Prediction of AMD

Prediction of AMD generation potential in mining wastepiles, in the sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit, Iran

Soroush Modabberi & Ali Alizadegan &Hassan Mirnejad & Esmat Esmaeilzadeh

Received: 28 November 2012 /Accepted: 25 April 2013 /Published online: 28 June 2013# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract This study investigates the possibility ofacid mine drainage (AMD) generation in active andderelict mine waste piles in Sarcheshmeh CopperMine produced in several decades, using static testsincluding acidbase accounting (ABA) and net acid-generating pH (NAGpH). In this study, 51 compositesamples were taken from 11 waste heaps, and staticABA and NAGpH tests were carried out on samples.While some piles are acid producing at present andAMD is discharging from the piles, most of them donot show any indication on their AMD potential, andthey were investigated to define their acid-producingpotential. The analysis of data indicates that eightwaste piles are potentially acid generating with netneutralization potentials (NNPs) of 56.18 to 199.3,net acid generating of 2.193.31, and NPRs from 0.18to 0.44. Other waste piles exhibited either a very lowsulfur, high carbonate content or excess carbonateover sulfur; hence, they are not capable of acid pro-duction or they can be considered as weak acid pro-ducers. Consistency between results of ABA and

NAGpH tests using a variety of classification criteriavalidates these tests as powerful means for preliminaryevaluation of AMD/ARD possibilities in any miningdistrict. It is also concluded that some of the piles withvery negative NNPs are capable to produce AMDnaturally, and they can be used in heap leaching pro-cess for economic recovery of trace amounts of metalswithout applying any biostimulation methods.

Keywords Acid mine drainage . Net acid generation .

Neutralization potential . AMD prediction . Porphyrycopper deposit

Introduction

Porphyry copper deposits (PCDs) account for morethan 40 % of world copper production and more thana third of world copper reserves (Vanecek 1994; Bor-den 2002). The mining of porphyry copper ore-bodiesgenerally produces huge amounts of mine wastes,exposing disseminated sulfide minerals contained tothe surface weathering conditions through this processaccelerating natural chemical weathering processes.

Oxidation of even small amounts of these sulfideminerals may result in acid mine drainage (AMD)production and the release of potentially toxic ele-ments into the environment (Lapakko 1996; Lawrenceand Wang 1997; Plumlee 1999; Nordstrom and Alpers1999; Smith and Skema 2001; Borden 2002) and hasbeen regarded as an important and key sustainability

Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:90779087DOI 10.1007/s10661-013-3237-9

S. Modabberi (*) :A. Alizadegan :H. MirnejadSchool of Geology, University College of Science,University of Tehran,Tehran, Irane-mail: [email protected]

E. EsmaeilzadehNational Iranian Copper Industries Company, SarcheshmehCopper Corporation,Kerman, Iran

issue for the mining and minerals sector (Azapagic2004). The pollution load resulting from AMD pro-duction depends on the extent of sulfide weatheringand also heavy metal mobility (Stromberg andBanwart 1999). Secondary sulfate minerals associatedwith acid drainage usually include efflorescent saltsand Fe and Al-hydroxy-sulfate minerals containingheavy loads of potentially toxic elements (Nordstromand Alpers 1999; Bigham and Nordstrom 2000;Plumlee 1999; Modabberi 2004). AMD is the princi-pal source of surface and groundwater pollution inmining areas (Schreck 1998; Taylor 1998; Akbazaaet al. 2007). Thus, the proper management of acid-generating mine wastes is regarded to be one of thebiggest environmental concerns associated with metalmining operations worldwide (Warhurst and Noronha2000; Borden 2002; Lengke et al. 2010).

