Prerevolution conditions:•Absolute monarchy—guarded traditional structure of society and moved too slowly to modernize the economy•Relative decline of France as a world power, which helped shake confidence in French government and institutions•Worldwide population explosion: overcrowding of farmland forced people to leave countryside•Accelerating growth of cities•Overseas exploration and development of international commerce•Beginnings of Industrial revolution•Ferment of intellectual movement called the Enlightenment•Heightening conflict between the monarchy and the aristocracy•Depression of late 18th century exacerbated by Louis’ failure to reform meaningfully•Absolutism: right to levy taxes by royal decree, royal power centralized and strengthened•Great nobles once ruled by duchies/counties by hereditary right•Louis XIV replaced nobles by those appointed by king•After time, he reduced them to ceremonial figures•Power given to the intendants (newly ennobled middle class•Easily removed by king•Under Louis XIV absolutism at its apex, controlled economy, king with supreme power, but weak successors damaged his legacy.

•Louis XV incapable of leading France: damaging wars• War of Polish succession 1733-1735• War of Austrian succession 1740-48• Seven Years War 1756-63

•France gained only Lorraine but incurred heavy debts•France purchased Corsica from Genoa, lost Canada to Britain and Louisiana to Spain, Senegal to Britain and only 2 trading posts left in India•Louis XVI aided the US in revolution but had to fight a global war•Only recovered Senegal and increased debts by 2 billion livres

•1715-1789 population grew by 44% to 26 million•Agricultural economy couldn’t adapt or create new arable land•Some people forced off lands•Migrant workers or even bandits went to the cities•French industry developed too slowly to require this huge influx of labor•King’s advisors continued to believe big population=powerful kingdom•Hence lower taxes for large families—encouraged population growth•New class of merchants, industrial entrepreneurs, lawyers, bankers, brokers, etc created but no power, so bought titles and relinquished business to ape landed aristocracy

•Enlightenment: philosophes appalled at France’s international failures, ineffectiveness of royal government, pernicious influence of Catholic Church, socioeconomic problems

•Written attacks on existing institutions, admiration of foreign administrative practices, especially British government•Attempt to find scientific solution to all human problems•Natural laws for human activities could be discovered—for government, religion, economy and society•Influenced by scientific revolution•Contradiction between Christianity and new ideas—Church opposed Enlightenment•Montesquieu argued that the hereditary noble judges of the parlements had the power to limit the authority of the king because they were heirs of the king’s council of medieval times—interpreters of the unwritten constitution of France• Parlements led fight against reforms of Louis XVI, helped bring in Estates-

General•Voltaire clamored for freedom of religion, expression and press—favored absolute, but enlightened monarchy•Rousseau advocated authoritarian democracy—democracy for but not by the people, based on what was best for the people, determined by an executive body given total power by a social contract with the people. Duty of government was to instill virtue in people. Good of society>rights of individual• Leaders during Terror (1793-4) borrowed from his ideology• Robespierre, Sieyes and Brissot read his work

•Philosophes awakened literate people to need for reform and educated them to think in terms of rational solutions to problems. Created political culture. Clientele of activists in Paris salons, provincial academies and in the Masonic order•American revolution inspired the French—state and federal constitutions published, introduced concept of bill of rights and written constitution. Showed revolution could succeed.

•Society crippled by legal privileges: nobility and clergy; guilds, corporations and business held monopoly in commerce and manufacturing•Clergy: (first estate) Church very wealthy—collected tithe and other taxes by legal right. Owned 15% of the land in France and increased wealth through trading companies, industries, tenements and other profit-making property. Exempt from taxes. Upper Clergy all held titles of nobility as well, held numerous ecclesiastical positions and earned money from these as well. Not hated by peasants, however, particularly revered in rural France. Lower Clergy generally dedicated hardworking and poor—felt money should go to people, eventually sided with the third estate•Nobility: (second estate) 1.5% of population, owned 20% of the land, largely exempt from tax, monopolized high offices in royal administration, judiciary and army. Courts gave special treatment. Enjoyed hunting rights—right to gallop over peasants field. Demanded manorial dues from peasants—long obsolete relic from middle ages. Nobles of sword had once ruled duchies and countries outright but gradually power given to royal appointees—the intendants and parlements. Robe nobles ennobled for administrative or judicial services. Nobles of sword richer but robe nobles (who were also all the judges) in 13 parlements were the leaders of the nobility. They alone could confront the king because royal edicts had to be registerd by the parlements—if courts refused, issued remonstrance to the king, showing opposition to royal tyranny. But the courts upheld noble privilege. •Louis XV had new courts instated (the maupeau courts) but Louis XVI reinstated parlements

