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CHAPTER

5 BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is defi ned as the industrial application of living organisms and their biological processes such as biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, in order to make best use of the microorganisms for the benefi t of mankind.

Different types of biotechnology

Green biotechnology: Green biotechnology is defi ned as the application of biological techniques to plants with the aim of improving the nutritional quality, quantity and production economics. It is done by implanting foreign genes to plant species that is economically important. This contains three main areas: plant tissue culture; plant genetic engineering and plant molecular marker assisted breeding.

Red biotechnology: Red biotechnology is concerned with the discovery and development of innovative drugs and treatments. A key prerequisite was an increasing understanding of how proteins function, their roles in communication between and within cells, and the diseases caused when these proteins malfunction. This includes: Gene Therapy, Stem Cells, Genetic Testing, etc.

White biotechnology: This fi eld of biotechnology is connected with industry. White biotech uses moulds, yeasts, bacteria and enzymes to produce goods and services or parts of products. It offers a wide range of bio-products like detergents, vitamins, antibiotics etc. Most of the white biotech processes results in the saving of water, energy, chemicals and in the reduction of waste compared to traditional methods.

Blue biotechnology: Blue biotechnology is concerned with the application of molecular biological methods to marine and freshwater organisms. It involves the use of these organisms, and their derivatives, for multiple purposes, the most remarkable are the identifi cation process and development of new active ingredients from marine origin.

Yellow biotechnology: Yellow biotechnology’ refers to biotechnology with insects — analogous to the green (plants) and red (animals) biotechnology. Active ingredients or genes in insects are characterized and used for research or application in agriculture and medicine.

Terminologies associated with the biotechnology Cell: The cell is the basic structure of the body. The human body is built of billions and trillions of cells. Each cell contains the hereditary material and can make copies of themselves by reproducing and multiplying. After a specifi c life span the old cells die off. Parts of the cell are called organelles.

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms.

GENE: A gene is a segment of nucleic acid that contains the information necessary to produce a functional product, usually a protein. The genes are made up of a coding alphabet of 4 nucleotides made up of 4 bases:- Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) present in DNA.

Genetic engineering : Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.

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Gene Therapy: This is in a way, genetic engineering of humans, which would allow a person suffering from a disabling genetic disorder to lead a normal life.

Genome Resource Bank: Genome Resource Bank (GRB) is a frozen repository of biological materials, including sperm and embryos, tissue, blood products and DNA. It is going to being used as a conservation tool for protecting and preserving biodiversity.

Human Genome Project: The aim of the Human Genome Project was to identify all the genes (approx.25,000) in human DNA and to determine the sequence of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA. Efforts were made to create databases to store this information and develop tools to do comprehensive data analysis.

Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is an independent discipline which merges the fi eld of molecular biology and computer science. This mainly involves the transformation of biological polymers such as nucleic acids molecules and proteins into sequences of digital symbols. The symbols and their meaning for the protein sequences have also been generated.

Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms for the degradation of hazardous chemicals in soil, sediments, water, or other contaminated materials. It uses naturally occurring bacteria and fungi or plants to degrade or detoxify substances hazardous to human health and/or the environment.

Biosensors: Biosensors are biophysical devices which can detect the presence of specifi c substances e.g. sugars, proteins, hormones, pollutants and a variety of toxins in the environment.

Bioreactors: Bioreactors can be thought of as vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specifi c products, individual enzymes, etc., using microbial plant, animal or human cells.

Bioprospecting is an umbrella term describing the process of discovery and commercialization of new products based in biological resources, typically in less-developed countries. Bioprospecting often draws on indigenous knowledge about uses and characteristics of plants and animals. In this way, bioprospecting includes biopiracy, the exploitative appropriation of indigenous forms of knowledge by commercial actors, as well as the search for previously unknown compounds in organisms that have never been used in traditional medicine.

Biopiracy is a situation where indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous people, is used by others for profi t, without permission from and with little or no compensation or recognition to the indigenous people themselves.

Green consumerism refers to recycling, purchasing and using eco-friendly products that minimize damage to the environment. This involves decisions such as using Energy Start appliances that consume less power, buying hybrid cars that emit less carbon dioxide, using solar and wind power to generate electricity and buying locally grown vegetables and fruits.

A Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) is a very useful tool to capture the health dimensions of the environment including air, water and land. The CEPI is intended to act as an early warning tool and can help in categorising the industrial clusters/areas in terms of priority of planning needs for interventions.

Bioregionalism is a political, cultural, and ecological system or set of views based on naturally defi ned areas called bioregions, similar to ecoregions. Bioregions are defi ned through physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the determination of a bioregion is also a cultural phenomenon, and emphasizes local populations, knowledge, and solutions.

Biomimetic refers to human-made processes, substances, devices, or systems that imitate nature. The art and science of designing and building biomimetic apparatus is also known as biomimicry because they mimic biological systems.

Bioethics: Bioethics is the branch of ethics, philosophy, and social commentary that deals with the biological sciences and its impact on the society.