Several geochemical tests are used currently forprediction and estimation of acid-producing potentialof mine wastes. Static tests are considered as the mostimportant geochemical tests for this purpose. Kinetictests have been developed to simulate or examineweathering of mine-waste material considering therelative rates of reactions of acid-producing and acid-neutralizing constituents. Morin and Hutt (1998) fo-cused in their valuable paper on the relationship be-tween geochemical kinetic tests and the prediction ofacid rock drainage (ARD). These tests are generallyused when the results of static tests are not helpful orneed further details. Kinetic tests tend to be expensiveand time consuming (White and Lapakko 2000;Jambor et al. 2000; Lottermosser 2007; Lengke et al.2010). On the other hand, static tests such as acidbaseaccounting (ABA), net carbonate value (NCV), pastepH, and net acid-generating pH (NAGpH) are fasterand cheaper, and of course, acceptable estimates willbe generally obtained on potential to produce or neu-tralize acid. However, they do not provide any infor-mation on the dissolution rate of minerals. ABA incombination with NAGpH test is used for screeningsamples regarding their acid generation potential(Schafer 2000; Greenhill 2000; Canadian Mine Envi-ronment Neutral Drainage (MEND) 2001; Lengke etal. 2010; Akabzaa et al. 2007). Akbazaa et al. (2007)described the NAGpH test as a very simple, rapid andcost-effective method, which simulates a long-termoxidation in 24 hr.

In addition to adverse impacts of AMD, they maycontain valuable elements leached from the rock body.

Several methods were improved to economically extractthe elements form waste rocks or low-grade ores.Luptakova et al. (2012) demonstrate the technical feasi-bility of heavy metals removal from AMD using phys-icalchemical and biologicalchemical methods inabandoned Smolnk deposit in Slovakia. Ehrlich(2004) describes in full detail the extraction of metalvalues from ores with the aid of microorganisms(bioleaching).

Akcil and Koldas (2006) provide a full explanationof the occurrence and sources of AMD, their control andneutralization processes, and the primary factors deter-mining the rate of acid generation. They believe that pH,temperature, oxygen concentration, and chemical acti-vation energy for initiation of acid generation and ofcourse bacterial activity are among the key factors.

Egiebor and Oni (2007) present a detailed review of thescientific knowledge with regard to the magnitude of theproblem, the chemistry and mechanism of ARD forma-tion, the role of microorganisms, and the approaches forthe treatment, control, and prevention of ARD formation.

The Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit, thelargest copper mine in the region, consists of aboutone billion tons of ore with average grade of 0.9 % forcopper and 0.03 % for molybdenum (Banisi and Finch2001). During several decades of mining, about 330million tons of sulfide ore and 36 million tons of oxideore have been extracted and it has been accompaniedby the extraction of more than 400 million tons ofbarren or low-grade mining wastes stored randomlyaround the open pit of the mine. Waste produced at thefirst stages of mining activity contains subeconomicamounts of copper, molybdenum, and other metals.Most of the researches carried out on this deposit havefocused on various aspects of economic geology in-cluding alteration, sulfide mineralization, and ore gen-esis; however, none has examined the environmentalgeochemistry of waste piles.

AMD is the most important environmental threat inSarcheshmeh area. The world-famous Iranian pistachioorchards of Rafsanjan are irrigated by the water from theShour Stream downstream the mine, and any contami-nation load released may affect the invaluable agricul-ture in this area. For example, the AMD enriched inheavy metals flowed into the Shour Stream in 2008,caused a major pollution and mass mortality of cattle.

The objective of this paper is to assess the potentialof generation of AMD in selected mine-waste pilesproduced during more than 25 years of mining activity

9078 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:90779087

in the Sarcheshmeh deposit in terms of its acidbaseaccounting characteristics. Based on the results of thispaper, appropriate management strategies can beadopted in order to mitigate the environmental impactsof AMD production. The other direct implication andnovelty of this paper is using the static methods asmeans of classifying the waste piles for heap leachingtechniques based on their acid-producing or acid-neutralizing potential deduced from the tests.

The Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit

The Sarcheshmeh PCD is located in a mountainousarea in south-central Iran, about 160 km southwest ofKerman, in the southeast segment of the Central IranCenozoic Magmatic Arc (Urumieh-Dokhtar belt).Figure 1 illustrates the location of the SarcheshmehPCD on a simplified geological map of Iran.

The mean elevation of the open pit mine is 2,650 mabove sea level, and it is located in latitude 2957 Nand longitude 5551E. The main access road to themine is the Kerman-Rafsanjan-Shahr Babak road. Theannual precipitation in the mining area varies from300 to 550 mm. The temperature varies from +35 Cin summer to 20 C in winter.