•Tax farmers collected taxes from peasants but were corrupt•Taxes: taille on income/property value, three vingtiemes on income, capitation on heads of households, royal corvee, gabelle•Upper bourgeoisie didn’t seek changes in social structure—sought aristocratic status so intent on perpetuating legal privilege. •Industry closely related to agriculture—if one failed so did the other as in 1989—crops failed, so did wine, perfume, silk. Workers laid off at the same time as food shortage and high food prices mounted•City workers most volatile element, especially the unskilled newly arrived workers from the countryside•Average wage bought only 1 4 pound loaf of bread•With no work, hundreds died of hunger and exposure•Hence easily manipulated•The sans-culotte mobs were mainly skilled artisans and shopkeepers •Peasant taxes on using lord’s mills, baking and winepress—the banalites from middle ages revived by new nobles to maximise profits.

•Louis XVI was a good-natured and pious man but was disinterested in in matters of the government. Let other make decisions. Weak, vacillating and easily influenced•Marie Antoinette—frivolous, spent a lot of time, derided for being impotent (unfairly), considered scandalous. Austrian background

•1778 (France enters US Revolution war) to 1787 economic depression•Loss of foreign trade•Unemployment, failure of industries, farmers and workers suffered, prices dropped•Prices climbed in 1787 but signalled impending shortages—bad harvests•1789 grain prices rose 61-71% on average and 150-165% in July—50% unemployed•1788 4 billion livres debt, most of national budget spent on debt servicing•Poor credit made securing loans difficult•Restoration of parlements doomed economic reform from start•King listened to financial advisors (comptrollers-generals) but abandoned them when they were criticized by others•Necker tried to balance budget by cutting costs, installed salaried collectors to gather direct taxes and forced the Farmers General to take smaller cut of indirect taxes. Abolished hundreds of useless offices in royal household, but made enemies by revealing economic expenditure of royal family. Resigned 1781•Calonne tried to make crown appear rich by borrowing heavily and spending lavishly, but by 1786 had to consider taxing nobility and clergy. Paris parlement warned it would oppose action. Calonne bypassed parlements by persuading king to convene assembly of Notables (1787)—144 influential people—proposed abolition of internal tariffs, establishment of state bank, abolition of 3 income taxes and corvee, land tax on all 3 estates. Assembly refused, prompted violent opposition in the parlements. Calonne fled. •Estates-General convened at behest of nobility and clergy—estates traditionally controlled by nobility and upper clergy, outvotedthird estate 2:1

•1788 King exiled whole parlement of Paris and planned to reorganize entire court system, but parlementaires incited public violence. Royal troops forced to restore order and break up rioting but army soon driven to exhaustion as discipline deteriorated. Disorder made tax collection even more difficult and the clergy voted king an insultingly small don gratuit•Finally Estates-General convened 1789, Necker reinstated, parlements restored•Paris parlement voted to maintain status quo of Estates-General—three estates had one vote each—this outraged the public and broke the coalition between liberal and conservative nobles and clergy•Committee of 30 formed which championed 3rd estate—supported doubling it to match sum of 1st and 2nd

•King agreed but said nothing about voting process—doubling meant nothing if traditional vote, needed vote by head•Neither the king nor the Necker provided expected leadership at the Estates-General meeting—no reform on which deputies could debate/vote (may 1789)•Double talk, stiff ceremony and indifference•Third estate demanded vote by head but 1st and 2nd affirmed tradition—deadlock for six weeks but when Paris delegation arrived, 3rd estate vied for support from the more divided 1st estate, many of whom joined the third.•June 1789—third estate declared E.G. dead, proclaimed national assembly and invited others to join•King was mourning death of eldest son, torn between Necker’s advice to offer concessions and advice of wife and brother to oppose firmly•Announced royal session and locked conference hall.

