Notes

Preface: Of Color

1. www.naacp.org/news/entry/is-there-a-gideon-among-us (accessed December 15, 2011) and http://www.free-times.com/index.php?cat= 1992912064017974&ShowArticle_ID=11010308112984607 (accessed December 15, 2011).

2. On the history of whiteness, see David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso, 1991); Thomas A. Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Ian F. Haney López, White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).

3. On the early history of Indians in the United States, see Joan Jenson, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Harold A. Gould, Sikhs, Swamis, Students, and Spies: The India Lobby in the United States, 1900–1946 (New Delhi and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2006); Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

4. United States v. Dolla, Circuit Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, March 1, 1910; Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism.

5. United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, 261 U.S. 204 (1923); Jenson, Passage from India; Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism.

6. Amiya Kanti Das to Du Bois., October 23, 1925, Reel 16, W. E. B. Du Bois Papers; S. Natarajan to Du Bois, October 2, 1936, Reel 45, Du Bois Papers; Du Bois, “Gandhi and the American Negroes,” Gandi Marg 1, no. 3 (Bombay, July 1957); Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism.

7. Hispanic Americans complicate this narrative to some degree. Often seen as neither black nor white, many Latina(o)s struggle with the same urban poverty and segregation confronting many black communities. See William Julius Wilson, More than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: Norton, 2010); Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New

Notes202

Press, 2012); Vijay Prashad, The Karma of Brown Folk (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000). Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters, “Intermarriage and Multiple Identities,” in Mary C. Waters, Reed Ueda, and Helen Marrow, eds., The New Americans: A Handbook to Immigration since 1965 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 110–123; Helen B. Marrow, “New Immigrant Destinations and the American Colour Line,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 32, no. 6 (July 2009): 1037–1057; Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson, Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 2004); Herbert J. Gans, “‘Whitening’ and the Changing American Racial Hierarchy,” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 9, no. 2 (Fall 2012): 267–279; Jennifer Lee and Frank D. Bean, The Diversity Paradox: Immigration and the Color Line in Twenty-First Century America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2010).

8. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance, Revised Edition (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004).

Introduction

1. Cedric Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (3rd Quarter, 1947): 222.

2. Cedric Dover, American Negro Art (Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, 1960), 7 and 11. On the history of the word “nigger,” see Randall Kennedy, Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002).

3. The range of his ambitions and of his intellectual network make it even more striking that Dover has been largely forgotten. The most compre-hensive account of Dover’s life consists of a chapter in Patrick Wright’s Passport to Peking: A Very British Mission to Mao’s China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 242–268. There are brief mentions of Dover in Michael Fabre, The Unfinished Quest of Richard Wright, Isabel Barzun, trans. (New York: Morrow, 1973); Wayne F. Cooper, Claude McKay: Rebel Sojourner in the Harlem Renaissance: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 364; Richard J. Powell, Black Art and Culture in the 20th Century (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 151; Sharon F. Patton, African-American Art (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 11–12; Gloria Jean Moore, The Anglo-Indian Vision (Melbourne: AE Press, 1986), 64 and 96–97; Lionel Caplan, Children of Colonialism: Anglo-Indians in a Postcolonial World (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 72 and 99; Susheila Nasta, Home Truths: Fictions of the South Asian Diaspora in Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 28; and Rozina Visram, Asians in Britain: 400 Years of History (London: Pluto, 2002), 289.

Notes 203

4. Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: Race and the Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012); Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006) and The Ethics of Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); Seyla Benhabib, Another Cosmopolitanism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); David Hollinger, Cosmopolitanism and Solidarity: Studies in Ethnoracial, Religious, and Professional Affiliation in the United States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006).

5. W. E. B. Du Bois, “To the Nations of the World” (1900) in Eric J. Sundquist, ed., The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 625, and The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Penguin Books, 1989), 13.

6. Michael Banton, “The Colour Line and the Colour Scale in the Twentieth Century,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35, no. 7 (July 2012): 1109–1131; David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919: Biography of a Race (New York: H. Holt, 1993) and W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: H. Holt, 2000); Arnold Rampersad, The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).

7. Kevin K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Jonathan Rosenberg, How Far the Promised Land? World Affairs and the American Civil Rights Movement from the First World War to Vietnam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Robin D. G. Kelley, “How the West Was One: The African Diaspora and the Re-Mapping of U.S. History,” in Thomas Bender, ed., Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Marc Gallicchio, The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

8. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); Tony Martin, Race Rirst: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976); Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers (Berkeley: University

Notes204

of California Press, 1983); Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America (London: Verso, 1998); Colin Grant, Negro With a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Adam Ewing, The Age of Garvey: How a Jamaican Activist Created a Mass Movement and Changed Global Black Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

9. Lara Putnam, Rights of Passage: Migrants, States, and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Age Greater Caribbean (forthcoming); Paulina L. Alberto, Terms of Inclusion: Black Intellectuals in Twentieth-Century Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Edward E. Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); Livio Sansone, Blackness Without Ethnicity: Constructing Race in Brazil (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); George Reid Andrews, Blacks & Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888–1988 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); Padraig O’Malley, Shades of Difference: Mac Maharaj and the Struggle for South Africa (New York: Viking, 2007); Melanie Yap and Dianne Leong Man, Colour, Confusion and Concessions: The History of the Chinese in South Africa (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Surendra Bhana and Joy B. Brain, Setting Down Roots: Indian Migrants in South Africa, 1860–1911 (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1990); Aisha Khan, Callaloo Nation: Metaphors of Race and Religious Identity Among South Asians in Trinidad (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004); Viranjini Munasinghe, Callaloo or Tossed Salad?: East Indians and the Cultural Politics of Identity in Trinidad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001).

10. See W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Clash of Colour,” in The Aryan Path 7, no. 3 (March 1936): 111–115, and “Indians and Negroes,” in “A Forum of Fact and Opinion,” Pittsburgh Courier, April 11, 1936, 2; Marcus Garvey, “The Negro’s Greatest Enemy,” Current History 18, no. 6 (September 1923): 951–957 and reprinted in Amy Jacques Garvey, ed., The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, II (New York: Universal Publishing House, 1923), 128.

11. W. E. B. Du Bois, Dark Princess: A Romance (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928); Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Gerald Horne, Race Woman: The Lives of Shirley Graham Du Bois (New York: New York University Press, 2002); Barbara Ransby, Eslanda: The Large and Unconventional Life of Mrs. Paul Robeson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013).

12. Nico Slate, “‘I Am a Coloured Woman’: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya in the United States, 1939–41,” Contemporary South Asia 17, no. 1 (March 2009): 7–19; Hazel V. Carby, Race Men (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Dayo F. Gore, Jeanne Theoharis, and Komozi Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black

Notes 205

Freedom Struggle (New York: New York University Press, 2009); Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); Cedric Dover, Feathers in the Arrow: An Approach for Coloured Writers and Readers (Bombay: Padma Publications, 1947), 32; Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); John Egerton, Speak Now against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York: Knopf, 1994); Steven Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008).

13. Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Justin Hart, “Making Democracy Safe for the World: Race, Propaganda, and the Transformation of U.S. Foreign Policy During World War II,” Pacific Historical Review 73 (February 2004): 49–84.

14. K. A. Abbas, “Black Sun,” published serially in Blitz on April 29, 1961, 17 and 19; May 20, 1961, 16–17.

15. Lisa Lowe, “Heterogenaity, Hybridity, Multiplicity: Marking Asian American Differences,” Diaspora 1, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 39; Donna Landry and Gerald MacLean, eds., The Spivak Reader (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 214; Sara Danius and Stefan Jonsson, “An Interview with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,” Boundary 2: An International Journal of Literature and Culture 20, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 24–50.

16. On the history of Black Studies, see Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Martha Biondi, “Controversial Blackness: The Historical Development & Future Trajectory of African American Studies,” Daedalus 140, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 226–237; Fabio Rojas, From Black Power to Black Studies: How a Radical Social Movement Became an Academic Discipline (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). For an outstanding account of three black intellectuals, see Jonathan Scott Holloway, Confronting the Veil: Abram Harris Jr., E. Franklin Frazier, and Ralph Bunche, 1919–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). Also see Cedric Dover, “The Terminology of Homotypes of Insects,” Science 60, no. 1565 (December 1924); “The Classification of Man,” Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Science Section A, Volume 8 (August 1952): 209–213; “The Black Knight,” Phylon 15, no. 1 (1st Quarter, 1954); and “The Black Knight: Part II,” Phylon 15, no. 2 (2nd Quarter, 1954); Brown Phoenix (London: College Press, 1950).