The geology, alteration, and mineralization of thedeposit have been described by Bazin et al. (1968),Waterman and Hamilton (1975), Etminan (1977),Shahabpour (1982), Shahabpour and Kramers (1987).

Copper mineralization in Sarcheshmeh is associat-ed with a granodioritic stock intruded into a folded andfaulted lower Tertiary volcano-sedimentary seriescomprising andesitic lavas, tufts, ignimbrites and ag-glomerates (Waterman and Hamilton 1975).According to Shahabpour and Kramers (1987), thealteration assemblage in the Sarcheshmeh deposit istypically the alteration zones observed in other PCDs.A potassic zone, characterized by secondary K-feldspar and biotite, surrounds the lower grade core.This potassic zone has been overprinted by a retro-grade phyllic alteration. A strongly biotitized innerzone, overprinted by weak phyllic alteration, has athickness of 50400. An outer, weakly biotitized zone,subjected to strong phyllic alteration, is 50150 mthick and forms a phyllic ring with an outer limitcorresponding roughly to the 0.4 % Cu cut-off grade.A propylitic zone, approximately 1 km thick, sur-rounds the whole complex and grades into unaltered

andesite (Waterman and Hamilton 1975; Etminan1977; Shahabpour and Kramers 1987).

The primary base metal minerals in the Sarcheshmehdeposit are pyrite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and traceamounts of bornite. The highest copper grade is associ-ated with the potassicbiotitic alteration. Both copper andmolybdenum grades decrease inwards, (Waterman andHamilton 1975; Shahabpour 1982). Open pit mining isused to extract the Sarcheshmeh copper deposit, andmore than 21 million tons of ore per year is extracted.

The mining wastes in the Sarcheshmeh miningdistrict have been distributed in the lands and valleysadjacent to the mine pit (Fig. 2). Pile 15 located in thewest side of the mine pit is the largest pile containing avoluminous amount of mine wastes some of which areproducing AMD at present (Fig. 3). The eastern part ofthe mine valley accommodates piles 11 and 26. Piles30 and 31 are located in the northeastern part of themine. The southern valleys have been occupied byinactive piles including piles 18, 19, 20, 21, and 24.Since the materials stored in some waste piles e.g., 23,17, and 10, have been used for construction purposesor heap leaching, nothing remained from these pilesfor sampling and further study. Mine-waste type anddate of start and end of loading in each pile have beenpresented in Table 1.

Materials and methods

Because of the heterogeneity of mining wastes, it isdifficult to take a representative sample from a mine-waste pile; hence, composite samples were collectedby mixing of at least four samples in different partsof the piles in order to take into account the effect ofweathering and to study secondary minerals, espe-cially where they have been produced in a longperiod of time.

In this research, 51 composite samples were col-lected from 11 mine-waste piles distributed around theSarcheshmeh open pit. Each sample was crushed andhomogenized in a jaw crusher, being pulverized tominus 150 m, and then analyzed for total sulfur. Itis assumed that almost all of the present sulfur insample is in the form of sulfide.

Generally, several acid-producing potential (APP)and neutralization potential (NP) procedures are usedby authors yielding different results. Among variousmethods available for ABA, a method proposed by

Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:90779087 9079

Alborz Mountains

Sanandaj-Sirjan zone

Lut block

Eastern Iran

Sahand-Bazman belt

Makran

Central Iran

Zagros fold belt

Kopet Dagh

SYMBOLS

Study areaFaultThrust Fault

TEHRAN

Km.

Kerman

Persian Gulf

Caspian Sea

Sar-Cheshmeh

0 100 200

4845 51 54 57 60 63

39

37

35

33

31

29

27

25

Fig. 1 The main structural units of geology of Iran, showing the location of Sarcheshmeh PCD in Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic belt ofcentral Iran (adopted from Hezarkhani 2006)


Sobek et al. (1978) is widely used by different authors.In this method, sulfur and acid-consumption potentialare used to characterize the bulk acid-generatingand acid-neutralizing characteristics of a sample. TheMiller et al. (1997) method has been used because ofits validity respect to other methods to calculate ABAand NAGpH. APP has been calculated based on theexpression APP=31.25sulfur wt% in the sample(Sobek et al. 1978; Plumlee 1999). APP is expressedin terms of kilograms of calcium carbonate required toneutralize the acid which is supposed to be formed bythe complete oxidation of all of the potentially acid-generating sulfides in 1000 kg of rock.