•National assembly convinced they were to be dissolved by king—convened in the tennis court and vowed not to disband till writing a constitution •In royal session, king announced preservation of EG and didn’t recognize NA—but conceded that deputies meet together and vote by head on tax legislation and equality of taxes, liberty of press and curtailing of hunting rights announced. Too little too late.•NA defied King, King capitulated and ordered 1st and 2nd to join 3rd in NA, but also ordered troops to Paris•July 1789 troops convened in Paris, Necker dismissed (personified reform)—agitators had a field day, troops sent to disperse mob but crowd proved stubborn and some of the French Guards joined the mob•Troops were disorganized and had poor leadership•Formation of citizens’ militia—National Guard•14th July 1789 mob 80, 000 strong, appropriated 30,000 muskets from Invalides but no gun powder and shot. Marched to Bastille. Bastille represented fall of despotism and tyranny•King restored Necker and ordered troops back to garrisons, ostensibly showed support for revolution (sported the tricolor)•Great Fear: July-Aug 1789—Local authorities replaced king’s officers, royal intendants abdicated, parlements dissolved, tax collectors disappeared, all cities created national guard•Revolutionary violence exploded all over countryside—bread shortages due to bad harvest in 1788—peasants marched on chateaux and abbeys, demanding abolition of feudal dues, burning feudal records, carriages of aristocrats attacked, robbed, murdered, grainware houses and bakeries attacked

•Rumors that foreign troops were being dispatched to France by the emigres, and brigands paid by the aristocrats were approaching to burn villages and destroy crops•Period of terror of unseen enemies, not so much bloody peasant revolution, but appeared so•August decrees—manorial dues of small value (e.g. the banalites) abolished without indemnities, tithes abolished but to be continued til government could devise other means of revenue. Peasants ignored this and stopped paying signeurial dues and tithe•King withheld signature until october when mob violence changed his mind•Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen—preamble to constitution—freedom of press, equal taxation, equality of rights, liberty, property, security, protection from oppression, no arbitrary arrest, freedom of religion and speech•Factions in NA regarding legislative assembly and constitution:• Monarchiens wanted constitution on English model, king with absolute

veto power, bicameral legislature with elected lower house and upper house of peers selected by the King from nobility and commoners of merit to moderate capriciousness of the masses. Marat branded these as aristocratic counterrevolutionaries in L’ami de peuple

• Constitutionnels wanted 1 house legislature, limited or no veto for king—prevailed. Partial veto for king—could suspend legislature for 3-6 years. King took offense, divine right of rule seemed to be removed. Began calling in troops again to Versailles—the Flanders regiment—insulted the revolution and trampled the tricolor. News reached Paris.

•Oct. 1789 women marched to Versailles, joined by others, smashed shop windows, taking what they wanted, seized carriages, national guards’ caissons and other means of transport.

•Louis agreed to sign bill of rights and veto bill. Forced to go to Paris with the people. King and national assembly prisoners of Paris, but people still friendly to the King•Defacto constitutional monarchy created. Daily expenses of the government created more debt, adding to original >4 billion, especially because of abolition of the salt, tobacco and corvee taxes without replacement. Expenditure>revenue•Solution was to confiscate church property in nov 1789•Paper money (assignats) issued to sell property—government creditors paid in assignats. Not spent as intended—spent at discount so lost face value. In 1790, assignats began to circulate as money and not just bonds, but value fell in front of coins. Too many assignats issued, watered down their value. Spectators bought assignats at discounted prices. Repudiated in 1796, complicated fiscal crisis. •Nationalization of church property led to lower class property owners•July 1790 Civil constitution of the Clergy•Reluctantly signed by king, restructuring of the church—higher salaries for lower priests, lower salaries for bishops. Multiple office holdings prohibited. Popular election of clergy and loyalty oath demanded. Bishops furious, even lower priests apprehensive—many of NA were atheists/deists, feared that doctrine might be attacked. Separation of Church and State, spiritual authority of Pope revoked. Clergy had to swear allegiance to king and constitution. Number of bishops reduced to 83 for the 83 administrative departments created by NA. Struck blow at aristocracy’s monopoly of high positions because now bishops had to be elected by departmental electors. Abolition of monastic orders. Many of clerical deputies opposed this move, as catholics, recognized authority of Pope. •Ecclesiasts offended by provision of election by general population—those choosing church officials could be Jews, Protestants or even atheists

•NA decreed toleration and civil rights for protestants and Jews. Refused motion to proclaim catholic faith as state religion—majority of priests in NA now sided with bishops •Decreed that clerics had to take oath or lose position to ensure patriotisme of clergy, but only 7 bishops took oath and 50% of priests refused. Pope disapproved (lost 300,000 francs per year from properties in France), so loyalty to pope>loyalty to government for these clergy. Pope was displeased by decleration of rights—seemed to put all religion on equal footing. Publicly announced opposition in 1791, said priests who took oath to government would be excommunicated. Also encouraged European sovereigns to rescue Louis—revolution would destroy monarchy and religion, the pillars of European civilization•Religious schizm throughout predominantly catholic france, non-juror priests/cures continued administering sacraments.•NA announced freedom of worship, but in towns and cities zealot patriots impeded non-jurors and non-jurors impeded constitutional clergy in rural areas. In 1791-92 pope grew more vocal against revolution, so NA began to legalize greater penalties for refractory non-jurors.