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Vaccine: A preparation that contains an agent or its components, administered to stimulate an immune response that will protect a person from illness due to that agent. A therapeutic (treatment) vaccine is given after disease has started and is intended to reduce or arrest the progress of the disease. A preventive (prophylactic) vaccine is intended to prevent disease from starting.

Agents used in vaccines may be whole-killed (inactive), live-attenuated (weakened) or artifi cially manufactured. It can be created using the recombinant DNA process.

Vector: A vehicle that carries foreign genes into an organism and inserts them into the organism’s genome. Modifi ed viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy.

Virus: A submicroscopic particle that can infect other organisms. It cannot reproduce on its own but infects an organism’s cell in order to use that cell’s reproductive machinery to create more viruses. It usually consists of a DNA or RNA genome enclosed in a protective protein coat.

Stem cell: A fundamental cell that has the potential to develop into any of the 210 different cell types found in the human body. Human life begins with stem cells, which divide again and again and branch off into special roles, like becoming liver or heart cells. They are an important resource for disease research and for the development of new ways to treat disease.

Amniocentesis: A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of the developing foetus. A fl exible needle is inserted into the mother’s uterus through the abdomen to remove a sample of the fl uid surrounding the fetus (amniotic fl uid). This sample can then be analysed by karyotype to look for changes in the chromosomes. The procedure can be done after 15 weeks of pregnancy. There is a 0.5% risk of miscarriage associated with this procedure, which means one in 200 women will miscarry following this procedure.

Embryonic stem cells: Cells that are removed from the early embryo and are able to become any of the 210 cell types found in the human body. Researchers are looking at the great potential stem cells have in developing new treatments for disease and injury.

Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has application in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

Applications of Biotechnology in Medicine

Biotechnology techniques are used in medicine for diagnosis and treating different diseases. It gives opportunities for the people to protect themselves from dangerous diseases.

The fi eld of Biotechnology, genetic engineering has introduced techniques like gene therapy, recombinant DNA technology and polymerase chain reaction which use genes and DNA molecules to diagnose diseases and insert new and healthy genes in the body which replace the damaged cells.

There are some applications of biotechnology which are playing their part in the fi eld of medicine and giving good results:

Biopharmaceuticals: The drugs are being developed with the use of microorganisms

Medical Biotechnology

DNA fi nger printing

Gene therapy

Biopharmaceuticals like insulin, somatostatin, interferons

Pre-natal diagnosis of inherrited diseases

Pharmaco-genomics

Development of vaccines

Skin grafting

Gene profi ling

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without using any synthetic materials and chemicals. Large molecules of proteins are usually the source of biopharmaceutical drugs. They when targeted in the body attack the hidden mechanisms of the diseases and destroy them without any side effect(s). Now scientists are trying to develop such biopharmaceutical drugs which can be treated against the diseases like hepatitis, cancer and heart diseases.

Gene therapy: It is used in delicacy and diagnoses of diseases like cancer and Parkinson’s. Theapparatus of this technique is that the fi t genes are under attack in the body which either obliterate the injured cells or replace them. In some cases, the fi t genes make corrections in the genetic information and that is how the genes start performance in the favor of the body.

Pharmaco-genomics: Pharmaco-genomics is an additional genetically modifi ed method which is used to learn the genetic information of a personality. It analyzes the body’s reply to sure drugs. It is the mixture of pharmaceuticals and genomics. The aspires of this fi eld is to expand such drugs which are inserted in the person according to the genetic information there in the individual.

Genetic Testing: It is a technique of heredity is used to conclude the genetic diseases in parents, sex and carrier screening. The technique of genetic testing is to use DNA probes which have the sequence alike to the mutated sequences. This technique is also used to recognize the criminals and to test the parenthood of the child.

It is completed that no fi eld of science can be winning until it uses the techniques of biotechnology. Scientists are operational in the research area to expand new drugs and vaccines and are also judgment cures for the diseases which were not easy to treat in the past decade. Biotechnology is a fi eld of miracle.

Gene drives are genetic systems that circumvent traditional rules of sexual reproduction and greatly increase the odds that the drive will be passed on to offspring.

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This enables the spread of specifi ed genetic alterations through targeted wild populations over many generations.

They represent a potentially powerful tool to confront regional or global challenges, including control of invasive species and eradication of insect-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue.

The idea is not new, but Harvard-based researchers have now outlined a technically feasible way to build gene drives that potentially could spread almost any genomic change through populations of sexually reproducing species.

Applications of Biotechnology in AgricultureBiotechnology has played major role in agriculture by altering genes, studying and cloning various crops in order to provide better quality products of foods ultimately improving our lives.

Some of its applications are: Vaccines: Oral vaccines have been in the works for much existence as a likely solution to theincrease of disease in immature countries, where costs are excessive to extensive vaccination. By planning and injecting antigenic proteins into the Genetically Modifi ed crops from transferable pathogens that will activate an immune will be a great help in dealing with such diseases.