Notes206

Cedric Dover’s Colored Cosmopolitanism

1. Cedric Dover, “What Is a Race Riot?” United Asia 11, no. 3 (1959): 235–236.

2. Henry Bruce, The Eurasian (London: John Long, 1913), quoted in the foreword to Cedric Dover, Cimmerii or Eurasians and Their Future (Calcutta: Modern Art Press, 1929), and in Cedric Dover, Half-Caste (London: M. Secker and Warburg, 1937), 163; “One Khaki,” in “Personal Statement and Outlines of Four Books by Cedric Dover,” Folder “Personalia,” Box 1, Dover Papers, Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library (MARBL), Emory University.

3. Predictions of civil war dogged India well after independence. See William Manchester, The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Alone, 1932–1940 (New York: Little Brown, 1988), xxxi; Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (New York: HarperCollins, 2007).

4. Cedric Dover, The Kingdom of Earth (Allahabad: Allahabad Law Journal Press, 1931), i; Michael Banton, “The Colour Line and the Colour Scale in the Twentieth Century,” Ethnic and Racial Studies (September 2011); Nicholas Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, Sex and Class under the Raj (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1980); Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The “Manly Englishman” and the “Effeminate Bengali” in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Thomas R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Susan Bayly, Caste, Society, and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Christophe Jaffrelot, India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India (London: Hurst, 2003); Thomas R. Trautmann, Aryans and British India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Dilip Menon, The Blindness of Insight: Essays on Caste in Modern India (Pondicherry and New Delhi: Navayana, 2006), Peter Robb, ed., The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995); Rosalind O’Hanlon, Caste, Conflict, and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Gail Omvedt, Dalit Visions: The Anti-Caste Movement and the Construction of an Indian Identity (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1995).

5. Cedric Dover, “Notes on the Fauna of Pitcher-Plants from Singapore Island,” Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 6, no. 3 (August 1928): 1–27; “Wrongs Done to the Half-Caste Inspires Dover’s New Book,” The Times of India, March 2, 1951; Cedric Dover, “Biographical Notes,” Folder “Personalia,” Box 1, Dover Papers; “Editorial Musings,” The New Outlook, Introductory Number (March 1925), 1.

Notes 207

6. Dover, Half-Caste, 13. 7. Ras Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within, recorded and edited by

Kenneth King (Nairobi and New York: Oxford University Press, 1973); Interview with Maureen Alexander-Sinclair in London on December 4, 2007. Mrs. Alexander-Sinclair, Dover’s last wife, remains the most sig-nificant source of information on Dover’s personal life.

8. Folder “Personalia,” Box 1 and “American Negro Art Correspondence A-B,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

9. Dover, Cimmerii or Eurasians and Their Future, 19 and 36.10. Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political

Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); Nicholas Owen, The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Stephen Howe, Anticolonialism in British Politics: The Left and the End of Empire, 1918–1964 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Paul B. Rich, Race and Empire in British Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press, 1984).

11. Dover, Half-Caste, 52; Perez v. Sharp. 32 Cal. 2d 711; 198 P.2d 17 1938; Michael Banton, “The Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions of the Word Race,” Ethnicities 10 (March 2010): 127–140; Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 184–185; Philip Holden, “Rajaratnam’s Tiger: Race, Gender, and the Beginnings of Singapore Nationalism,” The Journal of Commonwealth Literature 41, no. 1 (2006): 127–140; William O. Brown, “The Present and Future of the Mixed Blood,” The Journal of Negro Education 7, no. 4 (October 1938): 556–557; A. B. V. Drew, “Half-Caste,” Man 38 (September 1938): 156.

12. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty (London: MacMillan, 1883), 24; Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

13. Lucy Bland, “British Eugenics and ‘Race Crossing’: A Study of an Interwar Investigation,” New Formations 60 (2007): 66–78; Cedric Dover, “Annotated Bibliography,” Dover Papers; Cedric Dover, “The Racial Myth,” Nature 136, no. 9 (November 1935): 736; Cedric Dover and Mercia Haynes-Wood, Eugenics and Birth Control (Lahore: Times Publishing, 1931) and Eugenic Problems and Research in India (New York: Third International Congress of Eugenics, 1932); Cedric Dover, “An Ideal of Anglo-Indian Education and Its Relation to Eugenics,” New Outlook 1, no. 1 (April 1925): 226–228; “Editorial Musings,” New Outlook 1, no. 1 (April 1925), 2 and “Editorial Musings,” New Outlook 1, no. 2 (May 1925), 33; Julian Huxley, We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems (New York: London, Harper, 1936).

Notes208

14. J. H. Kempton, “Bastards of the World Unite,” clipping, “Personal Statement and Outlines of Four Books by Cedric Dover,” and “Biographical Notes,” all in Folder “Personalia,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

15. Rayford W. Logan, “Review of the Haitian People by James G. Leyburn,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 221 (May 1942): 216–217; W. Lloyd Warner “American Caste and Class,” American Journal of Sociology 42 (1936): 234–237; John Dollard, Caste and Class in a Southern Town (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937). For more on the “caste school,” see Daniel Immerwahr, “Caste or Colony? Indianizing Race in the United States,” Modern Intellectual History 4, no. 2 (2007): 275–301.

16. Dover, Half-Caste, 19–20.17. Trautmann, Aryans and British India, chapters 6 and 7; Bayly, Caste,

Society, and Politics in India, 126–138; Thomas R. Trautmann, ed., The Aryan Debate (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005).

18. Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 151.

19. Dover, Half-Caste, 277 and Know This of Race (London: Secker & Warburg, 1939), 40. Also see Patrick Wright, Passport to Peking: A Very British Mission to Mao’s China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 258.

20. Cedric Dover, “Books as Ambassadors,” The Crisis 54 (December 1947): 368–369.

21. Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: Race and the Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012); Lala Lajpat Rai, The Collected Works of Lala Lajpat Rai, Volume 2 (New Delhi: Manohar, 2003), 184; Lala Lajpat Rai, The United States of America: A Hindu’s Impressions and a Study (Calcutta: Brahmo Mission Press, 1916); Jotirao Govindrao Phule, Slavery in the Civilised British Government under the Cloak of Brahmanism, trans-lated by P. G. Patil (Bombay: Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, 1991); “Reports in American Newspapers,” The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 2 (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama); “From Far Off India,” Saginaw Courier Herald, March 22, 1894.

22. “India,” The Horizon: A Journal of the Color Line 1, no. 2 (January 1907): 8–9, reprinted in The Rare Periodicals of W. E. B. Du Bois, Volume 2, Part 1, compiled, indexed, and reprinted by Paul G. Partington (Whittier, CA: Paul G. Partington, 1991).

23. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007) and Michael Adas, “Contested Hegemony: The Great War and the Afro-Asian Assault on the Civilizing Mission Ideology,” Journal of World History 15, no. 1 (2004): 31–63; Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich; “War!” The African Times and Orient Review, New Series 1, no. 20 (August 4, 1914): 450; Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race; or, The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner,

Notes 209

1916); Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against Wide World-Supremacy (New York: Scribner, 1920).

24. “Indian Speaks,” The Chicago Defender (National Edition), March 7, 1948, 15.

25. Cedric Dover, “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” United Asia 5, no. 3 (June 1953): 149; Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (London: Zed Books, 1986).

26. Dover to Nehru, June 7, 1948 and Du Bois to Dover, June 23, 1948, Reel 61, Du Bois Papers.

27. Cedric Dover “The Bantu Hits Back,” United Asia 2, no. 3 (December 1949): 209–211; “What Is a Race Riot?” 235–237; “Special Symposium on the American Negro.”

28. Mahadevan to Dover, August 3, 1953 and Hughes to Dover, January 9, 1954, “Personalia,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

29. Dover to Claude Barnett, June 18 (year not given) Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence A-B,” Box 1, Dover Papers; Ralph McGill, “One-Man Gallup Poll,” The Atlanta Constitution, January 1, 1952.

30. Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007).