•Constitution of 1791: departmental administrative system and matching uniform court system. 83 departments, divided into districts, cantons and communes (municipalities). Department officials elected indirectly by eligible citizens of districts. Cantons were voting divisions of districts created for convenience. New judiciary created to replace mess of royal courts. Judicial power completely independent of legislative and executive powers, exercised by popularly elected judges with 6 year terms. King represented by procurator, who could address court but not participate in decisions.

•Justice democratized but still in name of the king, but constitution cut into king’s administrative and judicial powers.•Flight to Varennes June 1791—king tried to flee paris and left behind manifesto denouncing the constitution. Planned to escape to Austrian border, declare constitution and NA and nationalization of church property void, charge with hopefully loyal northern france troops and help of Leopold II of Austria to regain kingdom•But caught in Varennes—national guard of Paris brought him back, NA fabricated kidnapping story—wanted constitutional monarchy and thought france not ready to become republic yet—but truth couldn’t be suppressed; king’s support for revolution a sham.•King imprisoned in tuilleries, paris, constantly under public scrutiny, budget of 8 million livres/year. •People marched with petition to depose king, but wanted to replace him with a suitable candidate•Factions in the NA—constitutional monarchy with Louis or someone else, or republic?•50,000 workers marked on Champ de Mars to sign truly republican petition calling for abdication of Louis and organization of new executive power. NA wanted to maintain order, sent national guard to disperse crowds. Some killed, but republican movement suppressed—200 radicals arrested, republican newspapers and clubs shut down temporarily•New version of 1791 Constitution—if king fled country and didn’t return for more than 2 months, considered abdicated. If led army against France, would be tried for treason•Unicameral legislative assembly, not summoned or dissolved by king, but he could prolong sessions. LA would have total authority over taxation, no royal sanction required, veto could be overridden.

•King still head of army, navy and foreign affairs but couldn’t act without legislative consent. •All men over 25 could vote, but only active citizens (paid direct tax >3 francs annually) who elected district electors who chose department electors who voted for deputies to the legislative assembly. 4.3 million active citizens—quite democratic, but some thought it was violation of declaration of rights. LA had no members from constituent assembly—all new, young, members, fewer clergy and nobles•August 1791 Declaration of pillnitz—Leopold II and Frederick William II asserted restoration of powers was in the interest of all european powers, but would not act till all powers agreed—nevertheless, alarmed legislative assembly. •Emigres collecting in small states of rhineland, opposed revolution•LA ordered emigres to return or be guilty of treason, punishable by death•Persistant rumors of rulers’ conspiracy with emigres and foreign powers. Girondins convinced LA that France was in mortal danger. March 1792 king replaced ministers with Girondins to please majority. King persuaded to declare war. Robespierre and Marat against war because they feared foreign armies would destroy the revolution•Girondins wanted war because they thought France would lost initially, resulting in overthrow of monarchy and establishment of republic ruled by them. Royalists and constitutional monarchists wanted war to show strength of constitutional monarchy. Royalists felt if they lost, victorious european monarchs would end revolution and restore Louis anyway. •French army in shambles—emigres created acute shortage of qualified officers. Nobles had been replaced by non-commissioned officers and civilians but lacked training, habit of command and leadership. Revolutionary spirit was hardly conducive to discipline