An example of this is a patient-specifi c vaccine for treating cancer. An anti-lymphoma vaccine has been made using tobacco plants carrying RNA from cloned malignant B-cells. The resultant protein is then used to vaccinate the patient and boost their immune system beside the cancer. Tailor-made vaccines for cancer treatment have shown substantial promise in preliminary studies.

Antibiotics: Plants are used to create antibiotics for both human and animal use. An expressing antibiotic protein in stock feed, fed straight to animals, is less expensive than traditional antibiotic production.

But, this practice raises many bioethics issues, because the result is widespread, possibly needless use of antibiotics which may encourage expansion of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strain.

Crop cafeteria is the demonstration of identifi ed effi cient crops in an agro-metrological region offering an opportunity to the farmer to choose a suitable crop.

It plays an important role of facilitator in the process of technology transfer among farming communities.

It provides practical experiences based on principle of ‘Seeing believes’ and face to face views along with agriculture experts for disseminating technical know-how to the farmers, rural youths and extension functionaries

Flowers: There is extra to agricultural biotechnology than just hostility disease or civilizing food quality. There is some simply aesthetic application and an example of this is the use of gene recognition and transfer techniques to improve the color, smell, size and other features of fl owers.

Similarly, biotech has been used to make improvement to other common ornamental plants, in particular, shrubs and trees. Some of these changes are similar to those made to crops, such as enhancing cold confrontation of a breed of tropical plant, so it can be grown in northern gardens.

Biofuels: The agricultural industry plays a big role in the biofuels industry, as long as the feedstock’s for fermentation and cleansing of bio-oil, bio-diesel and bio-ethanol is concerned. Genetic engineering and enzyme optimization technique are being used to develop improved quality feed-stocks for more effi cient change and higher BTU outputs of the resulting fuel products.

IN NEWS: Ending Malaria via this technology is a possibility and it is

currently being debated by science community

IN NEWS: Crop cafeteria was made popular by

M.S. Swaminathan who received World

Agricultural Award in 2018.

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High-yielding, energy-dense crops can minimize relative costs associated with harvesting and transportation (per unit of energy derived), resulting in higher value fuel products.

Plant and Animal Reproduction: Enhancing plant and animal behavior by traditional methods likecross-pollination, grafting, and cross-breeding is time-consuming. Biotech advance let for specifi c changes to be made rapidly, on a molecular level through over-expression or removal of genes, or the introduction of foreign genes.

The last is possible using gene expression control mechanism such as specifi c gene promoters and transcription factors. Methods like marker-assisted selection improve the effi ciency of “directed” animal breeding, without the controversy normally associated with GMOs. Gene cloning methods must also address species differences in the genetic code, the presence or absence of introns and post-translational modifi cations such as methylation.

Pesticide Resistant Crops: Not to be mystifi ed with pest-resistance, these plants are broadmindedof pesticides, allow farmers to selectively kill nearby weeds with no harming their crop. The most well-known example of this is the Roundup-Ready technology, urbanized by Monsanto.

First introduced in 1998 as GM soybeans, Roundup-Ready plants are unaffected by the herbicide glyph sate, which can be applied in copious quantity to get rid of any other plants in the fi eld. The profi t to this is savings in time and costs associated with conservative tillage to reduce weeds, or multiple applications of different types of herbicides to selectively eliminate exact species of weeds. The probable drawbacks include all the controversial arguments against GMOs.

Nutrient Supplementation: In an attempt to get better human health, mainly in immature countries, scientists are creating hereditarily distorted foods that hold nutrients known to help fi ght disease or starvation. An example of this is Golden Rice, which contain beta-carotene, the forerunner for Vitamin A manufacture in our bodies. People who eat the rice create more Vitamin A, and necessary nutrient lacking in the diets of the poor in Asian countries.

Three genes, two from daffodils and one from a bacterium, profi cient of catalyzing four biochemical reactions, were cloned into rice to make it “golden”. The name comes from the color of the transgenic grain due to over expression of beta-carotene, which gives carrots their orange color.

A biotic strain confrontation: A lesser quantity of than 20% of the earth is arable land but some crops have been hereditarily altered to make them more liberal of conditions like salinity, cold and drought. The detection of genes in plants in charge for sodium uptake has lead to growth of knock-out plants able to grow in high salt environments. Up- or down-regulation of record is usually the method used to alter drought-tolerance in plants. Corn and rapeseed plants, capable to thrive under lack conditions, are in their fourth year of fi eld trials in California and Colorado, and it is predictable that they’ll reach the marketplace in 4-5 years.

Manufacturing power Fibers: Spider silk is the strongest fi ber known to man, stronger than kevlar (used to make bullet-proof vests), with an advanced tensile power than steel. In August 2000, Canadian company Nexia announces growth of transgenic goats that formed spider silk proteins in their milk. While this solved the trouble of mass-producing the proteins, the agenda was shelve when scientists couldn’t fi gure out how to spin them into fi bers like spiders do.

