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P.re-decisional Deliberative
Material Draft Write-up of Wildlife Management Principles Applicable
to the National Elk Refuge and Grand Teton National Park Bison and Elk Management Planning Process
(February 4, 2004)
Habitat Management
.../ 1) One of the most basic principles of wildlife conservation is that wildlife populations
and communities require suitable habitat to be sustained (Leopold 1933, Burger 1979,
WGFD Staff 1995, USFWS 1999) .
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2) Another fundamental principles of wildlife management is that, if habitat in its present
condition is not producing or sustaining desired levels of wildlife populations, habitat can
be manipulated to achieve desired results (Leopold 1933, Dasmann 1964, Thomas 1979,
Yoakum et al. 1980, Peek 1986). As noted by Yoakum et al. (1980:330), "the
maintenance or manipulation of wildlife habitat is a major component of the wildlife
biologist ' s responsibility."
3)Specific to national wildlife refuges, a key principle is that refuges must provide
healthy habitat in order for benefits to be provided to wildlife and for the NWRS mission
and refuge purposes to be accomplished (USFWS 1999) .
.../ 4) To maintain or restore native biological diversity, natural habitat conditions must be
approximated, which may involve managing habitat to mimic natural systems or allowing
natural processes to shape and sustain habitat, or a combination of both (Wagner et al.
1995, Noss and Cooperider 1994, USFWS 1999, NPS 2000, USFWS 2002:601 FW 3).
Because elk and bison are native to Jackson Hole, they are part of the native biological
diversity.
Population Management
1) One of the most basic principles is that wildlife populations can be controlled by
humans through activities such as hunting (regulated harvest) , trapping, and capture and
slaughter (Leopold 1933, Cummings 1979, Bailey 1984, Peek 1986, WGFD Staff 1995).
2) In the absence of such population control measures, populations will be regulated by
other factors such as food availability and predators (Wagner et al. 1995, NPS 2000).
3) Wildlife management traditionally focuses on populations, not individual animals
(Peek 1986, USFWS 1992:70 1 FW 1.3).
4) Hunting has long been recognized as a wildlife management tool to control wildlife
populations (Leopold 1933, Cununings 1979, Bailey 1986, WGFD Staff 1995). On
national wildlife refuges, hunting is an accepted and legitimate method of controlling
wildlife populations as part of modern scientific resource programs (16 USC 668ee(4),
USFWS 1999) and is a legitimate and appropriate form of wildlife-dependent recreation
when found to be compatible with refuge purposes (16 USC 668dd(a)(3)(B)). The GTNP
elk reduction program, which is carried out by hunters licensed by the State of Wyoming
and deputized as rangers by the Secretary of the Interior, is a legitimate management tool
"when it is found necessary for the purpose of properly managing and protecting the elk"
on GTNP (Public Law 81-787, Section 6).
5) A related principle of wildlife management is that wildlife populations can be
managed on a maximum sustained yield basis. Under this principle, a wildlife population
level is maintained at a given size where the birth rate is at a maximum level and where
removals from hunting and other mortality do not exceed births (Peek 1986:281-286,
Stalling et al. 2002). For some ungulate populations, maximum sustained yield is about
60 percent of the carrying capacity of the land ( __ ). Supplemental feedin~
population to be maintained above the maximum sustained yield. ~ Winter Feeding
1) Extensive experience has shown that some species of ungulates can be artificially fed
during winter to maintain high animal numbers, prevent malnutrition losses, prevent
damage to crops and other vegetation (in places well away from feeding locations), and
retain animals in areas where they can be readily observed, especially in situations where
the amount of suitable habitat is insufficient (Dasmann 1964, Mautz 1978, Wisdom and
Thomas 1996, Williamson 2000, Peek et al. 2002). Peek et al. (2002) provide a range of
well-cited examples of feeding programs in the United States and Europe that have been
successful in maintaining higher numbers of animals with desired characteristics than
could otherwise have been sustained. As articulated by Mautz (1978), an argument can be
made for winter feeding purely from the nutritional standpoint.