•Enemies of the Girondins accused them of mismanaging war effort, Girondins tried to order 20,000 national guard to Paris to defend capital—Louis vetoed, June 1792 dismissed Girondins. 1 week later, civilian mobs of sans-coulottes stormed hall of LA and marched on tuilleries. No harm done, but Girondins scared—abandoned idea of overthrow of monarchy—if king went down, so would they. Secretly negotiated for reinstatement in royal ministry•Despite veto, national guard from all over france arrived in Paris June 1792, singing Marseillaise. But troops were won over by Jacobins, petitioned for supsension of king. •July 1792—Brunswick manifesto (Prussian army)—if any harm done to royal family, retributions would follow. Aroused anger toward royal family, 47/48 sections petitioned for Louis’s dismissal. LA (led by Girondins) condemned resolution of sections.•August 10th 1792, mob marched on tuilleries, sans-culottes and federes, but king not there—with LA and Girondins. 900 swiss guards defending palace were swept aside as palace was sacked.•Central committee of the sections, which called itself the insurrectionary commune and then the Paris Commune forced LA to suspend king and confine him and his family in the Temple (medieval fortress), also to order election by universal manhood suffrage of national convention to write new Republican constitution•Until convention could be convened, LA appointed provisional executive council with 6 ministers to head government•Girondin majority, but real power held by Paris commune, especially the Danton faction—Danton called for 30,000 parisian volunteers to meet the enemy, also initiated nighttime domiciliary visits—house searches for traitors and weapons, leading to arrests and extreme overcrowding of jails

•September 1792 news of imminent prussian defeat of Verdun, last fortress defending Paris. Radical newspapers had been spreading fear that the prison population was planning a breakout to help the Prussians, so to foil ‘royalist plot’ radicals counselled people to fall upon the prisoners and kill them—September massacre, sacking of prisons, applauded by the Paris Commune. 1200 died (50% of prisoners) killings looked upon as revolutionary justice in purest form•News of Prussian defeat in Valmy arrived•Sept 21 1792, Nationoal convention abolished monarchy—french Republic. Almost ½ of deputies less than 40 years old, but politically experienced. Largely middle class. Faced tremendous challenges—republican constitution to be written, war to be won, Louis question, feed the country, curb Paris commune and suppress domestic opposition to the Revolution. •But the body was plagued by factionalism that upstaged the issues: • Leftist Jacobins—sought support of Paris, willing to offer certain amount of

economic regulation in order to maintain alliance with city, denounced federalism as source of disunity and as a counter-revolutionary threat to indivisible general will. Promoted powerful central government and determined to drive revolution forward till a perfect republic of virtue was achieved. Saw people as sovereign but in need of instruction in republican virtue. Force people to be free till they could share Jacobin vision—Robespierre, Danton and Marat

• Centre (the plain)—majority, could swing vote to either side• Right Conservatives/moderate liberals—girondins, represented legality

and the provinces, favored leniency towards king, opposed sans-culotte demands for paternal economic regulation, supported federalism or decentralization, combatted powerful government in Paris

•Special committee concluded that king should be tried by convention and their verdict need not be ratified by public. Later in Nov 1792, found stash of private letters in tuilleries that confirmed Louis had been enemy to revolution from years back•Convention almost unanimously found king guilty of treason, guillotined Jan 1793•Girondins had wanted fair trial for king and plebiscite on punishment for king—seen as counter-revolutionary. Defeats on battlefield also attributed to them. •April 1793, Gen. Dumouriez defected to Austrians—supported charge of treason. •Rapidly rising food prices, but Girondins opposed setting price ceilings on foodstuffs—people bitter, Girondins publicly castigated sans-cullottes in convention and threatened those who wished to out the Girondins with annihilation by forces of girondin supporters in provinces if any girondin was harmed•June 1793 80,000 parisians, including national guard with cannons, surrounded convention and demanded arrest of some Girondin deputies and 2 G ministers. Convention complied, Girondin leaders later guillotined. Demise added to anti-Parisian sentiments in provinces and demonstrated that representative government in France existed in name only. •July 1793—reign of Jacobins. Peasant revolt in Vendee at its height, several major provincial cities rebelled against central government, foreign armies threatened frontiers. Paris was volatile with riots demanding radical/socialist legislation. Marat killed by young woman from Provence, threw parisians into frenzy of paranoia•The Committee of Public safety (est. april 1793 to serve as executive organ of gov) reshaped in July 1793 under Robespierre, who took more vigorous action in August against internal and external enemies, but sections in Paris still dissatisfied. Demanded regulation of prices and more spirited pogrom of suspects. Convention complied, Sept 1793: terror is the order of the day