31. Cedric Dover, “May Days in Spain,” in Nancy Cunard, ed., Les Poétes du Monde défendant la Peuple Espagnol, 4: Paris, 1937; Cedric Dover to Langston Hughes, 10.7.37, Folder 154, Box 7, Langston Hughes papers; Danny Duncan Collum, ed., African Americans in the Spanish Civil War: “This ain’t Ethiopia, but it’ll Do” (New York: G. K. Hall, 1992); Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich, 61.

32. Timothy Garton Ash, “Orwell’s List,” The New York Review of Books 50, no. 14 (September 25, 2003); Wright, Passport to Peking, 242–268.

33. Wright, Passport to Peking, 251.34. Dover, Know This of Race, 50–51.35. Cedric Dover, Feathers in the Arrow: An Approach for Coloured Writers

and Readers (Bombay: Padma Publications, 1947), 26; Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

36. Kenneth Robert Janken, White: The Biography of Walter White, Mr. NAACP (New York: New Press, 2003); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ:

Notes210

Princeton University Press, 2000); Walter White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: Viking, 1948).

37. Carol Anderson, “Rethinking Radicalism: African Americans and the Liberation Struggles in Somalia, Libya, and Eritrea, 1945–1949,” Journal of the Historical Society 11, no. 4 (December 2011): 385–423; Manfred Berg, “Black Civil Rights and Liberal Anticommunism: The NAACP in the Early Cold War,” The Journal of American History 94, no. 1 (June 2007); Glenda Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: Norton, 2008); Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).

38. Cedric Dover, “Racialism and Peace,” Monthly Record 61, no. 5 (May 1956): 6–8, Dover Papers.

39. Dover, Feathers in the Arrow, 17–18 and 22, 26; Dover to Du Bois, July 23, 1951, and Du Bois to Dover, September 27, 1951, Reel 66, Du Bois Papers; Cedric Dover, “Towards Coloured Unity,” Congress Socialist (January 23, 1937): 14 and Know This of Race, 81.

40. Cedric Dover, “Nationalism and Beyond,” in George Orwell, ed., Talking to India: A Selection of English Language Broadcasts to India (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1943), 127–128.

41. “The Cultural Significance of James Skinner,” The Calcutta Review (January 1955), 18–24; Dover, Cimmerii or Eurasians and Their Future.

42. Humbert Howard to Dover June 30, 1959, Dover to Howard, July 5, 1959, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence F-H,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

43. “The Purpose of East Indian, West Indian (By Cedric Dover and Claude McKay),” Folder “Culture and Creativity,” Box 1, Dover Papers; Dover, “Moods of Yesterday,” United Asia, Untitled Folder, Box 1, Dover Papers; Dover, American Negro Art, 24.

44. “Indian Speaks,” The Chicago Defender (National Edition), March 7, 1948, 15; The Chicago Defender (National Edition), November 26, 1960, 2; “Southside Center Announces Art Sale, Book Publication,” The Chicago Defender (National Edition), November 29, 1960, 18; The Chicago Defender (National Edition), December 19, 1960, 8.

45. Cedric Dover, “The Vast Similitude,” United Asia 3, no. 3 (1951): 189–191; Dover, “What Is a Race Riot?” 235–236.

46. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).

W. E. B. Du Bois and Race as Autobiography

1. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 110.

Notes 211

2. The Chicago Defender (March 13, 1948), 20; See Dorothy Dover to A. Bontemps, July 2, 1948 in Langston Hughes Papers, Folder 4397, Box 267.

3. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919: Biography of a Race (New York: H. Holt, 1993) and W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: H. Holt, 2000); Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).

4. Edward Said, Representations of the Intellectual (London: Vintage, 1994), 44.

5. Dover to Du Bois, November 3, 1950, Du Bois Papers (DBP). 6. Alexander Nehamas, “The Good of Friendship,” Proceedings of the

Aristotelian Society 110, no. 3, pt. 3 (October 2010): 267–294; Sugata Bose and Kris Manjapra, eds., Cosmopolitan Thought Zones: South Asia and the Global Circulation of Ideas (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Engseng Ho, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility Across the Indian Ocean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Vijay Prashad, The Karma of Brown Folk (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000); Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994); Gilroy, The Black Atlantic.

7. W. E. B. Du Bois, “To the Nations of the World” (1900), in Eric J. Sundquist, ed., The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 625, and W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Penguin Books, 1989), 13.

8. Dover’s speech can be found in his personal copy of Dusk of Dawn, located in the Cedric Dover Papers, Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library (MARBL), Emory University. I am grateful to Randall Burkett, curator of African American collections at MARBL, for first alerting me to Dover’s work and his library.

9. Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora; John Felstiner, Translating Neruda: The Way to Macchu Picchu (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980); George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975).

10. Edward J. Blum, W. E. B. Du Bois: American Prophet (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 26; Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave’s Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); William L. Andrews, ed., African American Autobiography: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993); Keith E. Byerman, Seizing the World: History, Art, and Self in the Work of W. E. B. Du Bois (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1994), xi.

Notes212

11. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Conservation of Races,” in Eric J. Sundquist, ed., The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 40; Wilson Jeremiah Moses, The Wings of Ethiopia: Studies in African American Life and Letters (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990), 135; Kwame Anthony Appiah, “The Uncompleted Argument: Du Bois and the Illusion of Race,” Critical Inquiry 12, no. 1, “Race,” Writing, and Difference (Autumn 1985): 21–37; Tommie Shelby, We Who Are Dark: The Philosophical Foundations of Black Solidarity (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005); Robert Gooding-Williams, In The Shadow of Du Bois: Afro-Modern Political Thought in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 40–44; Lucius Outlaw, “‘Conserve’ Races: In Defense of W. E. B. Du Bois,” in Bernard W. Bell, Emily R. Grosholz, and James B. Stewart, eds., W. E. B. Du Bois on Race and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1996), 16–37.

12. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The American Negro at Paris,” American Monthly Review of Reviews 22, no. 5 (November 1900): 577; Shawn Michelle Smith, American Archives: Gender, Race, and Class in Visual Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999) and “‘Looking at One’s Self through the Eyes of Others’: W. E. B. Du Bois’s Photographs for the 1900 Paris Exposition,” African American Review 34, no. 4 (Winter 2000): 581–599.

13. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Gandhi and American Negroes,” Gandhi Marg (July 1957): 1–4; W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 47; Herbert Aptheker, The Literary Legacy of W. E. B. Du Bois (White Plains, NY: Kraus International Publications, 1989), 187.

14. Du Bois, The Negro, 110.15. Cedric Dover, Cimmerii or Eurasians and Their Future (Calcutta: Modern

Art Press, 1927), 19 and 36. Also see Lucy Bland, “British Eugenics and ‘Race Crossing’: A Study of an Interwar Investigation,” New Formations 60 (2007): 66–78.

16. Cedric Dover, “Looking Forward from Yesterday,” Wilson Library Bulletin 23, no. 6 (February 1949): 440.

17. Ulf Hannerz, “Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture,” Theory, Culture & Society 7 (1990): 240; Cedric Dover, Ants, Ann and Aniseed, 11–12, MARBL.

18. On intersectionality, see Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991): 1241–1299; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “African-American Women’s History and the Metalanguage of Race,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17, no. 2 (Winter 1992): 251–274; and Leslie McCall, “The Complexity of Intersectionality,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 30, no. 3 (2007): 1771–1800.

19. W. E. B. Du Bois, Dark Princess: A Romance (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928), 22. Also see Bill Mullen, “Du Bois, Dark Princess, and the

Notes 213

Afro-Asian International,” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 11, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 217–239; Bill V. Mullen, Afro Orientalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004).

20. Edwin F. Bryant and Laurie L. Patton, eds., The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History (London: Routledge, 2005); Thomas R. Trautmann, Aryans and British India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Romila Thapar, “The Image of the Barbarian in Early India,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 13, no. 1 (October 1971): 408–436.

21. Cedric Dover, “The Vast Similitude,” United Asia 3, no. 3 (1951): 189–191; Cedric Dover, “What Is a Race Riot?” United Asia 11, no. 3 (1959): 235–236.

22. N. S. Subba Rao, The Aryan Path 7, no. 5 (May 1936): 213–216; W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Union of Colour,” The Aryan Path 7, no. 10 (October 1936): 483–484; N. S. Subba Rao, “A Rejoinder to Dr. Du Bois,” The Aryan Path 7, no. 10 (October 1936): 484–485.