IN NEWS: The Environment Ministry in September convened a “special meeting” of

the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) to decide on fi eld-trial approvals for the controversial

BtMustard developed by the University of

Delhi’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop

Plants (CGMCP)

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Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is a apex non-statutory body working under the Ministry of Environment and Forests and constituted through the ‘Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989’. These rules were defi ned in Environment Protection Act, 1986Rules defi ned fi ve competent authorities (which are thus non-statutory):

Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSC),

Review Committee of Genetic Manipulation (RCGM),

Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC),

State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC) and

District Level Committee (DLC) for handling of various aspects of the rules.

Application of Biotechnology in Food ProcessingFood processing is a process by which non-palatable and easily perishable raw materials are converted to edible and potable foods and beverages, which have a longer shelf life. The method, by which the microbial organisms and their derivatives are used to increase the edibility and the shelf life of foods, is known as fermentation.

Almost one-third of the diet in the whole world consists of fermented food. Hence the process of fermentation must be carefully monitored especially in rural areas as improper method of fermentation may cause contamination of food thereby, affecting the health of the people. Fermentation is also used in preparing microbial cultures, food additives, preservatives, etc.

Biotechnology has a major application in the food sector. It helps in improving the edibility, texture, and storage of the food; in preventing the attack of the food, mainly dairy, by the virus like bacteriophage; producing antimicrobial effect to destroy the unwanted microorganisms in food that cause toxicity; to prevent the formation of mycotoxins; and degradation of other toxins and anti-nutritional elements present naturally in food.

Biotechnology also plays a very important role in protein engineering. In this, favourable enzymes of the microorganisms, which are responsible for the improved fermentation, are produced commercially at a large scale by culturing the microorganisms in tanks, etc.

Fermented foods have traditionally been known for their better fl avour, texture and nutritional value. Their high nutritional content led an interest in development of more high yielding strains for obtaining better quality products. Most fermented foods are produced by solid state fermentation.

Some examples of fermented foods are cheese, idli , dosa, buttermilk etc. Below are the production processes for some of these fermented foods. The basic processes remain the same for these fermented food production but the temperatures and detailed procedures differ from place to place.

Food fortifi cation or enrichment is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food. Sometimes it’s a purely commercial choice to provide extra nutrients in a food, while other times it is a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary defi ciencies within a population. Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale defi ciency diseases in these cases

Yoghurt: Microorganism: Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus (1:1 ratio).

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Buttermilk: Microoganism: Streptococcus lactis and Streptococcus cremoris, Lecuconostoc cremoris.

Cheese: Microorganism: Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris, Lactobacillus lactis for curd formation Penicillium roquefortii, P. cammebertii for ripening.

Application of Biotechnology in EnvironmentThe use of Biotechnology for solving environmental problems and ecosystem is known as Environmental Biotechnology. It is applied and is used to study the natural environment.

According to the International Society for Environmental Biotechnology the environmental Biotechnology is defi ned as “an environment that helps to develop, effi ciently use and regulate the biological systems and prevent the environment from pollution or from contamination of land, air and water”.

There are fi ve major different types of Applications of Environmental Biotechnology. They are as follows:

Bio-marker: This type of Application of environmental Biotechnology gives response to a chemical that helps to measure the level of damage caused or the exposure of the toxic or the pollution effect caused. In other word, Biomarker can also be called as the Biological markers the major use of this applications helps to relate the connection between the oils and its sources.

Bio-energy: The collective purport of Biogas, biomass, fuels, and hydrogen are called the Bioenergy. The use of this application of Environment Biotechnology is in the industrial, domestic and space sectors. As per the recent need it is concluded that the need of clean energy out of these fuels and alternative ways of fi nding clean energy is the need of the hour. One of the pioneer examples of green energy are the wastes collected from the organic and biomass wastes; these wastes help use to over the pollution issues caused in the environment. The Biomass energy supply has become a prominent importance in every country.

Bioremediation: The process of cleaning up the hazardous substances into non-toxic compounds is called the Bioremediation process. This process is majorly used for any kind of technology clean up that uses the natural microorganisms.

Biotransformation: The changes that take place in the biology of the environment which are changes of the complex compound to simple non-toxic to toxic or the other way round is called the biotransformation process. It is used in the Manufacturing sector where toxic substances are converted to Bi-products.

Benefi ts: The major benefi ts of environmental biotechnology are it helps to keep our environment safe and clean for the use of the future generations. It helps the organisms and the engineers to fi nd useful ways of getting adapted to the changes in the environment and keep the environment clean and green.

The benefi t of environmental biotechnology helps us to avoid the use of hazardous pollutants and wastes that affect the natural resources and the environment. The development of the society should be done in such a way that it helps to protect our environment and also helps us to develop it.

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The environmental biotechnology has a role to play in the removal of the pollutants. It is becoming an advantage for the scientists and the environmentalists to fi nd ways to convert the waste to re-useable products.

The applications of environmental biotechnology are becoming a benefi ting factor for the environment; the applications includes genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics, sequencing and imaging processes are providing large amounts of information and new ways to improvise the environment and protect the environment.

Biotechnology Projects

1,000 Genomes

Project Introduction:

Launched in January 2008 with the goal of developing a comprehensive resource of human genetic variation across worldwide populations.

