, recommended and effective in moderate to severe depression.

• Choice of antidepressant is guided by anticipated safety and tolerability, presenting symptoms (e.g in lack of energy – non‐sedative antidepressant), history of prior treatment, patients preference and prescriber experience. It also depends on patient factors: age, comorbid physical illness, pregnancy, breastfeeding, risk of suicide.

• In treatment resistant depression, augmentation strategies such as addition of another antidepressant, lithium, triiodothyronine, quetiapine have shown to be beneficial (NOT in Primary Care).

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19 November, 2019 32

Antidepressant Mode of Action Side‐effect

SSRI (sertraline, citalopram, escitalopram, fluoxetine, paroxetine) is recommended as first choice  due to a more favourable tolerability profile. 

Increase level of serotonin in the synapse by blocking the pre‐synaptic reuptake of serotonin 

Side‐effects ‐ initial increase in anxiety, nausea and vomiting , headaches , sexual dysfunction not exclusive to SSRI’s but may be more prevalent , occasional movement disorders, risk of gastric bleeding Side‐effects  can be managed by starting  low and increasing the  gradually to a minimum effective dose; switching to an alternative; or use of medication, e.ggastric bleed  with a proton pump

SNRI (venlafaxine, duloxetine) Increase the level of serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine by blocking the reuptake Inhibitor 

Side‐effects – similar to SSRI, but more pronounced.

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19 November, 2019 33

Antidepressant Mode of Action Side‐effect

NaSSa (Mirtazapine) Noradrenaline and specific serotonin antidepressant.  Increases serotonin and noradrenaline transmission by blocking alpha2 adrenoreceptor

Side‐effects ‐ sedation, dry mouth, weightgain,

TCA (amitriptyline, Imipramine, lofepramine, clomipramine

Inhibit reuptake of nor‐adrenaline and serotonin from the synaptic cleft into the pre‐synaptic neurone, increasing the availability and enhances noradrenergic and serotonergic transmission

Dry mouth, sedation, constipation.

Should be avoided in suicide risk 

Caution in cardiac disease and epilepsy.

Vortioxetine Inhibits the re‐uptake of serotonin 

Abnormal dreams, constipation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, dizziness

MAOI (phenelzine, moclobemide) Inhibition of monoamine oxydase, a major metabolising enzyme

Postural hypotension, dizziness, agitation, elevated liver enzymes

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Mechanism of action:

34

All antidepressants increase availability of serotonin or noradrenaline in the synaptic cleft

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19 November, 2019

Side‐effects of Antidepressants

35

Seda

tion

Insomnia

Parado

xical 

anxiety

Heada

che

Nau

sea

Anticho

linergic 

effects

Cardiac 

cond

uctio

n

Hypoten

sion

Falls in

 older 

adults

Drug

Weight g

ain

Gastrointestin

al 

bleed

Lethality

 in 

overdo

se

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Citalopram – – – – ++ – + – +++ +++ – ++ +

Escitalopram – – – – ++ – + – +++ +++ – ++ +Fluoxetine – – + – ++ – – – +++ +++ – ++ –Paroxetine + + + + ++ + – – +++ +++ + +++ –Sertraline – + + ++ ++ – – – +++ +++ – +++ –

Tricyclic antidepressants

Amitriptyline +++ – – – + +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ + +++Clomipramine ++ + + – ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ +++ + +++ ++Nortriptyline + + + – + + ++ ++ ++ + – – +++

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19 November, 2019 36

Seda

tion

Insomnia

Parado

xical 

anxiety

Heada

che

Nau

sea

Anticho

linergic 

effects

Cardiac 

cond

uctio

n

Hypoten

sion

Falls in

 older 

adults

Drug

Weight g

ain

Gastrointestin

al 

bleed

Lethality

 in 

overdo

se

Serotonin‐norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Duloxetine – + – – ++ – – – ++ ++ – + ++Venlafaxine – + + + +++ – + + ++ +++ + + ++

Other

Mirtazapine +++ – – – + + – + ++ – ++ + +Trazodone +++ – – – + + + + ++ + + +++ +Bupropion – ++ – – + + – – + – – – ++

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19 November, 2019

Management of Challenges in Practice

37

• Starting antidepressant ‐ It usually takes 1‐2 weeks to achieve a therapeutic response, therefore patients should be reassured, advised to persevere with treatment and report any worsening symptoms or side‐effects.  Some may need management of severe agitation with a low dose  short‐term use of  benzodiazepine.