23. Cedric Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (3rd Quarter, 1947): 213 and 220; Cedric Dover, Feathers in the Arrow: An Approach for Coloured Writers and Readers (Bombay: Padma Publications, 1947), 22–23.

24. Dover, Feathers in the Arrow, 5 and 12.25. See “Acknowledgments,” in the file “Cedric Dover,” Box 180 Folder 35,

Herbert Aptheker Papers, Stanford University.26. Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” 222. In Feathers in the Arrow,

Dover added the phrase “sex-affirmation and sexual self-regulation” immediately following “nationalism and internationalism.” See Feathers in the Arrow, 25. The intersection of sex, racism, nationalism, and capi-talism became one of Dover’s persistent themes—a theme sufficiently rich to require exploration elsewhere.

27. Only a year after Dover’s “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Jean-Paul Sartre defended “antiracist racism” as “the sole road which can lead to the abolition of the differences of race.” See Jean-Paul Sartre’s essay “Orphée Noir” (“Black Orpheus”), first published in 1948 as the introduction to Anthologie De La Nouvelle Poésie Nègre Et Malgache, a collection of poetry edited by Léopold Sédar Senghor. Jean-Paul Sartre, Black Orpheus, S. W. Allen, trans. (Paris: Presence Africaine, 1976), 15.

28. Cedric Dover, “Commonsense on Immigration,” Union (October 29, 1949). For evidence of Dover’s links to Mosley, see Issai Hosiosky to Bryn Hovde, January 1, 1950 and Saul Padover to Louis Wirth, February 15, 1950, both in the files of Clara Mayer, New School University Archives. Also see “Objects of Union Movement,” Union (May 22, 1946) and “Negroes Elect Communist,” Union (December 4, 1948), M38453, British Library Newspapers, Colindale; Charles I. Glicksberg, “Eurasian Racialism,” Phylon 12, no. 1 (1951): 13–19; “Indian Asks Negroes to Rise, Fight Back,” Pittsburgh Courier, not dated, Aaron Douglas

Notes214

Collection, Fisk University Special Collections; James Ivy to Dover, January 10, 1953; Ivy to Dover, July 18, 1959, Dover Papers.

39. Cedric Dover, “The Snail Regrets,” Phylon 12, no. 4 (1951): 347–356.30. Ibid., 353.31. Dover to Du Bois, November 1, 1946, and November 25, 1946, Reel

58, DBP.32. Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” 221.33. Dover to Du Bois, November 3, 1950 and Carl Cowl to Du Bois,

October 24, 1950, Reel 64, Du Bois Papers.34. Cedric Dover, “Towards Coloured Unity,” Congress Socialist (January

23, 1937): 30–32.35. Although unofficial representatives of South Africa’s African National

Congress attended, only Ethiopia, Liberia, and the Gold Coast (Ghana) represented Sub-Saharan Africa. See Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: Race and the Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012), chapter 6; George McTurnan Kahin, The Asian-African Conference: Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1956); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

36. Prophet to Dover, July 6, 1959, and Dover to Prophet July, 17, 1959.37. See L. N. Rao to Du Bois, November 9, 1953, and Du Bois to Rao,

November 24, 1953, Reel 79; Anand to Du Bois, September 30, 1960, and Du Bois to Anand, October 1960, Reel 74; Du Bois to Dover, February 14, 1951, Dover to Du Bois, dated only March 1951, Du Bois to Dover, March 30, 1951, and Dover to Du Bois, June 1, 1951; Dover to Du Bois, July 23, 1951, and Du Bois to Dover, September 27, 1951, Reel 66, DBP.

38. On the value of utopian ideals of freedom, see Quentin Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), espe-cially 79.

39. Alexander Nehamas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1985), 7–8; Jennifer Ratner-Rosenhagen, American Nietzsche: A History of an Icon and His Ideas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011).

40. Du Bois, Dark Princess; Jorge Luis Borges, Collected Fictions, Andrew Hurley, trans. (New York: Viking, 1998); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); and Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

41. Dover to Du Bois, November 3, 1950, and Carl Cowl to Du Bois, October 24, 1950, Reel 64, Du Bois Papers.

42. Dover’s relationship to McKay and his efforts to publish a dual-auto-biography deserve greater attention than I can offer in this book. See

Notes 215

Claude McKay, “Boyhood in Jamaica,” Phylon 14, no. 2 (2nd Quarter, 1953): 134–145, and McKay, My Green Hills of Jamaica (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1975), republished as My Green Hills of Jamaica and Five Jamaican Short Stories, Mervyn Morris, ed. and intro. (Kingston: Heinemann Educational Book, 1977).

Langston Hughes and Race as Propaganda

1. Langston Hughes, “The Negro Artist and Racial Mountain,” The Nation (June 23, 1926).

2. Langston Hughes, “To Understand America, Nehru Should Visit Negro Ghettos Too,” The Chicago Defender, November 5, 1949.

3. George S. Schuyler, “The Negro-Art Hokum,” The Nation 122 (June 16, 1926): 662–663 and Langston Hughes, “The Negro Artist and Racial Mountain,” The Nation 122 (June 23, 1926): 662–664.

4. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Criteria of Negro Art,” The Crisis 32 (October 1926): 290–297.

5. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight For Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: H. Holt, 2000), 179.

6. Arnold Rampersad, “Hughes’s Fine Clothes to the Jew,” in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and K. A. Appiah, eds., Langston Hughes: Critical Perspectives Past and Present (New York: Amistad Press, 1993), 54.

7. Langston Hughes, “Foreword,” in Christopher C. De Santis, ed., The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, Essays on Art, Race, Politics and World Affairs (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 511–512.

8. Azar Nafisi, Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books (New York: Random House, 2003).

9. Arnold Rampersad, “The Origins of Poetry in Langston Hughes,” in Harold Bloom, ed., Langston Hughes: Modern Critical Views (New York and Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989), and George E. Kent, “Hughes and the Afro-American Folk and Cultural Tradition,” in Bloom, Langston Hughes: Modern Critical Views, 19 and 185–186, italics in original.

10. Pablo Neruda, Memoirs, Hardie St. Martin, trans. (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1971), 127–130. On Cunard, see Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).

11. Cedric Dover, “May Days in Spain,” in Nancy Cunard, ed., Les Poétes du Monde défendant la Peuple Espagnol (Paris, 1937), 4; Cedric Dover to Langston Hughes, 10.7.37, Folder 154, Box 7, Langston Hughes papers.

12. Langston Hughes, “Negroes in Spain,” The Volunteer for Liberty (September 13, 1937) in Good Morning, Revolution, 104; William R.

Notes216

Scott, The Sons of Sheba’s Race: African-Americans and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935–1941 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).

13. See Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: Race and the Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012), chapter 6 and the letters between Nehru and Eslanda Goode Robeson in Volume 88, Jawaharlal Nehru Papers, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi.

14. Singh to White, September 11, 1942, “India 1942, June–Dec.,” Box A320, NAACP Papers, LOC. Underlined in quote.

15. Langston Hughes, “Jim Crow’s Last Stand,” The Chicago Defender, October 31, 1942.

16. Langston Hughes, “Ghandi Is Fasting,” in Arnold Rampersad, ed., David Roessel, assoc. ed., The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes (New York: Knopf, Distributed by Random House, 1994), 578; R. Lal Singh to Hughes, October 7, 1942, October 29, 1942, and February 18, 1943, Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University; Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, America: The Land of Superlatives (Bombay: Phoenix Publications, 1946), 209.

17. See Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005).

18. R. Lal Singh to Hughes, October 7, 1942, October 29, 1942, and February 18, 1943; The Chicago Defender, July 25, 1942.

19. “Nazi Plan for Negroes Copies Southern U.S.A.,” The Crisis 48 (March 1941): 71. Roi Ottley, New World A-Coming: Inside Black America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943), 306–307. Also see Harvard Sitkoff, “Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War,” The Journal of American History 58, no. 3 (December 1971): 661–681.

20. Chattopadhyaya, America, 209; “Twelve Millions,” Review of Black America, by Scott Nearing, Book League Monthly 2, no. 2 (June 1929): 174–176, The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, 532.

21. Langston Hughes “Too Much of Race,” The Volunteer for Liberty (August 23, 1937), in Faith Berry, ed., Good Morning, Revolution: Uncollected Social Protest Writings (New York: L. Hill, 1973), 97–99.