It was an international research effort to establish by far the most detailed catalogue of human genetic variation.

Scientists planned to sequence the genomes of at least one thousand anonymous participants from a number of different ethnic groups.

It was the fi rst project to sequence the genomes of a large number of people, to provide a comprehensive resource on human genetic variation.

This resource will aid about understanding of the role of genetic variation in human history, evolution and disease

There are two kinds of genetic variants related to disease. Rare genetic variants that have a severe effect predominantly on simple traits (e.g. Cystic fi brosis, Huntington disease).

More common, genetic variants have a mild effect and are thought to be implicated in complex traits (e.g. Cognition, Diabetes, and Heart Disease).

Between these two types of genetic variants lies a signifi cant gap of knowledge, which the 1000 Genomes Project is designed to address.

Data from the 1000 Genomes Project was quickly made available to the worldwide scientifi c community through freely accessible public databases.

International HapMap

Project Introduction: The International HapMap Project was an organization that aimed to develop a haplotype map (HapMap) of the human genome.

HapMap is used to fi nd genetic variants affecting health, disease and responses to drugs and environmental factors.

The information produced by the project is made freely available for research.

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The International HapMap Project is collaboration among researchers at academic centers, non- profi t biomedical research groups and private companies in Canada, China, Japan, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

It offi cially started with a meeting on October 27 to 29, 2002.

Objective: To determine the common patterns of DNA sequence variation in the human genome and to make this information freely available in the public domain.

The HapMap will allow the discovery of sequence variants that affect common disease, will facilitate development of diagnostic tools, and will enhance our ability to choose targets for therapeutic intervention.

Uses: Use in studying genetic associations with disease.

A powerful resource for studying the genetic factors contributing to variation in response to environmental factors, in susceptibility to infection, and in the effectiveness of and adverse responses to drugs and vaccines.

Using just the tag SNPs, researchers are able to fi nd chromosome regions that have different haplotype distributions in the two groups of people, those with a disease or response and those without.

Each region is then studied in more detail to discover which variants in which genes in the region contribute to the disease or response, leading to more effective interventions.

This also allows the development of tests to predict which drugs or vaccines would be most effective in individuals with particular genotypes for genes affecting drug metabolism.

Human Genome

Project Introduction: The “genome” of any given individual is unique; mapping the “human genome” involved sequencing a small number of individuals and then assembling these together to get a complete sequence for each chromosome. The fi nished human genome is thus a mosaic, not representing any one individual.

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientifi c research project.

Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world.

It remains the world’s largest collaborative biological project.

Goal: Determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.

Applications: From the start, the Human Genome Project supported an Ethical, Legal and Social Implications research program to address the many complex issues that might arise from this science.

It can help us understand diseases including: genotyping of specifi c viruses to direct appropriate treatment.

Identifi cation of mutations linked to different forms of cancer.

The design of medication and more accurate prediction of their effects.

Advancement in forensic applied sciences.

Biofuels and other energy applications.

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Agriculture, animal husbandry, bioprocessing; risk assessment; bioarcheology, anthropology and evolution.

Commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based products, a multibillion-dollar industry.

As a result of the Human Genome Project, today’s researchers can fi nd a gene suspected of causing an inherited disease in a matter of days, rather than the years it took before the genome sequence was in hand.

Techniques include: DNA Sequencing.

The Employment of Restriction Fragment-Length Polymorphisms (RFLP).

Yeast Artifi cial Chromosomes (YAC).

Bacterial Artifi cial Chromosomes (BAC).

The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).

Electrophoresis.

Frozen Ark Project.

Introduction: A British-led project called “Frozen Ark” is preserving the DNA of endangered species before they disappear.

It is a charitable frozen zoo project created jointly by the Zoological Society of London, the Natural History Museum and University of Nottingham.

The project aims to preserve the DNA and living cells of endangered species to retain the genetic knowledge for the future.

The Frozen Ark collects and stores samples taken from animals in zoos and those threatened with extinction in the wild, with the expectation that, some day, cloning technologies will have matured suffi ciently to resurrect extinct species.

The Frozen Ark was a fi nalist for the Saatchi & Saatchi Award for World Changing Ideas in 2006.

Mission: To collect, preserve and store tissue, gametes, viable cells and DNA from endangered animals for use both in conservation programmes and to enable society to benefi t itself and all life on earth. The project focuses on the thousands of animals that are threatened with extinction.

Plan: To support the establishment of genome resource banks of endangered animals in many countries, to establish a database listing where genetic materials are stored worldwide and identifying which species are most in need of sampling.

What happens with the material collected by The Frozen Ark Project? Much of The Frozen Ark sample collection of frozen material is being preserved in -80°C freezers.

Cultured mammalian cells, tissue and gametes are being prepared and stored in liquid nitrogen.

Other preservation methods for the long term are ultra-low freezing in pure ethanol, as dried samples on Whatman paper and as freeze dried samples. These methods are useful for countries having unreliable supplies of electricity.