• Adverse drug reaction. 

• The risk of suicide associated with antidepressants may be increased in those below age 25 years, patients should be warned of this risk during the early weeks of treatment and advised to seek support.   

• Continuation and prevention of relapse ‐ NICE recommends continuation of medication for 6‐9 months after resolution of symptoms, to prevent a relapse. In patients with recurrent depression treatment should be continued longer term. 

• Non‐responders ‐ severe or treatment resistant cases referred to secondary care which often require hospital admission, adherence, review diagnosis.

• Switching – consider half life, cross taper, washout period.

• Stopping/discontinuation syndrome/deprescribing – hyperbolic dose withdrawal.

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Management of Bipolar Disorder in Primary Care

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19 November, 2019

Learning Outcome

39

• Pathophysiology of Bipolar disorder• Symptoms and clinical presentation• Recognition in Primary Care• Medication Management – mode of action, SE, monitoring• Management of some of the challenges 

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19 November, 2019

Introduction

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• Common, chronic, recurrent, disabling, complex condition, characterised     by extreme changes in level of mood and energy.

• Manifests as episodes of mania or hypomania (a mild form of mania) and depression or euthymia (stable mood).

• 1.4 %• M:F = 1:1• Average age of onset is 21 years • 10‐15% suicide rate

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Pathophysiology

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• Structural brain changes ‐Enlarged ventricles reported , Enlarged amygdala

• Family members of individuals with bipolar disorder have 5‐10 times increased risk of developing the illness, which is usually precipitated by psychosocial factors such as stress or major negative life events. 

• Neuro‐hormonal and monoamine neurotransmission abnormalities with raised levels of dopamine, glutamate, noradrenaline, serotonin and low level of GABA implicated. 

• Other  e.g. organic brain disease, and medication such as corticosteroids, stimulants, antidepressants are well known for causing mania, hypomania or depression

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Symptoms & Clinical presentation

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Symptoms of Mania Symptoms of Hypomania Depression

Elation, unfounded excessive cheerfulness, optimism and irritability or outbursts of anger 

Increased energy and psychomotor activity‐ rapid, loud speech, reduced sleep

Increased sexual desires, disinhibition

Expansive over valued ideas

Flight of ideas

Grandiose delusions

Poor judgement

Other delusions e.g. Persecutory

Less severe form of mania,without significant disruptionto functioning

No features of psychosis

Persistent low mood

Loss of interest

Low energy

Disturbed sleep

Poor memory or concentration

Suicidal thoughts

Agitation

More severe, frequent, shorter in duration compared to unipolar depression

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Diagnosis

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• ICD11 classificationSymptoms for at least one weekSevere enough to disrupt  ordinary work and social lifeMood change with increased energyPressure of speechGrandiosityExcessive optimism• Schizophrenia / Schizoaffective disorder• Acute stages mania resemble schizophrenia• Both disorders can involve psychotic symptoms• Psychotic symptoms in mania are usually less stable, mood congruent and auditory hallucinations are likely to be second person

• Substance misuse• Stimulant drugs, e.g. cocaine, khat, ecstasy or amphetamines, can produce mania‐like symptoms

• Symptoms will resolve within a week of drug withdrawal• Urine screening may be useful in diagnosing the presence of illicit substances

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NICE CG185: Bipolar disorderPrimacy care

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NICE CG185; 2014 Secondary care

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• Assessment – baseline physical monitoring, MSE, intensive psychiatric hx, differential diagnosis, substance misuse – ICD11, DSM5

• Physical monitoring

• Medication Management: Acute, maintenance

• Medicine optimisation

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Management

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Aim: Safety, rapid resolution of symptoms

• Acute mania or hypomania – Consider short term benzodiazepine for behavioural disturbance or agitation, e.g. lorazepam

• Stop Antidepressant if taking• Commence antipsychotic medication or optimise current treatment• Acute depression – Optimise mood stabiliser, consider antidepressant short‐term with mood stabiliser

• Maintenance ‐ BAD I – Mood stabiliser, Antipsychotic • Maintenance ‐ BAD ll – Mood stabiliser

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Antipsychotics in Bipolar

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• Olanzapine, Quetiapine, Aripiprazole, Risperidone, Haloperidol.