On the other hand, the NP of a samples was deter-mined by adding a specified amount of HCl withgiven normality to a sample with specified weight(

In addition, net acid generating (NAG) test is usedin association with the ABA to classify the acid pro-ducing potential of samples. The NAG test comprises

the reaction of a sample with hydrogen peroxide toquickly oxide any sulfide minerals present within asample. During the NAG test, acid generation and acidneutralization reactions can occur concurrently.Hence, the final result represents a direct measurementof the net quantity of the acid generated by the sample.This value is commonly referred to as the NAG ca-pacity and is expressed in unit kg H2SO4/t. NAG testbegins by adding 250 ml of 15 % hydrogen peroxideto 2.5 g of sample. The peroxide is allowed to reactwith the sample overnight. The acidity of the liquor isthen used to estimate the net amount of acid producedper unit weight of the sample.

All chemicals used in the analysis were ultrapurepro analysi materials produced by MERCK, and allsolutions were prepared with double-distilled water.Total sulfur was analyzed by inductively coupled plas-ma atomic emission spectroscopy, Varian Liberty- RLmodel.

Discussion

As indicated in Table 1, according to mineralogicalinvestigations, WP11 is mostly oxidic composed ofoxidized minerals and WP5 has sulfidic mineralogy;however, other waste dumps show compositemineralogy.

Based on the analytical procedures described pre-viously, APP, NP, NNP, NPR, NAGpH, and NAGvalues have been calculated for the samples in termsof kilograms of calcium carbonate equivalent per1,000 kg of rock and have been shown in Table 3.

Fig. 3 Natural production of acid mine drainage around thewaste piles in the Sarcheshmeh Mine. Width of image: a 10 mand b 2 m

Table 1 The characteristics and duration of activity of waste piles (WP) in the Sarcheshmeh PCD

Waste pile Waste type Starting date Closing date

WP 5 Sulfidic January 4, 1977 January 20, 2002

WP 11 Oxidic February 25, 1975 Active

WP 15 Sulfidic August 22, 1978 Active

WP 18 Composite November 4, 1976 September 22, 1995

WP 19 Composite June 8, 1976 Jun 21, 1999

WP 20 Composite October 10, 1976 November 21,1999

WP 21 Composite November 30, 1976 Active

WP 24 Composite July 10, 1976 October 22, 2003

WP 26 Composite July 6, 1978 Active

WP 30 Composite December 22, 1994 Active

WP 31 Composite April 9, 1983 Active


According to Table 3, all parameters show a widerange indicating the heterogeneity of wastes producedin the Sarcheshmeh Deposit. APP values range from1.88 to 213.44, NP is between 14.3 and 78.7, NNPbetween 199.31 and 76.89, NAPP ranges from76.92 to 194.87, NPR from 0.07 to 42.01, NAGpHfrom 2.19 to 6.65, and NAG ranges from 0 to 27.52.Total sulfur shows a range between 0.06 and 6.83.

Sobek et al. (1978), Lawrence and Wang (1997)and also Stromberg and Banwart (1999) suggested thata waste material is capable of acid production whenthe NNP is less than 5 kg CaCO3/t. In other words, inorder to produce acid, a rock should contain more than0.16 % (5/31.25=0.16) sulfur. Although Day (1989)proposed that an NNP value of +10 kg CaCO3/tshould be used as threshold for acid production. Priceet al. (1997) assumed that rocks with NNP valuesbelow 0 and NPR values above 1 are possibly acidgenerating unless the sulfur content is 2.5, uncertain if 2.5>NP/AP >1, and acid generating if NP/AP

mineral in thin-polished sections of most of the wastepiles. Samples D21 and D24 with NPR1.1 haveuncertain (UC) characteristics, and for more certitude,they should be tested kinetically. Pile D20 is found tobe nonacid forming (NAF) in all conditions, based onits very high NPR value. This interpretation is exactlyconsistent with Ferguson and Morin (1991) for NNPvalues (Fig. 4). Figure 5 illustrates the diagram of NPversus APP values (Castendyk et al. 2005). The best-fit line in Fig. 4 shows the values of NP=APP forrock samples. The NP values of samples in this re-search are mostly lower than 80 kg CaCO3/t. Never-theless, the rocks whose data are plotted below thisline can theoretically produce solutions with acidicpH. Thus, based on this diagram, piles D15, D19,D31, D30, D11, D5, and D26 are PAF, whereas pilesD20, D24, D18, and D26 do not generate any acid andclassify as NAF.