•Terror defined as reaction to la patrie en danger, with invading foreign armies, peasant rebellion in vendee, federalist revolts of provincial cities. But most victims were alleged traitors executed after “emergency” over•Terror was a manifestation of a revolutionary ideology that demanded destruction of all former institutions and values and the enforcement of the deified general will. Attempt to create a republic of virtue•Anti-christian theme directed primarily at roman catholic church—bulwark of ancien regime. Most of convention anti-clerical, but disagreed on replacement of church: atheism vs deism. •Terror partly a matter of responding to bloodthirsty sans-coulottes, but also an impassioned desire to destroy omnipresent enemies of the revolution. Extreme political correctness, with anyone not in agreement killed/arrested•October 1793 new calendar adopted: 12 months, 30 days, 5 remaining for republican virtue celebrations. 3 ten day decades. Months renamed according to weather patterns. Made retroactive to sept 22 1792—first day of year 1 of republic. Break from Christian tradition of BC and AD, time began anew. Christian holidays banned, celebration of revolutionary journees promoted. French people to worship the fatherland instead of god each decadi, not Sunday•Committee of Public Safety: executive arm and chief policy making body•Committee of General Security: rounding up political suspects, tried by revolutionary tribunal•Committee of public instruction: creating and spreading forms and customs of new political culture•To enhance centralized control, representatives on mission (later replaced by national agents) sent out to terrorize countryside

•Constitution formed in 1793 but suspended in October for terror•Robespierre was head of 12 member CPS, Carnot made military reforms, revolutionary army made efficient and victorious•CGS and Rev Tribunal indicted suspects, i.e. traitors deemed danger to la patrie, but also beggars, prostitutes and vagabonds. Likely rich, former nobles or priests. Certificat of civisme issued to good citizens. In Paris alone 2600 guillotined•Robespierre made show of execution of famous people, like queen and many girondins•CPI molded virtuous, republican citizens, national festivals of reason, revolutionary fetes, anti-christian literature, clerics forbidden to teach, church converted to temple of reason, proper address was citoyen not m/mme, people encouraged to change names. New political culture—mania for solidarity•France divided into 41 sections, 2 dept each. 2 deputies sent to each dept to recruit troops, requisition supplies, supervise or purge local authority. Restored order in counterrevolutionary areas. District agents (national agents in Provence) reported directly to CPS. National agents and representatives on mission had uncontrolled and almost limitless powers. •Representatives on mission supervised armees revolutionnaires—bands of Jacobin thugs—terrorized peasants•Domestic opposition—girondins and royalists• Vendee—revolution made life harder for peasants who were highly

religious and monarchists. Food stolen, sons taken for armies, low prices set for grain and produce. March 1793 attacked towns, massacring J officials and National Guard, new J priests. Formed a force 100,000 strong—Royal and Catholic Army, managed to take over Vendee and surrounding provinces by June 1793

•July 1793 Republic sent armies to quash rebellion, republicanized recaptured towns, installing J gov and national guard, executing rebels. Prisons overflowing with priests, girondins and royalists—mass drownings and execution by firing squad and guillotine. Vendee army destroyed by Dec 1793, remnants fought guerrilla style but no longer threat. Jan-May 1794, destruction of Vendee—100,000 killed.•Girondin revolts in 60 depts of France following dismissal in June 1793•Normandy—G supporters took over Caen and arrested 2 J officers. Began creating army to march on Paris but moved too slow—2000 volunteers routed from Norman dept with cannons, area “rehabilitated”•Bordeaux—also easily subdued—no support in countryside just like Normandy, and isolated from other cities in revolt. Rebels should have allied with royalists but refused, turned over to Js instead. 100 prisoners executed•Lyons—erupted May 1793, with J rise to power, local J officer planned to execute 900 Gs, but Gs stormed city hall, captured Js and created new municipal government. Lyons rebels accepted royalist aid in defending city. Army of republic laid siege, city fell Oct 1793, city destroyed, renamed ville-affranchie, prisoners executed en masse with grapeshot filled cannons•Marseilles—third largest city in country, Js terrorized “suspects” and forced loans from merchants, revolted april 1793, expelled deputies on mission, formed G gov and rebelled against national government. National army took Marseilles Aug 1793, 200 executed, town renamed ville sans nom, became base for recapture of toulon•Toulon-Gs and royalists aided by refugees from Marseilles, defended toulon against terrorist government, rebels raised Bourbon flag, recognizing Louis XVII as king, allowed british admiral Hood to enter harbor with british fleet, but after 3 month siege, fell in Dec 1793, British troops defeated by Napoleon. End of federalist revolts.