• Substantial evidence  for the benefit of antipsychotics in mania.

• Some evidence for benefit in maintenance treatment.

• Less confidence in benefit of antipsychotics in depressive phase of illness.

• Some are available as long acting injection (depot).

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Lithium

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• Reduces frequency of mood cycling and smoothens the extreme peaks of mood. 

• Li+ alters Na+ transport.

• Inhibits second messenger systems (G‐proteins) and reduces responsiveness to neurotransmitters.

• Increases glutamate uptake.

• Pharmacokientic parameters: t1/2 = 22 hrs, 0.6‐1mmol, 5‐7 days to reach steady state.

• Brands and formulations are not bioequivalent.

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Lithium toxicity and interaction

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• Lithium clearance exclusively renal

• Body handles Li in the same way as Na

• If patient becomes dehydrated or prescribed diuretic, Li level increases as Na retained

• NSAIDs and ACE inhibitors (ACE I and ACE II e.g. candesartan / irbesartan) increase Li level by reducing renal clearance

If Patient is dehydrated or prescribed diuretic, NSAID or ACE (I or II) then additional blood tests are required

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Lithium – side‐effects

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Common:

• Thirst, polyuria, fine tremor, weight gain?

Rarely:

• Hypothyroidism

Signs of Toxicity:

Blurred Vision, Increasing Vomiting, Confusion, Ataxia, Coarse tremor, Lack of Co‐ordination, Impaired Consciousness

If any of the above toxic signs seen then URGENT BLOOD LEVEL Is necessary

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Valproate

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Pharmacological action• Increase GABA neurotransmission• Enhances synthesis, turnover & release of GABA• Inhibits Ca 2+influx through NMDA receptors• Enhances brain serotonergic function ( ↓ DA function) indirectly via GABA‐ergic means

Common side‐effect:• Gastric, weight gain,

Less Common:• Hair loss, polycystic ovary disease?

Rare:• Hepatic toxicity

• Women of childbearing age, Pregnancy Prevention Programme

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Carbamazepine

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Pharmacological action:

• Inhibitory effects on second messenger systems (as Li+)

• Also inhibits Ca 2+influx through the NMDA & GABA‐B receptors

• Na+channel mediated membrane stabilisation

• Potentiation of α2 adrenoceptors: Reduced release of NAPotent liver enzyme inducer: Changes plasma levels of many co‐administered drugs ‐ interaction

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Lamotrigine

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• Limited evidence in the treatment / prophylaxis of manic episodes.

• Reasonable evidence in prevention of depressive episodes.

• Particularly useful as can avoid need for antidepressants – reduced risk of switching into mania.

• Care needed with initiation – slow dose titration.

• Particular care needed if patient concurrently receiving valproate

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Antidepressants

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• Risk of ‘switching’ patients from depression into mania.

• Nor‐adrenergic antidepressants might induce more switching – SSRI’s thought to pose less risk.

• Cover with antimanic medication.

• Recommended stopping antidepressant therapy in bipolar depression after 8 weeks.

• Lamotrigine might have some benefit in managing bipolar depression.

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Management of Challenges in Practice

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• Management of bipolar depression

‐ Risk of antidepressant drugs ‘switching’ patients into mania‐ Risk possibly greater with nor‐adrenergic antidepressants‐Mood stabiliser cover, short duration, review

• Management of bipolar illness in women of child‐bearing age

‐ Increased risk of relapse in key reproductive stages‐ Valproate, lithium and carbamazepine all pose teratogenic / developmental risks‐ Valproate associated with increased risk of polycystic ovary disease – link with weight gain can not be separated‐ Antipsychotics may be an alternative option

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Management of Challenges in Practice

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• Lithium Monitoring 

• Adherence

• Shared decision, information, CBT, education, long acting injection.

• Stopping treatment.

• Reduce over 4 weeks – 3 months, monitor closely for relapse sign.

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Thank you