The DNA contained in cells and tissues is very stable when it is stored at a cold enough temperature. DNA can be copied quickly and easily, extracted from just a few cells and amplifi ed millions of times in just a few hours.

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Biotechnology Park of Women

Introduction: Initiative by the Department of Biotechnology.

Biotechnology Park for Women, the fi rst of its kind in India, at Kelambakkam, 41 kms south of Chennai.

This scheme seeks to use biotechnology for the uplift of rural women with opportunities for their own ventures.

The scheme is a collaboration of the Department of Biotechnology, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) and the Tamilnadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO).

The project, launched to commemorate the 50th anniversary of India’s Independence.

It will be developed by TIDCO and managed by a society under the chairmanship of eminent agricultural scientist and architect of India’s Green Revolution, Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.

It will be managed by professionals with active stakeholder participation.

It will also serve as a training centre and would promote regional economic development.

It will facilitate cooperation among women entrepreneurs and the corporate sector for joint marketing strategies.

Mission: “To provide opportunities for professionally qualifi ed women to take to a career of remunerative self- employment through the organization of environment friendly biotechnological enterprises.”

Objectives: The main objectives of this Park are to act as a platform for bringing together women entrepreneurs, scientists, fi nancial institutions and industry.

The Park aims at developing an integrated approach involving technology identifi cation, incubation, dissemination, training and retraining, development of necessary techno-infrastructure through feasibility studies using the criteria of value addition and market demand.

It will generate skilled employment opportunities among women.

The highest standards of environmental management will be adhered to in accordance with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) dealing with environmentally-sound management of biotechnology.

Application of proven biotechnologies as also commercialization of these technologies would be the priority.

Facilities The design of the Park will be based on the principle of decentralised production supported by appropriate centralised services to promote a series of high-tech biotechnology -based enterprises.

These would aim at capturing a number of niche markets in the areas of ag-biotech, food biotech and medical biotech.

When fully developed, this Park will consist of industrial incubation centres, ultra -modern multimedia information complex and quality verifi cation reference laboratories.

The R&D institutions, the corporate sector and the fi nancial institutions would assist the women entrepreneurs in achieving the objectives of the Park.

The Park will serve as a model to foster the technological and economic empowerment of women.

BT Parks set up in India: Uttar Pradesh: Lucknow BT Park

Andhra Pradesh: Hyderabad BT Park

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Assam: Guwahati Biotech Park

Karnataka: Bangalore Biotech Park

Kerala: KINFRA Biotech Park

Odisha: Bio Pharma-IT Park, Bhubaneswar

Decoding the Wheat Genome

Introduction: The International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium (IWGSC) is a non-profi t organisation established in 2005 by a group of wheat growers, plant scientists and breeders from 55 countries.

The IWGSC to which India is a partner published the international journal Science a draft sequence of the bread wheat genome.

The goal of the IWGSC is to make a high quality genome sequence of bread wheat publicly available, in order to lay a foundation for basic research that will enable breeders to develop improved varieties.

India has contributed in developing the draft sequence of the bread wheat genome.

Wheat has largest content of DNA among all the food crops.

Decoding genome sequence of wheat can help in developing climate smart wheat.

Largest genome to be sequenced to-date - raising the prospects of bigger and faster disease-resistant crops to meet the looming global food shortage.

The plant is among the world’s most important crops and the researchers say the information could help farmers create disease-resistant strains of the global food staple.

Advantages: A complete and accurate description of the wheat genome will allow for the quick identifi cation of critical genes that code for everything from drought resistance to stress resistance.

Breeders can make sure these genes are in their breeding populations and this will help them improve their productivity.

It will help in identifying genetic characteristics which can boost crop productivity and allow farming in diffi cult environments.

This genomics resource has made thousands of markers available to wheat researchers which will facilitate mapping and cloning of genes of agronomic importance in much lesser time and cheaper cost than was available earlier.

Decoding wheat genome will facilitate our understanding of gene function which will enable develop new genetic gains of wheat. Taking forward with molecular breeding and genetic engineering we would be able to develop climate smart wheat (drought/terminal heat tolerance) with higher yield.

U.K. grants gene editing licence

U.K. has granted its fi rst licence to genetically modify human embryos for research into infertility and why miscarriages happen.

The decision makes Britain one of the fi rst countries in the world to grant this type of authorisation for experimentation on human embryos, although similar research has been carried out in China.

This decision is however, likely to raise ethical concerns. It has also been criticised on the pretext that it will be employed to develop designer babies. However, the scientists have said that the purpose of gene editing is not to develop designer babies.

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Gene editing: This is a technique that allows the scientist to edit the gene sequence and then modify it in order to bring the desired changes. It helps to understand the sequence of genes and then use gene editing to cure incurable diseases like Tay-Sachs and perhaps cystic fi brosis through the modifi cation of genes.

In addition to that, gene editing can be used as a research tool to simply learn more about these diseases.