•External opposition also defeated:• Sept 1793 brits defeated in netherlands• Oct 1793 austrians defeated in netherlands• Dec 1793 prussians defeated at Landau and palatinate• Winter 1793-94 french invaded spain and netherlands• June 1794 Austrians forced to evacuate belgium, bared flank of prussians

in rhineland• March 1795 Prussians made peace• May 1795 conquest of netherlands complete, converted into Batavian

republic• June 1795 spain made peace• Carnot’s work—Aug 1793 levee en masse, single men 18-25 conscripted,

by Jan 1794, army 800,000 largest ever, based on policy of talent>birth• Army helped by strict gov control of economy

•Committee on food forced peasants to declare exact amount of crops, sent inspectors to take inventories of merchant stocks and maintained grainaries in each dept•Committee on industry controlled production, allocation of raw materials and dispersal of products. Shared control over transportation and domestic commerce•CPS oversaw foreign commerce and tariffs•Law of Maximum—controlled prices to insure rations for army, penalty for hoarders and profiteers•New assignats issued, money of poor—merchants had to sell at same price for assignats or coins, compulsory loans levied on the rich•CPS and Robespierre crippled Paris section assemblies, left ultrarevolutionaries (hebertists) and right indulgents (dantonists) March 1794 got rid of extreme left and right from Paris Commune, National Convention and National Guard.

•June 1794 new revolutionary religion: cult of the supreme being, intended to replace all traditional faiths in france. Patriotic indoctrination. Festivals for major days e.g. 14 July, Jan 21 (execution of Louis), etc•Robespierre now president of convention. Peoples’ foremost duty—punishment of tyrants and traitors. •Cult failed to inspire masses. Robespierre’s peers alarmed at his elevated role and creation of cult. Looked more and more like dictator. Peers feared retribution, prosecution and execution•New law of suspects—more arbitrary Revolutionary tribunal—death sentence or acquittal, enemies of people not just subversives and traitors but also anyone deemed “unpatriotic.” but by june 1794, nation was no longer in danger—still executions escalated. •Opposition mounted, especially because Hebert and Danton had been killed. Section leaders reassembled through private societies. Members of the commune even more radical than Robespierre. Provincial J clubs tired of bloodshed, began defecting. In convention, opposition organized by former representatives on mission who feared retribution. Rumors that robespierre planned to put ceiling on wages—unpopular move. Even in CPS, members felt robespierre was too conservative, and Committee of General Security was alarmed by rival police bureau formed under Robespierre. •July 26 1794 Robespierre appeared before Convention and attacked members, especially his own faction claiming they were responsible for extending terror and food shortages, ruining the middle clases, cheating the government and conspiring with foreigners. He had a list of people he would accuse but didn’t read it—no one felt safe, so enemies plotted death•Arrested next day and later executed. Terror over by July 28 1794, cue Thermidorean reaction

•Conservatives took over 1794-1795: dismantled terror, manned committees with their own men, jailed/executed terrorist leaders, repealed terror’s more egalitarian laws and lifted decrees controlling economy, including the law of the maximum•Limited authority of CPS to matters of war and foreign policy, closed Jacobin clubs and dissolved surveillance committees. Revoked law of suspects and released prisoners. Abolished Revolutionary Tribunal. Justice is the order of the day•But justice often meant revenge against terrorists—recalled Gs and named commissions to indict terrorists in Paris and Provence, in the streets, the incroyables terrorized commoners of Paris, also known as Muscadins and Marveilleuses—”guilded youth,” children of rich, flaunted wealth. Insulted, harrassed and beat up sans-culottes and working men, terrorists and those wearing the red liberty cap. Destroyed revolutionary monuments, statues and liberty trees•Reactionary white terror struck provence in 1795, mobs killed Js and imprisoned others. In south, ultraroyalist paramilitary gangs disposed of J sympathizers. Counter Terror subsided as thermidoreans gradually installed new officials.•New royalist uprising in vendee—emigres arrived on brittany coast, headed by comte d’artois. July 1795 émigré expedition to trigger new rebellion in vendee, attack from rhineland by prussians, return of Louis XVIII. Brits decided to support Artois, equip and ferry emigres to France and send British reinforcements. Expedition joined by 15000 peasant guerilla fighters, but leadership lacking and emigres reluctant to fight. Regular French army was twice the size of their army, defeated rebellion which received no help from Prussia and no Louis XVIII arrived. Victory gave thermidoreans unfounded confidence in the French army.

•Horrible winter of 1794-5, economic controls abolished meant people starved, assignats dropped in value—almost 0 by oct. 1795. coin was scarce. Wages became worthless. Though Thermidoreans kept bread at 1 franc/lb, workers couldn’t afford it. Plus shortage of bread—rationing of 1 lb bread/day/family but even that not available. Thermidoreans proponents of free enterprise, villified. •April 1795 Parisians blamed Thermidorean convention for misery—thousands of sans culottes invaded convention, asking for bread and constitution of 1793. •May 1795 angry sections rose again, asking for Js and emergency food committees•Shaken, convention came out with new constitution of year III, designed to keep republic safe from J or royalist hands. •Bourgeois document. Sieyes became leader of new government. Property requirements set so high that only 30,000 qualified as electors, who voted deputies too legislative bodies and dept. officials. Council of elders and council of 500 formed legislative body. Younger initiated legislation, elders accepted or rejected. 1/3 of each house to retire each year, beginning in 1797, replaced by election•Directory (Oct 1795) was the executive branch of 5 men chosen by elders. 1 director to retire yearly after 1796, chairmanship to rotate every 3 months. However, no control over legislation or finance, couldn’t declare war without legislative body. Only power to appoint ministers, ambassadors, military officers. •Flawed constitution—excess of checks and balances, designed to preserve balance of power and prevent dictators. But country used to a strong executive. Directory and legislature continually struggled for power. Both branches wanted all or nothing. Throughout coups d’etat in which executive or legislative body altered by force or threat of force. Also 2/3 decree said 2/3 of new legislators should be ex-members of Thermidorean convention—Parisians enraged, thought Thermidorean conv continued

•Royalists in Paris attracted large following, but couldn’t be elected to new government because of 2/3 decree, so organized sections for attack on government with help from middle classes—monarchy>terror•New government depended on regular army and volunteers headed by Napoleon for defense. Oct 1795 mob arrived at Tuilleries but Bonaparte met them with the whiff of grapeshot—directory took power with help of military•1795-1799: political instability—refused to obey own constitution. Coups d’etat after every election, spring 1797, 1798, two in 1799. Each coup changed composition of legislative and directory•New conspiracy of equals, a communist conspiracy under Babeuf called for redistribution of property, abolition of private property and economic equality. May 1796, conspiracy betrayed by double agent, gov indicted 65 Js and all the ‘equals.’ staged show trials but most acquitted—plot served as excuse to crack down on Js•Most Js wanted broader suffrage and more direct democracy, so the conspiracy show trials only made survival of the republic less likely. J pogrom facilitated royalist victory in 1797 polls. Directory members staged coup d’etat, assisted by one of Napoleon’s generals, purged legislative councils of royalists and exiled carnot and other royalist director. Plotters chose 2 new directors of own liking.•1798 Js won elections. Direcotrs enacted another coup, ejected newly elected Js from councils, replaced one director with non J person•1799 one of the directors presiding over Holland, Switzerland, Northern Italy, Genoa and Rome—policies provoked new European war that went badly for France. Newly elected legislative councils had balance between royalists and J directors. All dismissed, except 1 and replaced by 2 conservatives and 2 Js

•Treaty of Campo Formio Oct. 1797 France-Austria: french annexation of Rhineland and belgium, recognized sister republics of France: batavian (holland), helvetican (switz), cisalpine (n. Italy), Ligurian (genoa) and Roman republics created by Napoleon. Austria compensated by most of venetia minus ionian islands off greece for naval bases.•Napoleon made Directory’s aggressive foreign policy a success•Local republicans in rome staged revolution against pope, directory sent french army, roman republic proclaimed and pope arrested and imprisoned. •Aggressive and expansionist policies incited new coalition against France Dec. 1798•Napoleon planned to attack Britain by invading Egypt to destroy British influence in Middle East, but lost badly and abandoned army to return to Europe where France was again facing defeats•In fact, military had regained advantage in France before Napoleon returned, but popular perception differed and people lost faith in directory•Meanwhile, fearing J resurgence, Sieyes started organizing support for constitutional revision. Needed Napoleon’s help to support coup and ensure success•Nov 1799 Coup de Brumaire. Sieyes and Napoleon tried to convince legislative councils of J threat and need for revisionism but Council of 500 saw through plot—luckily, council headed by napoleon’s brother who saved the day. Troops drove legislators from halls. •New constitution—3 consuls, Napoleon, Sieyes and Ducos temporarily, Napoleon first consul. Constitution of Dec 1799 approved by plebiscite in 1800. Napoleon made 1st Consul, true chief executive. Other two (not Sieyes and Ducos) only advisors. Sieyes and Ducos made senators•Constitution said senate would exist but new members appointed directly/indirectly by Napoleon, with 2 legislative bodies—Corps legislatif and Tribunate