In Fig. 6, another classification scheme has been illus-trated based on Ian Wark Research Institute (2002). The

diagram is based on the NAPP versus NAGpH valuesconfirming the results derived from other methods.

Conclusion

In this research, different static tests and criteria havebeen used for the classification and evaluation of acid-production potential in waste piles dumped during sev-eral decades in the Sarcheshmeh copper deposit includ-ing NNP, NPR, NP/AP, APP, NAPP, and NAGpH.

Different lower and upper thresholds were intro-duced by different authors. Stromberg and Banwart(1999) used 5 kg CaCO3/t as the upper limit of acidproduction. However, Day (1989), Price et al. (1997),SRK (1989), and Ferguson and Morin (1991) assumedthat the samples with NNP values less than +10, 0,20, and 20 kg CaCO3/t are potentially acid gener-ating, respectively. On the other hand, +20 is definedas the upper limit, and any rock with NNP >+20 has

Table 4 Interpretation of ABA Results by NPR screening criteria (Price et al. 1997)

AMDPotential

NPR NPR Comments

Sulfide-S4 No further AMD testing required unless materials are to be used as a source of alkalinity

Fig. 4 Illustration of ABAResults in a diagram basedon NNP and % S (Fergusonand Morin 1991)


the potential for acid production. NNP values in theSarcheshmeh samples were calculated between199.31 and 76.89 based on the analytical results. Inany case, the Sarcheshmeh waste piles D5, D11, D15,D18, D19, D26, D30, and D31 are acid producing, andD20 has a large NNP value with no potential for acidproduction. These assessments indicate that there is anexcellent consistency in different methods, and all ofthem support each other in differentiating waste pileswith acid-producing potential.

NPR values used by Price et al. (1997) are between0.07 and 0.44 for samples collected fromwaste piles D5,D11, D15, D18, D19, D26, D30, and D31; so, in com-parison to the threshold value of >2, they are consideredto be PAF. Since PAF samples in the Sarcheshmehdeposit show very large negative NNP and very lowNPR values, they definitely produce acid.

While samples D21 and D24 are considered uncer-tain to produce acid based on NNP, APP, and NAPP,

they should be tested kinetically in order to find outtheir acid-forming potential. Sample D20 by no meansis capable of producing acid.

Comparison of different criteria led the authors torecommend the following threshold values for acid pro-duction potential of any waste or rock body: APP>50,NNP0, NPR

Using a combination of these rapid and low-costmethods can be used in Sarcheshmeh to start a pilotproject of heap leaching for the recovery of valuablemetals. In this case, the waste piles can naturallyproduce the acid required to leach metals from thewaste rocks, and there is no need to add bacteria orstimulate the heaps by artificial methods.

Acknowledgments Authors would like to thank the NationalIranian Copper Industries Company (NICICO) for financialsupport to this project according to student research supportno. 946172; especially, Ms. E. Eslami and Mr. M. Adbollahi.Thanks are also due to the School of Geology, University ofTehran for providing laboratory facilities for part of this re-search. The authors also wish to thank Professor MohammadReza Ganjali, Dean of University College of Science and out-standing professor of the School of Chemistry of the Universityof Tehran for his advice and also Meysam Vaez zadeh andHamid Reza Rahimi Lanji for their help with geochemical tests.The researchers would like to express their appreciation for thehelp of Dr. Rich Borden for his invaluable comments andadvice. We would like to express our sincere thanks to anony-mous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Prediction of AMD generation potential in mining waste piles, in the sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit, IranAbstractIntroductionThe Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper depositMaterials and methodsDiscussionConclusionReferences

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Prediction of AMD