GM Mustard Issue

DMH-11 is a Genetically Modifi ed (GM) mustard hybrid. Hybrids are normally obtained by crossing 2 genetically diverse plants from the same species. The 1st-generation offspring resulting from it has higher yields than what either of the parents is individually capable of giving. But there is no natural hybridization system in mustard, unlike in, say, cotton, maize or tomato. This is because its fl owers contain both the female (pistil) and male (stamen) reproductive organs, making the plant naturally self-pollinating.

What scientist has done is to create a viable hybridization system in mustard using GM technology. The resulting GM mustard hybrid, it is claimed, gives 25-30% more yield than the best varieties such as ‘Varuna’ currently grown in the country.

Scientists at the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) in Delhi University, however, showed that this problem could be addressed by crossing Indian mustard cultivars with juncea lines of East European origin like ‘Early Heera’ and ‘Donskaja’. The combination of the 2 divergent gene pools enhanced the crossing options; the resultant F1 progeny were found to exhibit signifi cant heterosis.

What is a controversy about GM Mustard? Many scientist claim that at a time when sustainable farming and low-input agriculture are becoming the buzzwords, it is surprising that agricultural scientists continue to recommend crop varieties that will end up doing more harm to the environment and crop fi elds. GM mustard will require almost double the quantity of fertiliser and water.

Other Health concerns of GM Hybrid Mazie include: allergenicity; gene transfer, especially of antibiotic- resistant genes, from GM foods to cells or bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract; and `out crossing’, or the movement of genes from GM plants to conventional crops, posing indirect threats to food safety and security.

GM mustard can affect honeybees directly and indirectly through effecting fl owering and pollen production. Protease inhibitors have proved detrimental to the longevity and behaviour of bees.

Regulatory weakness-The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, which is responsible for approving large-scale releases and commercialisation of GMOs, functions under the Ministry of Environment and Forests and is not entirely independent.

The case of the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation that supervises and clears research activities and also small-scale fi eld trials is even starker. It is part of the Department of Biotechnology, whose primary task is to promote biotechnology. DBT therefore is the promoter as well as the regulator. On several occasions, developers of transgenic crops have also been members of regulatory committees

In a current environment where climatic change would have negative effects on yield of many major crops which could seriously undermine food security, GM crops are the way forward. However at the same time to convince the opponents of GM crops to allow commercialization of GM crops we need a strong regulatory framework. What is therefore needed is an independent biotechnology regulatory authority, a single organization that will replace the multiple committees - at least six - that are part of the current regulatory structure. This authority would deal with the use of all GMOs in agriculture, pharmaceutical and biodiversity sector.

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Genetically Modifi ed Mosquito

A genetically modifi ed insect is an insect that has been genetically modifi ed for various reasons such as agricultural production, oil production and pest control.

Scientists have moved on from using bed nets and insecticides to kill malaria-spreading mosquitoes, to genetically modify the mosquitoes by inserting a gene that leads to the production of male offsprings.

Since only females carry the malaria-causing microorganism, the spread of the disease is controlled in the short-term while eventually the whole population gets wiped out.

Scientists injected a gene from a slime mould into the mosquito which attached itself to the X chromosome during sperm-making process effectively masking the sperms leading to production of male offsprings.

Methods: The British company Oxitec use a technique called Release of Insects with Dominant Lethality (RIDL), that can produce fertile male adults that induce a high mortality of the descendants. The adults generated with this technique and released in the environment are not sterile but their descendants have a survival rate of 0% . This lethality can be switched off by introducing the antibotic, tetracycline, into their diet.

Concerns There are concerns about using tetracycline on a routine basis for controlling the expression of lethal genes. There are plausible routes for resistance genes to develop in the bacteria within the guts of GM-insects fed on tetracycline and from there, to circulate widely in the environment.

Recent Implementation (Brazil) In January 2016 it was announced that in response to the Zika virus outbreak, Brazil’s National Biosafety Committee approved the releases of more genetically modifi ed Aedes aegypti mosquitos throughout their country.

Previously in July 2015, Oxitec released results of a test in the Juazeiro region of Brazil, of so-called “self-limiting” mosquitoes, to fi ght dengue, Chikungunya and Zika viruses.

They concluded that mosquito populations were reduced by about 95%.

Designer babies’ or Three parents babies

A number of children each year are born with faults in their mitochondrial DNA which can cause diseases. Due to it the parts of the body that need most energy are worst affected: the brain, muscles, heart and liver. Faulty mitochondria have also been linked to more common medical problems, including Parkinson’s, deafness, failing eyesight, epilepsy and diabetes. Thus Three-parent babies mechanism has been evolved to decrease the number of children born with diseases.

Three-parent babies are human offspring with three genetic parents. The procedure replaces a small amount of faulty DNA in a mother’s egg with healthy DNA from a second woman, so that the baby would inherit genes from two mothers and one father. The procedure is intended to prevent mitochondrial diseases including diabetes mellitus and deafness and some heart and liver conditions.

The mitochondrial replacement technique has, unsurprisingly, raised objections and ethical considerations. These are as follows:

It raises concerns of bioethics because it creates genetic links between the offspring and three parents, as the child’s DNA consists of the genetic material of three people.