2) In situations where supplemental feeding of ungulates is conducted, regardless of the
impetus, it must be carried out using the best available information (Dasmann 1964,
Mautz 1978, Olson and Lewis 1994, Wisdom and Thomas 1996, Williamson 2000). For
example, it should be initiated early enough in the winter such that animals do not
become malnourished before feeding begins (which can lead to starvation regardless of
subsequent feeding effotis) ; once feeding begins , it must be continued until natural forage
2
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is available in the spring; and supplemental feeding must, in combination with available
standing forage, meet the nutritional requirements of wintering elk (Dasmann 1964,
Mautz 1978, Wilson and Thomas 1996, Williamson 2000).
~) It is widely accepted that supplemental feeding many times results in unnaturally high
densities of animals being fed and that these excessive densities increase habitat damage
and increases disease transmission and prevalence (Leopold 1933, Mautz 1978, Bailey
1984, Minta and Campbell 1991 , Olson and Lewis 1994, WGFD Staff 1995, Cook et al.
2000, Williamson 2000, Smith 2001, Thome et al. 2002, Canadian Cooperative Wildlife
Health Center 2003, Peterson 2003, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources 2003).
/ (This principle has been shown to be the case on the refuge (Murie 1951 , Boye.::_~
l S_mi!h 2001, Anderson 2002, Dobkin et al. 2002, Smith et al. 2004). In general, regular or
annual feeding of wildlife is discouraged (Leopold 1933, Dasmann 1964, Teague and
Decker 1979, Peek 1986, Olson and Lewis 1994, WGFD Staff 1995, Wisdom and
Thomas 1996, Cook et al. 2000, Williamson 2000, Peek et al. 2002, Canadian
Cooperative Wildlife Health Center 2003, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
2003).
Disease Management
v l) As wildlife become more concentrated in smaller areas, the opportunity for disease
transmission rises; for density-dependent diseases, transmission and the opportunity for
epidemics are enhanced in many cases by management practices that concentrate wildlife
populations (Karstad 1979, Kistner et al. 1982, Gilbert and Dodds 1987, WGFD Staff
1995, Cook et al. 2000, Williams and Barker 2001, Disease Experts 2002, Thome et al.
2002, Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Center 2003, Peterson 2003). Conversely,
ungulates on native range that are maintained somewhat below carrying capacity on
healthy habitat are less likely to have problems with disease than animals in more
crowded conditions (Cowan 1951, Kistner et al. 1982, Nelson and Leege 1982, Jessup
and Boyce 1994, WGFD Staff 1995, Peterson 2003).
~ 2) Preventive measures are far more effective in dealing with a disease in wild, free
ranging wildlife than attempts to eradicate or control the disease after it has become
established (Karstad 1979, Jessup and Boyce 1995, Peterson 2003).
/ 3) For density-dependent diseases, a fundamental principle is that reduced densities of
animals will reduce transmission rates and prevalence of diseases (Bailey 1984, WGFD
Staff 1995 , USFWS 2001 :601 FW 3.14.E, Disease Expe1is 2002, Peterson 2003), and this
can be done by increasing or improving habitat conditions, increasing the number of
3
locations where animals can forage, manipulating other aspects of the environment, and
reducing numbers of animals (Leopold 1933 , Karstad 1979, Bailey 1984).
4) Related to Principle D.3 , but targeted for specific diseases, a basic principle of disease
management is that reducing the density of infected animals will reduce the transmission
rate and prevalence of this disease (Peterson 2003 for review), and this can be
accomplished using a variety of techniques, including vaccination, test and slaughter,
possibly fertility control, in addition to those applicable to the principle discussed in the
preceding sentence. However, for some diseases such as chronic wasting disease in elk,
there are no known methods to do this (Peterson 2003).
Cross-Jurisdictional Management
1) The distribution and movements of wildlife populations and communities are
independent of landownership patterns and jurisdictions (USFWS 1999, NPS 2000). As
an example, elk and bison inhabiting the NER and GTNP also use lands outside these
areas (Boyce 1989, Smith and Robbins 1994).
2) The conservation of a wildlife population on a particular piece of land influences and
is influenced by conservation and land-use practices on other lands occupied by the
populations (Crowe 1983, Boyce 1989, Cooperrider 2002) . Therefore, working with
surrounding landowners would facilitate the sustainability of migratory populations of
wildlife inhabiting refuges and parks and the long-term health of their habitats (USFWS
1996:052 FW 1, USFWS 1999, NPS 2000:1.5, 4.4.1.1 ).
4
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7
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8
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9