22. Sugata Bose, His Majesty’s Opponent: Subhas Chandra Bose and India’s Struggle Against Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011) and A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), chapter 5; Leonard A. Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj: A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Reginald Kerney, African American Views of the Japanese: Solidarity or Sedition? (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998); Gerald Horne, Race War: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire (New York: New York University Press, 2004); Marc

Notes 217

Gallicchio, The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Ernest Allen, Jr., “Waiting for Tojo: The Pro-Japan Vigil of Black Missourians, 1932–1943,” Gateway Heritage (Fall 1994): 16–32; John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986); Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978): especially, 3–11 and 726–730.

23. Langston Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey (New York: Hill and Wang, 1964), 243 and 165.

24. “Negro Writers and the War” (August 24, 1942), in The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, 217.

25. Langston Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey (New York: Hill and Wang, 1964), 10–11, 14, 141; Langston Hughes, The Big Sea: An Autobiography (New York: Hill and Wang, 1940), 11.

26. Langston Hughes, “My America,” in Rayford Logan, ed., What the Negro Wants, in The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, 239; Langston Hughes, “The Revolutionary Armies in China,” The Chicago Defender, October 8, 1949; Langston Hughes, “Concerning the Future of Asia,” The Chicago Defender, August 15, 1953.

27. Dan Burley, “A Negro-American Meets India,” NY Amsterdam News, September 1, 1945, reprinted in Pan-Africa (January 1947), 9–12.

28. Aziz Pabaney to Hughes, November 1, 1944, and December 26, 1947, Hughes Papers.

29. S. L. Bhalla to Langston Hughes, November 25, 1949; Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit to Hughes, November 30, 1949; J. Campbell to Langston Hughes, April 3, 1950; Pritam Lall to Hughes, April 12, 1967; Dwijendra Nandi to Hughes, undated. Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

30. Vigil, April 18, 1950 and Nate White to Sucheta Kripalani, July 25, 1950, Kripalani to Nate White, August 19, 1950, Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

31. Langston Hughes, Introduction to Montage of a Dream Deferred in Arnold Rampersad, ed., The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes (New York: Knopf, 1994), 387; Sachip Sachipada Gupta to Langston Hughes, April 11, 1950 and Gupta to Hughes, April 9, 1951, Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University; David Hye Shalom Arekre to Langston Hughes, June 16, 1948 and Hughes to Arekre, October 6, 1948, in Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University; K. A. Abbas, An Indian Looks at America (Bombay: Thacker,

Notes218

1943); Chattopadhyaya, America, 187; Hughes to T. K. Mahadevan, December 28, 1966, Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

32. Dover to Hughes, October 21, 1946; Dover to Hughes, November 18, 1946; Hughes to Dover, April 23, 1947; Hughes to Dover, August 7, 1947 all in JWJ MSS 26, Box 56, Folder 1059, Hughes Papers.

33. “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” United Asia 5, no. 3 (June 1953). Mrs. Cedric Dover to Hughes, April 8, 1948; T. K. Mahadevan to Langston Hughes, July 4, 1953; Hughes to Mahadevan, July 16, 1953; Mahadevan to Hughes, July 27, 1953; Hughes to Mahadevan, October 2, 1953; Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University; Hughes to Dover, January 9, 1954, Dover Papers.

34. Dover to Hughes, May 14, 1960 and Hughes to Dover, May 28, 1960, Dover Papers.

35. “In This Number,” in “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” 141.

36. Cedric Dover, Brown Phoenix (London: College Press, 1950); Cedric Dover, “The Black Knight,” Phylon 15, no. 1 (1st Quarter, 1954) and “The Black Knight: Part II,” Phylon 15, no. 2 (2nd Quarter, 1954).

37. Dover quoted the literary scholar, George Sampson, “Style is the feather in the arrow, not the feather in the hat.” See Dover, Brown Phoenix.

38. Ibid. and Langston Hughes, “Freedom’s Plow,” in Arnold Rampersad, ed., David Roessel, assoc. ed., The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes (New York: Knopf, Distributed by Random House, 1994), 263; “The Task of the Negro Writer as Artist,” Negro Digest 14 (April 1965): 65, 75 in The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, 425.

39. Dover, Brown Phoenix, 11–12.40. James Baldwin, review of Langston Hughes, Selected Poems, The New

York Times Book Review (March 29, 1959), in Gates and Appiah, Langston Hughes, 38.

41. Cedric Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (3rd Quarter, 1947): 213.

42. Dover, Feathers in the Arrow, 13.43. Kenneth W. Warren, What Was African American Literature? (Cambridge:

Harvard University Press, 2011); Dover, Cimmerii.44. Hughes to Dover, May 5, 1951; Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander, 122 and

173.45. Rochelle Gibson, “This Week’s Personality,” Saturday Review 35 (April

19, 1952): 63 quoted in Maryemma Graham, “The Practice of a Social Art,” in Gates and Appiah, Langston Hughes, 214; Langston Hughes, “My Adventures as a Social Poet,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (1947): 205–212.

46. Maryemma Graham, “The Practice of a Social Art,” in Gates and Appiah, Langston Hughes, 229, italics in original.

Notes 219

47. Langston Hughes, “Writers, Words and the World,” in The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Volume 9, Essays on Art, Race, Politics and World Affairs, Christopher C. De Santis, ed. (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 198–199.

48. Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” 218; The Chicago Defender (National Edition) March 13, 1948, 20.

49. Cedric Cover, “Intergroup Relations and the Coloured World,” Asia: Asian Quarterly of Culture and Synthesis (September 6, 1952): 195.

50. Cedric Dover, “American Negro Art,” The American Review 1, no. 3 (Spring 1961): 9, Aaron Douglas Collection, Fisk University Special Collections.

51. Harold Bloom, “Introduction” and Rampersad, “The Origins of Poetry in Langston Hughes,” 1 and 183; Rampersad, “The Origins of Poetry in Langston Hughes” and Kent, “Hughes and the Afro-American Folk and Cultural Tradition,” 19 and 185–186. Italics in original.

52. Cedric Dover, Feathers in the Arrow: An Approach for Coloured Writers and Readers (Bombay: Padma Publications, 1947), 17.

53. Cedric Dover, “Only Fear,” Pan-Africa (March 1947): 26.54. Du Bois, “Pan-Africanism: A Mission in My Life,” United Asia 7, no. 2

(March 55): 65–70.55. Frederick Douglass, “Pictures,” quoted in John Stauffer, The Black Hearts

of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 45; Alain Locke, “Self-Criticism: The Third Dimension in Culture,” Phylon 11, no. 4 (1950); Cedric Dover, ed., “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” United Asia 5, no. 3 (June 1953): 198.

56. Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” 217–218; Langston Hughes, “To Understand America, Nehru Should Visit Negro Ghettos Too,” The Chicago Defender, November 5, 1949.

Paul Robeson and Race as Solidarity

1. Lloyd L. Brown, The Young Paul Robeson: On My Journey Now (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), xi.

2. Cedric Dover, “Paul Robeson,” George Orwell, ed., in Talking to India: A Selection of English Language Broadcasts to India (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1943), 18; Sheila Tully Boyle and Andrew Bunie, Paul Robeson: The Years of Promise and Achievement (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001).

3. Sarah Lennox, “Reading Transnationally: The GDR and American Black Writers,” in Elaine Kelly and Amy Wlodarski, eds., Art Outside the Lines: New Perspectives on GDR Art Culture (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2011), 111–130; Will Friedwald, Stardust Melodies: The Biography of Twelve of America’s Most Popular Songs (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002), 104–141.

Notes220

4. Joe William Trotter, Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915–45 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Gerald Horne, Black Liberation/Red Scare: Ben Davis and the Communist Party (Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 1993); Mark Solomon, The Cry Was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1919–36 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998); Erik S. McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom: Black Women, American Communism, and the Making of Black Left Feminism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011).

5. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Knopf, 1988); Virginia Hamilton, Paul Robeson: The Life and Times of a Free Black Man (New York: Harper & Row, 1974).