The method used for this purpose constitutes inheritable germ-line genetic modifi cation. This means that it is not just the offspring’s DNA that is modifi ed, but also the DNA of the generations to follow.

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Mitochondrial transfer passes on genetic changes from one generation to another. That raises ethical concerns because any unexpected problems caused by the procedure could affect people who are not yet born, and so cannot give their consent to have the treatment. Mitochondria are not completely understood, and the DNA they hold might affect people’s traits in unknown ways. For that reason, some scientists believe mitochondria should be better understood before the procedures are legalized.

The Catholic Church opposes one form of mitochondrial transfer, called pronuclear transfer, because a fertilized egg from the mother is destroyed in the process. Catholic ethicists have also complained that mitochondrial transfer introduces a “rupture” between mother and father and “dilutes parenthood”.

Implications for identity are another ethical concern that has psychological and emotional impacts on a child’s life regarding of a person’s sense of identity. It debates whether the genetic make-up.

of children born as a result of mitochondrial replacement affect their emotional well-being when they are aware that they are different from other healthy children conceived from two parents.

Pros of Designer babies Reduces risk of genetic diseases.

Reduces risk of inherited medical conditions.

Better chance the child will succeed in life.

Better understanding of genetics.

Increased life span.

It can give, the child genes that the parents do not carry.

Prevent next generation of family from getting characteristics/diseases.

Cons of Designer Babies Termination of embryos.

Could create a gap in society.

Possibility of damage to the gene pool.

Baby has no choice in the matter.

Genes often have more than one use.

Geneticists are not perfect.

Loss of Individuality.

Other children in family could be affected by parent’s decision.

Only the rich can afford it.

Phyto-Pharma Plant Mission is Mission for the North-eastern India under Department of Biotechnology.

It is aimed at conservation and cultivation of endangered and threatened endemic medicinal plants, discovery of new botanical drugs for unmet medical needs using the rich traditional ethno-botanical knowledge and biodiversity of these states.

Improve availability of authentic and quality botanical raw material on sustainable basis for a boom in the phyto-pharmaceutical industry.

To enable farmers from NE states and phyto-pharmaceutical industry to become global leaders in production and export of some quality botanical drugs for unmet medical needs.

Growing Greens in Glass: Plant Tissue Culture Technology

Most plants that we grow can be classifi ed into self-fertilized (by the fusion of pollen and ovule of the same fl ower) or cross- pollinators (wherein pollens fuse with the ovules of flowers of another plant).

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The ovules are then fertilized and an embryo, which we know as the seed, is formed. When the environment is suitable, this embryo grows into a plant. The study of this entire process is called ‘Embryology’.

Prof. Panchanan Maheshwari, rightfully called the “Father of Modern Embryology” laid the foundations of plant tissue culture in India.

Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells separate from the organism. This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar.

Bamboo is known to fl ower after very long intervals in the order of tens of years, and the entire bamboo population from the same origin fl owers simultaneously.

Scientists at National Chemical Laboratory, NCL developed a technique that made it possible for the fi rst time for three species of bamboo plants to fl ower within weeks, against several years taken by plants that grow in the wild or are raised by conventional methods. Bamboo fl owering was achieved by growing seedlings from mature tissues in a special nutritious jelly containing a plant growth regulator.

It was the fi rst time a consistent in vitro fl owering of bamboo was achieved. Botanists could now easily produce bamboo hybrids to yield better quality bamboo. Additionally, this was the fi rst scientifi c contribution from India on which the prestigious journal Nature, published a special editorial.

Today, India stands at the second spot in the production of bamboo resources in the world, next to China. Bamboo is not just grown in the forest regions of the state but also in the villages. The areas where bamboo is mostly grown in Assam are North Cachar Hills, Cachar, Nagaon, Karbi Anglong, and Lakhimpur.

NCL has also contributed to standardization of meristem tip culture technique for getting virus-free plants for sugarcane, and clonal propagation and callus regeneration for turmeric.

Important discoveries in the history of PTC in India

1958 Scientists are able to regenerate somatic embryos in vitro from the nucellus of Citrus ovules (P. Maheshwari and Rangaswamy)

1960 First successful test-tube fertilization in Papavaraceae and Brasicaceae (K. Kanta and P. Maheshwari)

1961 Successful establishment of the technique of test-tube fertilization of angiosperms (P. Maheshwari)

1963 Developed continuously growing callus cultures from mature endosperm of Santalum album (Rangaswamy and P.S. Rao)

1963 First successful callus culture of Pinus established (R.N. Konar)

1963 Demonstration of the division and proliferation of mature endosperm cells in Ricinus communis (Mohan Ram and Satsangi)

1964 Haploid Datura plants produced from pollen grains and successful anther culture for the first time (S. Guha and S.C. Maheshwari)

1965 Production of full triploid shoots by culturing a mature endosperm of a root parasite, Exocarpus cupressiformis (B.N. Johri and S.S. Bhojwani)

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Tissue sample scraped from parent plant

Tissue samples placed in Agar growth medium containing nutrients and auxins

Samples develop into tiny plantlets

Plantlets planted into compost