6. Dover to Du Bois, July 12, 1958, Reel 73, DBP. 7. The literature on the Cold War and civil rights has been framed as a

series of debates concerning whether communism or anticommunism either helped or hurt the black freedom struggle. Scholars have made evident, however, that simple interpretations fail to recognize the com-plex interconnections between communism, anticommunism, and civil rights—complexities that are even more important given the fact that his-torical actors themselves often failed to recognize them. Glenda Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: Norton, 2008); Manfred Berg, “Black Civil Rights and Liberal Anticommunism: The NAACP in the Early Cold War,” The Journal of American History 94, no. 1 (June 2007); Eric Arnesen, “No ‘Graver Danger’: Black Anticommunism, the Communist Party, and the Race Question,” and responses from John Earl Haynes, Martha Biondi, Carol Anderson, Kenneth R. Janken, Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 3, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 13–79; Arnesen, “Passion and Politics: Race and the Writing of Working-Class History,” The Journal of the Historical Society 6, no. 3 (Fall 2006): 323–356; Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism,1937–1957 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).

8. Brown, The Young Paul Robeson, xi; W. E. B. Du Bois, Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Howe, 1920), 207.

9. Cedric Dover, Know This of Race (London: Secker & Warburg, 1939), 3, 43, 49–51. For more detailed—and balanced—assessments of the history of Jews in the Soviet Union, see Zvi Gitelman, A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present (New York:

Notes 221

Schocken Books, 1988); Robert Weinberg, Stalin’s Forgotten Zion: Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland, 1928–1996 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Joshua Rubenstein and Vladimir P. Naumov, eds., Stalin’s Secret Pogorm: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Facist Committee, Laura Esther Wolfson, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).

10. FitzRoy Richard Somerset, 4th Baron of Raglan, “Review of Know This of Race,” Man 40 (December 1940): 192; Dover, Know This of Race, 3, 43, 49–51, 81.

11. Cedric Dover, Feathers in the Arrow: An Approach for Coloured Writers and Readers (Bombay: Padma Publications, 1947), 17–18 and 22–26. Also see Dover’s review of Richard Wright’s The Colour Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1956). Cedric Dover (June 1956) “Bandung—Through a Curtain,” United Asia 8, no. 3.

12. Cedric Dover, “Culture and Creativity,” Presence Africaine (September 1956): 287 and 294–295.

13. James Goodman, Stories of Scottsboro (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994); Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).

14. Wendy Z. Goldman, Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin’s Russia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008); George Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism? The Coming Struggle for Africa (New York: Roy Publishers, 1956).

15. Cedric Dover, “Asian Journey,” Trees 18 (April 1955): 243–256; Dover, Feathers in the Arrow, 17–18 and 22–26; Patrick Wright, Passport to Peking: A Very British Mission to Mao’s China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 374–381; Special edition on China, United Asia 8, no. 2 (April 1956).

16. Paul Robeson Speaks, 119.17. “Robeson Lauds Russia at Spingarn Medical Banquet,” Pittsburgh

Courier, October 17, 1945, in Philip S. Foner, ed., Paul Robeson Speaks: Writings, Speeches, Interviews, 1918–1974 (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1978), 162.

18. Eslanda Goode Robeson, Paul Robeson, Negro (London: Victor Gollancz, 1930), 116; Ron Ramdin, Paul Robeson: The Man and His Mission (London: Owen, 1987), 38 and 57; Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich; Kris Manjapra, M. N. Roy: Marxism and Colonial Cosmopolitanism (New York: Routledge, 2010).

19. Ramdin, Paul Robeson, 38, 57, 96.20. Ibid., 84 and 98.21. Dover, Feathers in the Arrow, 17–18 and 22–26; Dover to Du Bois, July

23, 1951, and Du Bois to Dover, September 27, 1951, Reel 66, DBP.

Notes222

22. “Here’s My Story,” Freedom, October 1951, in Paul Robeson Speaks, 288; Speech at convention of National Negro Labor Council, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 27, 1951, Daily World, April 8, 1976, in Paul Robeson Speaks, 291; “Here’s My Story,” Freedom, May 1953, in Paul Robeson Speaks, 350 and “Their Victories for Peace Are Also Ours,” New World Review, November 1955, 16–17, in Paul Robeson Speaks, 408.

23. P. L. Prattis, “Seventeen Days in Independent India,” Pittsburgh Courier, September 17, 1949, 12; Quoted in Helen Laville and Scott Lucas, “The American Way: Edith Sampson, the NAACP, and African American Identity in the Cold War,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (Fall 1996): 571; “Society, Literary Crowd Gathers to Discuss Eslande Robeson’s New Book,” New York Amsterdam News, August 18, 1945, 8; Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Scope of Happiness: A Personal Memoir (New York: Crown Publishers, 1979), 217; W. James Ellison, “Paul Robeson and the State Department,” The Crises 84 (May 1977): 184–189; Paul Robeson, Jr., The Undiscovered Paul Robeson: Quest for Freedom, 1939–1976 (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010), 271–272.

24. Robeson, The Undiscovered Paul Robeson, 182–183, 257.25. Quoted in Eric Bentley, ed., Thirty Years of Treason: Excerpts from

Hearings before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1938–1968 (New York: Viking Press, 1971), 770.

26. Krishna Menon to Cedric Dover, November 12, 1950, Dover Papers.27. Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (New York: Othello Associates, 1958), 91

and 95.28. Ibid., 95–96.29. Ibid., 45.30. Ibid., 73 and 110.31. Dan Burley, “A Negro-American Meets India,” New York Amsterdam

News, September 1, 1945, reprinted in Pan-Africa (January 1947), 9–12.

32. “Double Play: Chaplin Robeson to Malenkov,” Saturday Evening Post 227, no. 4 (1954): 10–12.

33. Robeson, Here I Stand, 90–93.34. Cedric Dover, “Moods of Yesterday,” United Asia, new folder, untitled,

Box 1, Dover Papers.35. Ibid.36. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race

Concept (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1940), 27.37. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the

American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: H. Holt, 2000), 571; Carol Anderson, “Rethinking Radicalism: African Americans and the Liberation Struggles in Somalia, Libya, and Eritrea, 1945–1949,” The Journal of the Historical Society 11, no. 4 (December 2011): 385–423.

38. Paul Robeson Speaks, 129.39. Dover’s personal copy of Paul Robeson: Citizen of the World, Dover Papers.

Notes 223

40. Dover to Elton C Fax, July 20 and July 30, 1959, Dover Papers.41. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Von Eschen, Race against Empire;

Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize; Berg, “Black Civil Rights and Liberal Anticommunism.”

42. Dover to Elton C. Fax, July 20 and July 30, 1959; Ivy to Dover, May 5, 1959, Ivy to Dover, January 10, 1956, all in Dover Papers.

43. Jim Ivy to Cedric Dover, November 7, 1957 and July 18, 1959, Dover Papers.

44. Percy Bysshe Shelley, The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, ed. (London: Edward Moxon, 1939), 119.

45. The Hindu, November 1950, Dover Papers.46. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, America: The Land of Superlatives (Bombay:

Phoenix, 1946), 178, 184–185, and 187.47. The Undiscovered Paul Robeson, 16.48. Eslanda Goode Robeson, Paul Robeson, Negro (London: Victor Gollancz,

1930), 171.49. Ibid., 163.50. Dover, “Paul Robeson,” in Talking to India, 17.51. Cedric Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (3rd

Quarter, 1947), 223–224.52. Anonymous, “Richard Wright and the Coloured Writers,” Pan-Africa 1

(August 1947): 35–36.53. Cedric Dover, “Contemptible,” Daily Worker, May 3, 1956; Cedric

Dover, “Post-Geneva China,” Times of India, December 11, 1954; Photo of Aubrey Pankey, Box 3, Dover Papers.

54. Cedric Dover, “Why I Protest,” Box 3, Dover Papers.55. Barbara Wootton, Testament for Social Science; An Essay in the Application

of Scientific Method to Human Problems (London: Allen & Unwin, 1950); Folder “Personalia,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

56. Timothy Garton Ash, “Orwell’s List,” The New York Review of Books 50, no. 14 (September 25, 2003).

57. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995).

58. Claude Mckay to Carl Cowl, February 12, 1947, Box 2, Folder 42, Claude McKay Papers, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

59. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and Social Hope (New York: Penguin Books, 1999); Émile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society (New York: Macmillan, 1933); Judith Butler, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London and New York: Verso, 2004); Tommie Shelby, We Who Are Dark: The Philosophical Foundations of Black Solidarity (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005).

Notes224

The Black Artist and the Colored World

1. Alain Locke, “Self-Criticism: The Third Dimension in Culture,” Phylon 11, no. 4 (1950); Cedric Dover, ed., “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” United Asia 5, no. 3 (June 1953): 198.

2. Prophet to Dover, July 6, 1959 and Dover to Prophet, July 17, 1959, Dover Papers.

3. Cedric Dover, American Negro Art (Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, 1960), 7.

4. Eldzier Cortor to Dover, July 19, 1959 and Dover to Cortor, July 27, Dover Papers; Interview with Maureen Alexander-Sinclair in London on December 4, 2007.

5. Martin Heidegger, “On the Origin of the Work of Art,” in David Farrell Krell, ed., Basic Writings (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 143–212.

6. Eldzier Cortor, “Room No. V,” in Dover, American Negro Art. 7. Langston Hughes, “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain,” The

Nation (June 23, 1926). 8. Dover, American Negro Art. 9. “Indian asks Negroes to Rise, Fight Back,” Pittsburgh Courier, not dated,

Aaron Douglas Collection, Fisk University Special Collections.10. Cedric Dover, “Notes on Coloured Writing,” Phylon 8, no. 3 (3rd

Quarter, 1947): 221–222 and Cedric Dover “The Snail Regrets,” Phylon 12, no. 4 (1951): 354–355.

11. Locke, “Self-Criticism”; Cedric Dover, ed., “Special Symposium on the American Negro,” United Asia 5, no. 3 (June 1953): 198.

12. Folder “American Negro Art: Photographs and Materials,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

13. Dover, “The Snail Regrets,” 350.14. Cedric Dover, “Culture and Creativity,” Presence Africaine (September

1956): 282 and 295–298.15. Vechten to Dover, June 26, 1948, and Van Vechten to Dover, August

17, 1948, both in Dover’s copy of Nigger Heaven, in MARBL. Also see “American Negro Art: Photographs and Materials,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

16. July 20, 1959, Marjorie bishop to Dover, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence A-B,” Box 1, Dover Papers; American Negro Art, 4–5 and 16.

17. Folder “American Negro Art: Photographs and Materials,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

18. Bearden to Dover, undated, Dover Papers.19. Dover to Bearden, June 14, 1959, Aaron Douglas Collection, Fisk

University Special Collections.20. Ibid.21. Dover to Douglas, May 5, 1959 and June 7, 1959; Douglas to Dover,

June 9, 1959, in Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence C-E,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

Notes 225

22. Allan R. Crite to Dover, August 6, 1959 and Dover to Crite, August 12, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence C-E,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

23. Dover to Dunn, undated, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence C-E,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

24. Dover to White, July 24, 1959; White to Dover, August 5, 1959; and Dover to White, August 22, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence T-Z,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

25. Letter to Dover from Mary Beattie Brady, Director, the Harmon Foundation, June 1, 1959, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence F-H,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

26. Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence F-H,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

27. Elton C. Fax to Dover, July 23, 1959, and Dover to Fax, July 30, 1959, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence F-H,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

28. Earl J. Hooks to Dover, undated, and Dover to Hooks, August 9, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence F-H,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

29. Norma Morgan to Dover, July 22, 1959, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence M-O,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

30. Dover to Morgan, July 30, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence M-O,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

31. Morgan to Dover, August 6, 1959, and Dover to Morgan, August 11, 1959, Folder “American Negro Art Correspondence M-O,” Box 1, Dover Papers. Copies of Trees are available in the Dover papers.

32. American Negro Art, 11. Cedric Dover, “American Negro Art,” The American Review 1, no. 3 (Spring 1961), Aaron Douglas Collection, Fisk University Special Collections.

33. “American Negro Art,” in Dover Papers, MARBL.34. American Negro Art, 11.35. Dover, “American Negro Art.”36. Nico Slate, ed., Black Power Beyond Borders (New York: Palgrave

Macmillan, forthcoming); “American Negro Art,” in Dover Papers, MARBL.

37. Du Bois to Dover, November 9, 1960, Reel 74; Hughes to T. K. Mahadevan, December 28, 1966, Folder 3727, Box 225, Langston Hughes Papers (Series I–IV), JWJ MSS 26, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

38. American Negro Art, 4–5.39. Dover to Douglas, August 21, 1956 and May 2, 1960, Aaron Douglas

Collection, Fisk University Special Collections.40. American Negro Art, 15, 25, 29.41. Ibid., 44, italics included, 45, 48, 55–56.42. Ibid., 32 and 48.43. Ibid., 32.44. Ibid., 32 and 36.

Notes226

45. Ibid., 33.46. Ibid., 36.47. Ibid., 12–13; 17, 19.48. Ibid., 13, 15, 30, 32–33.49. Ibid., 20–21, 23, 25, 29, 36–37, 40, 42.50. Ibid., 24.51. Ibid., 54.52. Ibid., 30–31.53. Ibid., 56, 186.54. Ibid., 44.55. Ed Wilson to Dover, September 26, 1961; Delilah W. Pierce to Dover,

October 1 1961, Claude A. Barnett to Dover, May 23, 1961, all in “Correspondence,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

56. Maureen Dover to Langston Hughes, January 16, 1962; James Parks, to Mrs. Maureen Alexander Dover June 8, 1962, and Aaron Douglas to Mrs. Maureen Alexander Dover, March 12, 1962, “Correspondence,” Box 1, Dover Papers.

Conclusion: The Death and Rebirth of the Colored World

1. Cedric Dover, “These Things We Shared: An Appendix,” Phylon 14, no. 2 (2nd Quarter, 1953): 145–146.

2. Bob Dunbar S. McLaurin, “India Would Welcome Negro Ambassador,” The Pittsburgh Courier, March 4, 1950, 1; St. Clair Drake, “Brother India,” The Pittsburgh Courier, August 3, 1946, 7; Sana Aiyar, “Anticolonial Homelands across the Indian Ocean: The Politics of the Indian Diaspora in Kenya, ca. 1930–1950,” The American Historical Review 116, no. 4 (October 2011).

3. Dover to Du Bois, July 23, 1951, and Du Bois to Dover, September 27, 1951, Reel 66, DBP.

4. Micol Seigel, Uneven Encounters: Making Race and Nation in Brazil and the United States (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009); David Luis-Brown, Waves of Decolonization: Discourses of Race and Hemispheric Citizenship in Cuba, Mexico, and the United States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); George Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (New York: New Press, 2007); Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen, eds., Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008); Heike Raphael-Hernandez and Shannon Steen, eds., AfroAsian Encounters: Culture,

Notes 227

History, Politics, with a foreword by Vijay Prashad and afterword by Gary Okihiro (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Alfred Sauvy, “Trois Mondes, Une Planete,” L’Observateur, August 1952; Leslie Wolf-Phillips, “Why ‘Third World’?: Origin, Definition and Usage,” Third World Quarterly, 9, no. 4 (1987): 1311–1327; B. R. Tomlinson, “What Was the Third World,” Journal of Contemporary History 38, no. 2 (2003): 307–321.

5. On Bandung, see Prashad, The Darker Nations and Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: Race and the Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012).

6. On the early history of intracolored relations within the United States, see Thomas Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History 92 (March 2006): 1212–1237; Scott Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); Allison Varzally, Making a Non-White America, Californians Coloring Outside Ethnic Lines, 1925–1955 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2008); Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform in California, 1941–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Neil Foley, Quest for Equality, The Failed Promise of Black-Brown Solidarity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010); Shana Bernstein, Bridges of Reform: Interracial Civil Rights Activism in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Vijay Prashad, The Karma of Brown Folk (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000) and Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Plurality (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001).

7. David A. Hollinger, “The Historian’s Use of the United States and Vice Versa,” in Thomas Bender, ed., Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); David A. Hollinger, “Rethinking Diversity,” California Magazine (July/August 2006), 47–49; Scott Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); Varzally, Making A Non-White America; Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform in California, 1941–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

8. The history of colored cosmopolitanism, a history of activists working to create solidarities across multiple divides, both supports and bal-ances the argument that Daniel T. Rodgers offers in his sweeping Age of Fracture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). Rodgers’s careful and contextualized analysis stands in contrast with the alarmist tracks that were produced in the 1990s as a response to the extreme racial

Notes228

and cultural nationalism of some advocates of multiculturalism. See, for example, Tamar Jacoby, Someone Else’s House: America’s Unfinished Struggle for Integration (New York: Free Press, 1998) and Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1995).

9. Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou, “The New Second Generation: Segmented Assimilation and Its Variants among Post-1965 Immigrant Youth,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 530 (1993): 74–98; Gary Gerstle and John Mollenkopf, E Pluribus Unum? Contemporary and Historical Perspectives on Immigrant Political Incorporation (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001); Reed Ueda, Postwar Immigrant America: A Social History (Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1994); Russell A. Kazal, “Revisiting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept in American Ethnic History,” The American Historical Review 100, no. 2 (April 1995): 437–471; Rogers Brubaker, “The Return of Assimilation? Changing Perspectives on Immigration and Its Sequels in France, Germany, and the United States,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 24, no. 4 (2001): 531–548; David A. Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism, Revised Edition (New York: Basic Books, 2005).

10. Bob Browne, Letter to the New York Times, February 6, 1962, Box 20, Folder 1, Browne Papers, Schomburg Library, New York; Muhammad Ali, “The Measure of a Man,” Freedomways 72, no. 2 (Spring 1967): 1010–1102; Robin D. G. Kelley and Betsy Esch, “Black like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution,” Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society 1, no. 4 (1999): 6–41; Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism, chapter 7; Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking, 2011), 130–131, 166, 317.

11. Larry Kobata, “Yellow Power!” Gidra (April 1969) and Amy Uyematsu, “The Emergence of Yellow Power in America,” Gidra (October 1969), 8–11; Richard Rodriguez, Brown: The Last Discovery of America (New York: Viking, 2002); Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 169–177; Daryl J. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen: Constructing Asian American Identity through Performing Blackness, 1969–1972,” American Quarterly 57 (2005): 1079–1103; Steven G. Louie and Glenn K. Omatsu, Asian Americans: The Movement and the Moment (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2001); Fred Ho, ed., Legacy to Liberation: Politics and Culture of Revolutionary Asian Pacific America (San Francisco: AK Press, 2000); Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (Boston: Twayne, 1991); William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Diane Fujino, “Who Studies the Asian American Movement? A Historiographical Analysis,” Journal of Asian American Studies 11, no.2 (June 2008): 127–169; Daryl Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement (New York: Routledge,

Notes 229

2012) and Chains of Babylon: The Rise of Asian America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Elizabeth Sutherland Martínez and Enriqueta Longeaux y Vásquez, Viva la Raza! The Struggle of the Mexican-American People (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974); Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: New Press, 1996); Diane C. Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).

12. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (Watertown, MA: Persephone Press, 1981), xiv, xvi, 5, 46–52, 105; Also see Dayo F. Gore, Jeanne Theoharis, and Komozi Woodard, eds., Want To Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle (New York: New York University Press, 2009); Winifred Breines, The Trouble Between Us: An Uneasy History of White and Black Women in the Feminist Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Kimberly Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); Alma M. García, ed., Chicana Feminist Thought: The Basic Historical Writings (New York: Routledge, 1997). Kathryn T. Flannery, Feminist Literacies (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005); Alice Echols, Daring To Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); Stephanie Gilmore, ed., Feminist Coalitions: Historical Perspectives on Second-Wave Feminism in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008); Nancy Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010); Maythee Rojas, Women of Color and Feminism (Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2009); Vicki L. Ruiz with Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: An Inclusive Reader in U.S. Women’s History, Fourth Edition (New York: Routledge, 2008); Benitha Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Jennifer Nelson, Women of Color and the Reproductive Rights Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2003).

13. Audre Lorde, “Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference,” in Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1984).

14. The Combahee River Collective Statement: Black Feminist Organizing in the Seventies and Eighties (Albany, NY: Women of Color Press, 1986).

15. On intersectionality, see Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991): 1241–1299; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “African-American Women’s History and the Metalanguage of Race,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17, no. 2 (Winter 1992): 251–274; and Leslie McCall, “The Complexity of Intersectionality,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 30,

Notes230

no. 3 (2007): 1771–1800. Also see Yvonne Yarbro-Bejerano, “Chicana Literature from a Chicana Feminist Perspective,” in Maria Herrera-Sobek and Helena Maria Viramontes, eds., Chicana Creativity and Criticism: New Frontiers in American Literature (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1988), 140.

16. Moraga and Anzaldúa, This Bridge Called My Back, ii–iii.17. Cherríe Moraga and Ana Castillo, eds., Esta Puente, Mi Espalda: Voces de

Mujeres Tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos (San Francisco: Ism Press, 1988), 1 (author’s translation).

18. Audre Lorde, “For the Record” from The Collected Poems of Audre Lorde (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 411; Gail Lewis, “Audre Lorde: Vignettes and Mental Conversations,” Feminist Review 80 (2005): 143–144.

19. Charles Lee, Proceedings: The First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit (New York: United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice, 1992); Dana Alston, “Transforming a Movement: People of Color Unite at Summit against Environmental Racism,” Sojourner 21 (1992): 30–31; Robert D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class and Environmental Quality (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994); Luke W. Cole and Sheila R. Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001); Rachel Stein, ed., New Perspectives on Environmental Justice: Gender, Sexuality, and Activism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004); Robert D. Bullard, ed., The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 2005); Julie Sze, Noxious New York: The Racial Politics of Urban Health and Environmental Justice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007); Patrick Novotny, Where We Live, Work and Play: The Environmental Justice Movement and the Struggle for a New Environmentalism (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000); Ronald Sandler and Phaedra C. Pezzullo, Environmental Justice and Environmentalism: The Social Justice Challenge to the Environmental Movement (Cambridge: MA: MIT Press, 2007); Dana Alston, ed., We Speak for Ourselves: Social Justice, Race, and Environment (Washington, DC: Panos Institute, 1990).

20. Eileen McGurty, Transforming Environmentalism: Warren County, PCBS, and the Origins of Environmental Justice (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007).

21. Roberto Suro, “Pollution-Weary Minorities Try Civil Rights Tack,” The New York Times, January 11, 1993; Louis Head and Michael Guerrero, “Fighting Environmental Racism,” New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy (March 18, 1991): 38–42.

22. Lee, Proceedings, 3, 13, 67, 71.23. Ibid., 60–62, 67.

Notes 231

24. Eric Mann, “L. A.’s Lethal Air: New Strategies for Policy, Organizing, and Action” (Los Angeles, Labor/Community Strategy Center, 1991), 9, 54–55 and 57.

25. Lee, Proceedings, xvii, 2, 22 and 46–47, 58, 68, 128, 200; Cole and Foster, From the Ground Up, 4.

26. Filomina Chioma Steady, ed., Environmental Justice in the New Millennium: Global Perspectives on Race, Ethnicity, and Human Rights (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); David A. McDonald, ed., Environmental Justice in South Africa (Athens, OH: Ohio State University, 2002); David Pellow, Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007); Ramachandra Guha, How Much Should a Person Consume? Environmentalism in India and the United States (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006); Ramachandra Guha and J. Martinez-Alier, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South (London: Earthscan, 1997); Christof Mauch, Nathan Stoltzfus, and Douglas R. Weiner, eds., Shades of Green: Environmental Activism Around the Globe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).

27. Transnational African American history has been at the forefront of the “transnational turn” in American history, and race has garnered sig-nificant attention within historiographic debates about the nature of the transnational. The history of colored cosmopolitanism offers new insights into the importance of transnational racial solidarities, solidari-ties that can help us frame the transnational in new ways. Paul Kramer, “Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World,” The American Historical Review 116, no. 5 (December 2011): 1348–1391; Thomas Bender, Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); “On Transnational History,” American Historical Review 111, no. 5 (December 2006): 1440–1464; Michael J. Hogan, “The ‘Next Big Thing’: The Future of Diplomatic History in a Global Age,” Diplomatic History 28 (January 2004): 1–21 and the roundtable on “Diplomatic History Today,” Journal of American History 95, no. 4 (March 2009): 1053–1091; Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Niall Ferguson, Charles S. Maier, Erez Manela, and Daniel Sargent, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010); Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).

28. Steven Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South From Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003); Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Paul Gilroy, Against Race: Imagining

Notes232

Political Culture Beyond the Color Line (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000).

29. David Hollinger has made clear that his own vision of “post-ethnic” retains room for “communities of descent whose progeny choose to devote their energies to these communities even after experiencing opportunities for affiliating with other kinds of people.” Hollinger, Postethnic America, 13, 118, 197. “Shahid Agha Ali to King,” December 28, 1963, Folder 5, Box 71, Martin Luther King Papers, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Center, Atlanta, Georgia; Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Thomas F. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: