Prague Spring

Prague Spring

This article is about the 1968 reform movement inCzechoslovakia. For the music festival, see PragueSpring International Music Festival.

The Prague Spring (Czech: Prask jaro, Slovak:Prask jar) was a period of political liberalization inCzechoslovakia during the era of its domination by theSoviet Union after World War II. It began on 5 January1968, when reformist Alexander Dubek was electedFirst Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslo-vakia (KS), and continued until 21 August when theSoviet Union and other members of the Warsaw Pactinvaded the country to halt the reforms.The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt byDubek to grant additional rights to the citizens ofCzechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of theeconomy and democratization. The freedoms granted in-cluded a loosening of restrictions on the media, speechand travel. After national discussion of dividing thecountry into a federation of three republics, Bohemia,Moravia-Silesia and Slovakia, Dubek oversaw the de-cision to split into two, the Czech Republic and SlovakRepublic.[1] This was the only formal change that sur-vived the end of Prague Spring, though the relative suc-cess of the nonviolent resistance undoubtedly preguredand facilitated the peaceful transition to liberal democ-racy with the collapse of Soviet hegemony in 1989.The reforms, especially the decentralization of adminis-trative authority, were not received well by the Soviets,who, after failed negotiations, sent half a million War-saw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. Alarge wave of emigration swept the nation. A spiritednon-violent resistance was mounted throughout the coun-try, involving attempted fraternization, painting over andturning street signs (on one occasion an entire invasionforce from Poland was routed back out of the country af-ter a days wandering), deance of various curfews, etc.While the Soviet military had predicted that it would takefour days to subdue the country the resistance held out foreight months, and was only circumvented by diplomaticstratagems (see below). There were sporadic acts of vi-olence and several suicides by self-immolation (such asthat of Jan Palach), but there was no military resistance.Czechoslovakia remained controlled until 1989, when thevelvet revolution ended pro-Soviet rule peacefully, un-doubtedly drawing upon the successes of the non-violentresistance twenty years earlier. The resistance also be-came an iconic example of civilian-based defense, which,along with unarmed civilian peacekeeping constitute the

two ways that nonviolence can be and occasionally hasbeen applied directly to military or paramilitary threats.After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period ofnormalization: subsequent leaders attempted to restorethe political and economic values that had prevailed be-fore Dubek gained control of the KS. Gustv Husk,who replaced Dubek and also became president, re-versed almost all of Dubeks reforms. The PragueSpring inspired music and literature such as the work ofVclav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, and Milan Kun-dera's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being.

1 BackgroundThe process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia hadbegun under Antonn Novotn in the late 1950s andearly 1960s, but had progressed slower than in mostother states of the Eastern Bloc.[2] Following the leadof Nikita Khrushchev, Novotn proclaimed the comple-tion of socialism, and the new constitution,[3] accord-ingly, adopted the nameCzechoslovak Socialist Republic.The pace of change, however, was sluggish; the rehabili-tation of Stalinist-era victims, such as those convicted inthe Slnsk trials, may have been considered as early as1963, but did not take place until 1967.[4]

In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an eco-nomic downturn.[5] The Soviet model of industrializa-tion applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakiawas already quite industrialized before World War II andthe Soviet model mainly took into account less developedeconomies. Novotn's attempt at restructuring the econ-omy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increaseddemand for political reform as well.[6]

1.1 1967 Writers Congress

As the strict regime eased its rules, the Union ofCzechoslovak Writers cautiously began to air discontent,and in the unions gazette, Literrn noviny, memberssuggested that literature should be independent of Partydoctrine.[7]

In June 1967, a small fraction of the Czech writersunion sympathized with radical socialists, specicallyLudvk Vaculk, Milan Kundera, Jan Prochzka, AntonnJaroslav Liehm, Pavel Kohout and Ivan Klma.[7]

A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided

1

2 3 SOCIALISM WITH A HUMAN FACE

that administrative actions against the writers who openlyexpressed support of reformation would be taken. Sinceonly a small part of the union held these beliefs, the re-maining members were relied upon to discipline theircolleagues.[7] Control over Literrn noviny and severalother publishing houses was transferred to theMinistry ofCulture,[7] and even members of the party who later be-came major reformers including Dubek endorsedthese moves.[7]

2 Dubeks rise to power

Alexander Dubek

As President Antonn Novotn was losing support,Alexander Dubek, First Secretary of the regionalCommunist Party of Slovakia, and economist Ota ikchallenged him at a meeting of the Central Commit-tee. Novotn then invited Soviet premier Leonid Brezh-nev to Prague that December, seeking support;[8] butBrezhnev was surprised at the extent of the oppositionto Novotn and thus supported his removal as Czechoslo-vakias leader. Dubek replaced Novotn as First Secre-tary on 5 January 1968.[9] On 22 March 1968, Novotnresigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvk Svo-boda, who later gave consent to the reforms.[10]

Early signs of change were few. When the CommunistParty of Czechoslovakia (KS) Presidium member JosefSmrkovsk was interviewed in a Rud Prvo article, en-titled What Lies Ahead, he insisted that Dubeks ap-pointment at the January Plenum would further the goalsof socialism and maintain the working class nature of theCommunist Party.[11]

2.1 Literrn listy

However, right after Dubek assumed power, the scholarEduard Goldstcker became chairman of the Unionof Czechoslovak Writers and thus editor-in-chief ofthe previously hard-line communist weekly Literrnnoviny,[12][13] which under Novotny had been lled withparty loyalists.[13] Goldstucker tested the boundaries ofDubeks devotion to freedom of the press when he ap-peared on a television interview as the new head of theunion. On 4 February, in front of the entire nation, heopenly criticized Novotny, exposing all of Novotnys pre-viously unreported policies and explaining how they werepreventing progress in Czechoslovakia.[14]

Despite the ocial government statement that allowed forfreedom of the press, this was the rst trial of whetheror not Dubek was serious about reforms. Goldstuckersuered no repercussions, and Dubek instead beganto build a sense of trust among the media, the govern-ment, and the citizens.[13] It was under Goldstcker thatthe journals name was changed to Literrn listy, andon 29 February 1968, the Writers Union published therst copy of the censor-free Literarni listy.[12] By August1968, Literarni listy had a circulation of 300,000, makingit the most published periodical in Europe.[15]

3 Socialism with a human faceMain article: Socialism with a human face

On the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakias "VictoriousFebruary", Dubek delivered a speech explaining theneed for change following the triumph of socialism. Heemphasized the need to enforce the leading role of theparty more eectively[16] and acknowledged that, de-spite Klement Gottwald's urgings for better relations withsociety, the Party had too often made heavy-handed rul-ings on trivial issues. Dubek declared the partys missionwas to build an advanced socialist society on sound eco-nomic foundations ... a socialism that corresponds to thehistorical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia, in ac-cordance with the experience of other communist parties...[16]

In April, Dubek launched an "Action Programme" ofliberalizations, which included increasing freedom of thepress, freedom of speech, and freedom of movement,with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the pos-sibility of a multiparty government. The programme wasbased on the view that Socialism cannot mean only liber-ation of the working people from the domination of ex-ploiting class relations, but must make more provisionsfor a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeoisdemocracy.[17] It would limit the power of the secretpolice[18] and provide for the federalization of the SSRinto two equal nations.[19] The programme also covered

3.1 Publications and media 3

foreign policy, including both the maintenance of goodrelations withWestern countries and cooperation with theSoviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations.[20] It spokeof a ten-year transition through which democratic elec-tions would be made possible and a new form of demo-cratic socialism would replace the status quo.[21]

Those who drafted the Action Programme were care-ful not to criticize the actions of the post-war Com-munist regime, only to point out policies that they felthad outlived their usefulness.[22] For instance, the im-mediate post-war situation had required centralist anddirective-administrative methods[22] to ght against theremnants of the bourgeoisie.[22] Since the antagonis-tic classes[22] were said to have been defeated with theachievement of socialism, these methods were no longernecessary. Reform was needed, for the Czechoslovakeconomy to join the scientic-technical revolution in theworld[22] rather than relying on Stalinist-era heavy in-dustry, labour power, and rawmaterials.[22] Furthermore,since internal class conict had been overcome, workerscould now be duly rewarded for their qualications andtechnical skills without contravening Marxism-Leninism.The Programme suggested it was now necessary to en-sure important positions were lled by capable, edu-cated socialist expert cadres in order to compete withcapitalism.[22]

Although it was stipulated that reform must proceed un-der KS direction, popular pressure mounted to imple-ment reforms immediately.[23] Radical elements becamemore vocal: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press(after the formal abolishment of censorship on 26 June1968),[21] the Social Democrats began to form a sepa-rate party, and new unaliated political clubs were cre-ated. Party conservatives urged repressive measures, butDubek counselled moderation and re-emphasized KSleadership.[24] At the Presidium of the Communist Partyof Czechoslovakia in April, Dubek announced a politi-cal programme of socialism with a human face.[25] InMay, he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congresswould convene in an early session on 9 September. Thecongress would incorporate the Action Programme intothe party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect anew Central Committee.[26]

Dubeks reforms guaranteed freedom of the press, andpolitical commentary was allowed for the rst time inmainstream media.[27] At the time of the Prague Spring,Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness,and Dubeks reforms planned to solve these troublesby mixing planned and market economies. Within theparty, there were varying opinions on how this shouldproceed; certain economists wished for a more mixedeconomy while others wanted the economy to remainmostly socialist. Dubek continued to stress the impor-tance of economic reform proceeding under CommunistParty rule.[28]

On 27 June Ludvk Vaculk, a leading author and jour-

nalist, published a manifesto titled The Two ThousandWords. It expressed concern about conservative elementswithin the KS and so-called foreign forces. Vaculkcalled on the people to take the initiative in implement-ing the reform programme.[29] Dubek, the party Presid-ium, the National Front, and the cabinet denounced thismanifesto.[30]

3.1 Publications and media

Dubeks relaxation of censorship ushered in a brief pe-riod of freedom of speech and the press.[31] The rst tan-gible manifestation of this new policy of openness was theproduction of the previously hard-line communist weeklyLiterarni noviny, renamed Literarni listy.[12][13]

Freedom of the press also opened the door for the rsthonest look at Czechoslovakias past by Czechoslovakiaspeople. Many of the investigations centered on the coun-trys history under communism, especially in the in-stance of the Joseph Stalin-period.[12] In another tele-vision appearance, Goldstucker presented both doctoredand undoctored photographs of former communist lead-ers who had been purged, imprisoned, or executed andthus erased from communist history.[13] The WritersUnion also formed a committee in April 1968, headed bythe poet Jaroslav Seifert, to investigate the persecution ofwriters after the Communist takeover in February 1948and rehabilitate the literary gures into the Union, book-stores and libraries, and the literary world.[32][33] Discus-sions on the current state of communism and abstractideas such as freedom and identity were also becomingmore common; soon, non-party publications began ap-pearing, such as the trade union daily Prace (Labour).This was also helped by the Journalists Union, which byMarch 1968 had already convinced the Central Publica-tion Board, the government censor, to allow editors to re-ceive uncensored subscriptions for foreign papers, allow-ing for a more international dialogue around the news.[34]

The press, the radio, and the television also contributedto these discussions by hosting meetings where studentsand young workers could ask questions of writers such asGoldstucker, Pavel Kohout, and Jan Prochazka and po-litical victims such as Josef Smrkovsk, Zdenek Hejzlar,and Gustav Husak.[14] Television also broadcast meetingsbetween former political prisoners and the communistleaders from the secret police or prisons where they wereheld.[13] Most importantly, this new freedom of the pressand the introduction of television into the lives of every-day Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialoguefrom the intellectual to the popular sphere.

4 Soviet reactionInitial reaction within the Communist Bloc was mixed.Hungary's JnosKdr was highly supportive ofDubeks

4 4 SOVIET REACTION

Leonid Brezhnev.

appointment in January, but Leonid Brezhnev and oth-ers grew concerned about Dubeks reforms, which theyfeared might weaken the position of the Communist Blocduring the Cold War.[35][36][37]

At a 23 March meeting in Dresden in East Germany,leaders of the Warsaw Five (USSR, Hungary, Poland,Bulgaria and East Germany) questioned a Czechoslo-vak delegation over the planned reforms, suggesting anytalk of democratization was a veiled critique of otherpolicies.[38] Wadysaw Gomuka and Jnos Kdr wereless concerned with the reforms themselves than withthe growing criticisms leveled by the Czechoslovak me-dia, and worried the situation might be similar to theprologue of the Hungarian counterrevolution".[38] Someof the language in Aprils KS Action Programme mayhave been chosen to assert that no counter-revolutionwas planned, but Kieran Williams suggests that Dubekwas perhaps surprised at, but not resentful of, Sovietsuggestions.[39]

The Soviet leadership tried to stop, or limit, the changesin the SSR through a series of negotiations. The SovietUnion agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia inJuly at ierna nad Tisou, near the Slovak-Soviet bor-der. At the meeting, with attendance of Brezhnev, AlexeiKosygin, Nikolai Podgorny, Mikhail Suslov and oth-ers on the Soviet side and Dubek, Svoboda, Oldichernk, Smrkovsk and others on the Czechoslovak side,Dubek defended the proposals of the reformist wingof the KS while pledging commitment to the War-

saw Pact and Comecon.[20] The KS leadership, how-ever, was divided between vigorous reformers (Josef Sm-rkovsk, Oldich ernk, and Frantiek Kriegel) whosupported Dubek, and conservatives (Vasil Biak, Dra-homr Kolder, and Oldich vestka) who adopted an anti-reformist stance.[40]

Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KS delegatesrearmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promisedto curb anti-socialist tendencies, prevent the revival ofthe Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and controlthe press more eectively. The Soviets agreed to with-draw their armed forces (still in Czechoslovakia after ma-noeuvres that June) and permit the 9 September PartyCongress.[40]

On 3 August representatives from the Warsaw Fiveand Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed theBratislava Declaration. The declaration armed unshak-able delity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian inter-nationalism and declared an implacable struggle againstbourgeois ideology and all anti-socialist forces.[41]The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in aWarsaw Pact country if a bourgeois systema plural-ist system of several political parties representing dier-ent factions of the capitalist classwas ever established.After the Bratislava conference, the Soviet Army leftCzechoslovak territory but remained along its borders.[42]

4.1 InvasionMain article: Warsaw Pact invasion of CzechoslovakiaAs these talks proved unsatisfactory, the Soviets beganto consider a military alternative. The Soviet Unions pol-icy of compelling the socialist governments of its satellitestates to subordinate their national interests to those of the"Eastern Bloc" (throughmilitary force if needed) becameknown as the Brezhnev Doctrine.[43] On the night of 2021 August 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from ve WarsawPact countries the Soviet Union, the GDR, Bulgaria,Poland and Hungaryinvaded the SSR.[44][45]

That night, 200,000 troops and 2,000 tanks entered thecountry.[46] They rst occupied the Ruzyn InternationalAirport, where air deployment of more troops was ar-ranged. The Czechoslovak forces were conned to theirbarracks, which were surrounded until the threat of acounter-attack was assuaged. By the morning of 21 Au-gust Czechoslovakia was occupied.[45]

Neither Romania nor Albania took part in theinvasion.[47] During the invasion by the WarsawPact armies, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 ofthose in Slovakia), 266 severely wounded and another436 slightly injured.[48][49] Alexander Dubek calledupon his people not to resist.[49] Nevertheless, therewas scattered resistance in the streets. Road signs intowns were removed or painted overexcept for thoseindicating the way to Moscow.[50] Many small villagesrenamed themselves Dubcek or Svoboda"; thus,

4.2 Reactions to the invasion 5

Prague Spring of 1968

without navigational equipment, the invaders were oftenconfused.[51]

Czechoslovaks carry their national ag past a burning Soviet tankin Prague.

Although, on the night of the invasion the CzechoslovakPresidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossedthe border without the knowledge of the SSR govern-ment, the Soviet Press printed an unsigned request al-legedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders forimmediate assistance, including assistance with armedforces.[52] At the 14th KS Party Congress (conductedsecretly, immediately following the intervention), it wasemphasized that no member of the leadership had invitedthe intervention.[53] More recent evidence suggests that

conservative KS members (including Biak, vestka,Kolder, Indra, and Kapek) did send a request for inter-vention to the Soviets.[54] The invasion was followed by apreviously unseen wave of emigration, which was stoppedshortly thereafter. An estimated 70,000 ed immediatelywith an eventual total of some 300,000.[55]

The Soviets attributed the invasion to the Brezhnev Doc-trine which stated that the U.S.S.R. had the right tointervene whenever a country in the Eastern Bloc ap-peared to be making a shift towards capitalism.[56] Thereis still some uncertainty, however, as to what provoca-tion, if any, occurred to make the Warsaw Pact armiesinvade. The days leading up to the invasion was a rathercalm period without any major events taking place inCzechoslovakia.[26]

4.2 Reactions to the invasionSee also: Protests of 1968In Czechoslovakia, especially in the week immedi-

Romanian Prime Secretary Nicolae Ceauescu gives a speech crit-ical of the invasion, in front of a crowd in Bucharest, 21 August1968

ately following the invasion, popular opposition was ex-pressed in numerous spontaneous acts of nonviolent re-sistance.[57] On 16 January 1969, student Jan Palach sethimself on re in Pragues Wenceslas Square to protestagainst the renewed suppression of free speech.[58] Civil-ians purposely gave wrong directions to invading soldiers,while others identied and followed cars belonging to thesecret police.[59]

The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union toabandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary.Dubek, who had been arrested on the night of 20 Au-gust was taken to Moscow for negotiations. There, heand several other leaders (including all the highest-rankedocials President Svoboda, Prime Minister ernk andChairman of the National Assembly Smrkovsk) signed,under heavy psychological pressure from Soviet politi-cians, the Moscow Protocol and it was agreed thatDubek would remain in oce and a programme of mod-erate reform would continue.

6 5 AFTERMATH

Protest banner in Russian reading "For your freedom and ours".

On 25 August citizens of the Soviet Union who didnot approve of the invasion protested in Red Square;seven protesters opened banners with anti-invasion slo-gans. The demonstrators were arrested and later pun-ished; the protest was dubbed anti-Soviet.[60]

A more pronounced eect took place in Romania, whereNicolae Ceauescu, Prime Secretary of the RomanianCP, already a staunch opponent of Soviet inuences anda self-declared Dubek supporter, gave a public speechin Bucharest on the day of the invasion, depicting Sovietpolicies in harsh terms.[47] Albania withdrew from theWarsaw Pact in opposition calling the invasion an act of"social-imperialism". In Finland, a country under someSoviet political inuence, the occupation caused a majorscandal.[61]

Like the Italian and French[62] Communist parties, theCommunist Party of Finland denounced the occupa-tion. Nonetheless, Finnish president Urho Kekkonenwas the very rst Western politician to ocially visitCzechoslovakia after August 1968; he received the high-est Czechoslovakian honours from the hands of PresidentLudvk Svoboda, on 4 October 1969.[61] The Portuguesecommunist secretary-general lvaro Cunhal was one offew political leaders from western Europe to have sup-ported the invasion for being counter-revolutionary.[63]along with the Luxembourg party[62] and conservativefactions of the Greek party.[62]

Helsinki demonstration against the invasion of Czechoslovakia

Most countries oered only vocal criticism following theinvasion. The night of the invasion, Canada, Denmark,France, Paraguay, the United Kingdom and the UnitedStates requested a meeting of the United Nations Secu-rity Council.[64] At the meeting, the Czechoslovak am-

bassador Jan Muzik denounced the invasion. Soviet am-bassador Jacob Malik insisted the Warsaw Pact actionswere fraternal assistance against antisocial forces.[64]

The next day, several countries suggested a resolutioncondemning the intervention and calling for immediatewithdrawal. Eventually, a vote was taken with ten mem-bers supporting the motion; Algeria, India, and Pakistanabstained; the USSR (with veto power) and Hungary op-posed. Canadian delegates immediately introduced an-other motion asking for a UN representative to travel toPrague and work toward the release of the imprisonedCzechoslovak leaders.[64]

By 26 August a new Czechoslovak representative re-quested the whole issue be removed from the SecurityCouncils agenda. Shirley Temple Black visited Praguein August 1968 to prepare for becoming the US Am-bassador for a free Czechoslovakia. However, after the21 August invasion she became part of a U.S. Embassy-organized convoy of vehicles that evacuated U.S. citi-zens from the country.[65] In August 1989, she returnedto Prague as U.S. Ambassador, three months before theVelvet Revolution that ended 41 years of Communistrule.[66]

5 AftermathMain article: Normalization (Czechoslovakia)In April 1969, Dubek was replaced as rst secretary by

Memorial to the victims of the invasion, located in Liberec

Gustv Husk, and a period of "normalization" began.[67]

5.2 Cultural impact 7

Dubek was expelled from the KS and given a job as aforestry ocial.[19][68]

Husk reversed Dubeks reforms, purged the party ofits liberal members, and dismissed from public oceprofessional and intellectual elites who openly expresseddisagreement with the political transformation.[69] Huskworked to reinstate the power of the police and strengthenties with the rest of the Communist bloc. He also soughtto re-centralize the economy, as a considerable amountof freedom had been granted to industries during thePrague Spring.[69] Commentary on politics was forbid-den inmainstreammedia, and political statements by any-one not considered to have full political trust were alsobanned.[27] The only signicant change that survived wasthe federalization of the country, which created the CzechSocialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic in1969. In 1987, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachevacknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnostand perestroika owed a great deal to Dubeks socialismwith a human face.[70] When asked what the dierencewas between the Prague Spring and Gorbachevs own re-forms, a Foreign Ministry spokesman replied, Nineteenyears.[71]

Dubek lent his support to the Velvet Revolution of De-cember 1989. After the collapse of the Communistregime that month, Dubek became chairman of the fed-eral assembly under the Havel administration.[72] He laterled the Social Democratic Party of Slovakia, and spokeagainst the dissolution of Czechoslovakia prior to hisdeath in November 1992.[73]

5.1 Normalization and censorship

The Warsaw Pact invasion included attacks on media es-tablishments, such as Radio Prague and CzechoslovakTelevision, almost immediately after the initial tanksrolled into Prague on 21 August 1968.[74] While both theradio station and the television station managed to holdout for at least enough time for initial broadcasts of theinvasion, what the Soviets did not attack by force they at-tacked by reenacting party censorship. In reaction to theinvasion, on 28 August 1968, all Czechoslovak publish-ers agreed to halt production of newspapers for the day toallow for a day of reection for the editorial stas.[75]Writers and reporters agreed with Dubcek to support alimited reinstitution of the censorship oce, as long asthe institution was to only last three months.[76] Finally,by September 1968, the Czechoslovak Communist Partyplenum was held to instate the new censorship law. In thewords of the Moscow-approved resolution, The press,radio, and television are rst of all the instruments forcarrying into life the policies of the Party and state.[77]

While this was not yet the end of the medias freedomafter the Prague Spring, it was the beginning of the end.During November, the Presidium, under Husak, declaredthat the Czechoslovak press could not make any negative

remarks about the Soviet invaders or they would risk vi-olating the agreement they had come to at the end of Au-gust. When the weeklies Reporter and Politika respondedharshly to this threat, even going so far as to not so subtlycriticize the Presidium itself in Politika, the governmentbanned Reporter for a month, suspended Politika indef-initely, and prohibited any political programs from ap-pearing on the radio or television.[78]

The intellectuals were stuck at a bypass; they recognizedthe governments increasing normalization, but they wereunsure whether to trust that the measures were only tem-porary or demand more. For example, still believing inDubceks promises for reform, Milan Kundera publishedthe article Cesky udel (Our Czech Destiny) in Literarnilisty on 19 December.[33][79] He wrote: People who to-day are falling into depression and defeatism, comment-ing that there are not enough guarantees, that everythingcould end badly, that we might again end up in a maras-mus of censorship and trials, that this or that could hap-pen, are simply weak people, who can live only in illusionsof certainty.[80]

In March 1969, however, the new Soviet-backedCzechoslovakian government instituted full censorship,eectively ending the hopes that normalization wouldlead back to the freedoms enjoyed during the PragueSpring. A declaration was presented to the Presidiumcondemning the media as co-conspirators against the So-viet Union and the Warsaw Pact in their support ofDubceks liberalization measures. Finally, on 2 April1969, the government adopted measures to secure peaceand order through even stricter censorship, forcing thepeople of Czechoslovakia to wait until the thawing ofEastern Europe for the return of a free media.[81]

Former students from Prague, including ConstantineMenges, and Czech refugees from the crisis, who wereable to escape or resettle in Western Countries continuedto advocate for human rights, religious liberty, freedomof speech and political asylum for Czech political prison-ers and dissidents. Many raised concerns about the SovietUnion and Red Army's continued military occupation ofthe Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and 1980s, prior to thefall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of Communism inMoscow and Eastern Europe.

5.2 Cultural impact

The Prague Spring deepened the disillusionment of manyWestern leftists with Soviet views. It contributed to thegrowth of Eurocommunist ideas in Western communistparties, which sought greater distance from the SovietUnion, and eventually led to the dissolution of manyof these groups.[82] A decade later, a period of Chi-nese political liberalization became known as the BeijingSpring. It also partly inuenced the Croatian Spring inYugoslavia.[83] In a 1993 Czech survey, 60% of those sur-veyed had a personal memory linked to the Prague Spring

8 7 REFERENCES

while another 30% were familiar with the events in an-other form.[84] The demonstrations and regime changestaking place in North Africa and the Middle East fromDecember 2010 have frequently been referred to as an"Arab Spring".The event has been referenced in popular music, includ-ing the music of Karel Kryl, Lubo Fier's Requiem,[85]and Karel Husa's Music for Prague 1968.[86] The Israelisong Prague, written by ShalomHanoch and performedby Arik Einstein at the Israel Song Festival of 1969, wasa lamentation on the fate of the city after the Sovietinvasion and mentions Jan Palach's Self-immolation.[87]"They Can't Stop The Spring", a song by Irish journalistand songwriter John Waters, represented Ireland in theEurovision Song Contest in 2007. Waters has describedit as a kind of Celtic celebration of the Eastern Euro-pean revolutions and their eventual outcome, quotingDubeks alleged comment: They may crush the ow-ers, but they can't stop the Spring.[88]

The Prague Spring is featured in several works of litera-ture. Milan Kundera set his novel The Unbearable Light-ness of Being during the Prague Spring. It follows therepercussions of increased Soviet presence and the dic-tatorial police control of the population.[89] A lm ver-sion was released in 1988.[90] The Liberators, by ViktorSuvorov, is an eyewitness description of the 1968 inva-sion of Czechoslovakia, from the point of view of a So-viet tank commander.[91] Rock 'n' Roll, a play by award-winning Czech-born English playwright Tom Stoppard,references the Prague Spring, as well as the 1989 VelvetRevolution.[92] Heda Margolius Kovly also ends hermemoir Under a Cruel Star with a rst hand account ofthe Prague Spring and the subsequent invasion, and herreections upon these events.[93]

In lm there has been an adaptation of The UnbearableLightness of Being, and also the movie Pelky from direc-tor Jan Hebejk and screenwriter Petr Jarchovsk, whichdepicts the events of the Prague Spring and ends withthe invasion by the Soviet Union and their allies.[94] TheCzech musical lm, Rebelov from Filip Ren, also de-picts the events, the invasion and subsequent wave ofemigration.[94]

The number 68 has become iconic in the formerCzechoslovakia. Hockey player Jaromr Jgr, whosegrandfather died in prison during the rebellion, wearsthe number because of the importance of the year inCzechoslovak history.[95][96] A former publishing housebased in Toronto, 68 Publishers, that published books byexiled Czech and Slovak authors, took its name from theevent.

6 See also Croatian Spring Hungarian Revolution of 1956

Spring Revolutions (disambiguation) Constantine Menges

7 References[1] Czech radio broadcasts 1820 August 1968

[2] Williams (1997), p 170

[3] Williams (1997), p 7

[4] Skilling (1976), p 47

[5] Photius.com, (info from CIA world Factbook)". PhotiusCoutsoukis. Retrieved 20 January 2008.

[6] Williams (1997), p 5

[7] Williams (1997), p 55

[8] Navrtil (2006), pp 1820

[9] Navazelskis (1990)

[10] Antonin Novotn Biography. Libri publishing house.Retrieved 15 November 2014.

[11] Navrtil (2006), p 46

[12] Williams, pp 68

[13] Bren, Paulina (2010). The Greengrocer and His TV:The Culture of Communism after the 1968 Prague Spring.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 23. ISBN978-0-8014-4767-9.


[15] Hol, Ji. Writers Under Siege: Czech Literature Since1945. Sussex: Sussex Academic Press, 2011, pp 119

[16] Navrtil (2006), pp 5254

[17] Ello (1968), pp 32, 54

[18] Von Geldern, James; Siegelbaum, Lewis. The Soviet-ledIntervention in Czechoslovakia. Soviethistory.org. Re-trieved 7 March 2008.

[19] Hochman, Dubek (1993)

[20] Dubek, Alexander; Kramer, Mark; Moss, Joy; Tosek,Ruth (translation) (10 April 1968). Akn program Ko-munistick strany eskoslovenska. Action Program (inCzech) (Rud prvo). pp. 16. Retrieved 21 February2008.

[21] Judt (2005), p 441

[22] Ello (1968), pp 78, 12930, 9, 131

[23] Derasadurain, Beatrice. Prague Spring. thinkquest.org.Retrieved 23 January 2008.

[24] Kusin (2002), p 107122

[25] The Prague Spring, 1968. Library of Congress. 1985.Retrieved 5 January 2008.

9[26] Williams (1997), p 156

[27] Williams (1997), p 164

[28] Williams (1997), pp 1822

[29] Vaculk, Ludvk (27 June 1968). TwoThousandWords.Literrn listy.

[30] Mastalir, Linda (25 July 2006). Ludvk Vaculk: aCzechoslovak man of letters. Radio Prague. Retrieved23 January 2008.

[31] Williams, Tieren. The Prague Spring and Its After-math: Czechoslovak Politics, 19681970. Cambridge,UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp 67.

[32] Golan, Galia. Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-SovietStudies. Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia: The Dubek Era,19681969. Vol. 11. Cambridge, UK: CUP Archive,1973, pp 10

[33] Holy, pp 119

[34] Golan, pp 112

[35] Navrtil (2006), p 37

[36] Document #81: Transcript of Leonid Brezhnevs Tele-phone Conversation with Alexander Dubek, August 13,1968. The Prague Spring '68. The Prague Spring Foun-dation. 1998. Retrieved 23 January 2008.

[37] Navrtil (2006), pp 172181

[38] Navrtil (2006), pp 6472

[39] Williams (1997), pp 1011

[40] Navrtil (2006), pp 448479

[41] Navrtil (2006), pp 326329

[42] Navrtil (2006), pp 326327

[43] Chafetz (1993), p 10

[44] Ouimet (2003), pp 3435

[45] Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia. Military. GlobalSe-curity.org. 27 April 2005. Retrieved 19 January 2007.

[46] Washington Post, (Final Edition), 21 August 1968, p A11

[47] Curtis, Glenn E. The Warsaw Pact. Federal ResearchDivision of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 19 Febru-ary 2008.

[48] Springtime for Prague. Prague Life. Lifeboat Limited.Retrieved 30 April 2006.

[49] Williams (1997), p 158

[50] See Paul Chan, Fearless Symmetry Artforum Interna-tional vol. 45, March 2007.

[51] Civilian Resistance in Czechoslovakia. Fragments. Re-trieved 5 January 2009.

[52] Skilling (1976)

[53] Navrtil (2006), p xviii

[54] Fowkes (2000), pp 6485

[55] ulk, Jan. Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly esk snyPraskho jara. Britsk Listy. Retrieved 23 January2008.

[56] Grenville (2005), p 780

[57] Windsor, Philip and Adam Roberts. Czechoslovakia1968: Reform, Repression and Resistance. Chatto &Win-dus, London, 1969, pp. 97143.

[58] Jan Palach. Radio Prague. Archived from the originalon 6 February 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[59] Keane, John. Vclav Havel: A Political Tragedy in SixActs. Bloomsbury Publishing, 1999, p. 215

[60] Gorbanevskaya (1972)

[61] Jutikkala, Pirinen (2001)

[62] Devlin, Kevin. Western CPs Condemn Invasion, HailPrague Spring. Open Society Archives. Retrieved 8November 2014.

[63] Andrew, Mitrokhin (2005), p 444

[64] Franck (1985)

[65] The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at thePast By Alan Axelrod

[66] Joseph, Lawrence E (2 December 1990). International;Pragues Spring Into Capitalism. The New York Times.Retrieved 20 February 2008.

[67] Williams (1997), p xi

[68] Alexander Dubcek. Spartacus Educational. Retrieved25 January 2008.

[69] Goertz (1995), pp 154157

[70] Gorbachev (2003), p x

[71] Kaufman, Michael T (12 April 1987). Gorbachev Al-ludes to Czech Invasion. The New York Times. Retrieved4 April 2008.

[72] Cook (2001), pp 320321

[73] Alexander Dubcek, 70, Dies in Prague (New York Times,8 November 1992)

[74] Bren, pp 28



[77] Bren, pp 29





10 7 REFERENCES

[82] Aspaturian (1980), p 174

[83] Despalatovi (2000), pp 9192

[84] Williams (1997), p 29

[85] Lubo Fier. CZMIC. 5 February 2005. Archived fromthe original on 8 October 2007. Retrieved 23 January2008.

[86] Due, Bruce (1 December 2001). Karel Husa, TheComposer in Conversation with Bruce Due. New Mu-sic Connoisseur Magazine. Retrieved 23 January 2008.

[87] Biography of Arik Einstein The Solo Years, Mooma (inHebrew). Retrieved 15 May 2010.

[88] John Waters, The Events That Transpired it. Spring:The Events that Transpired it. 11 February 2007. Re-trieved 21 January 2008.

[89] Kundera (1999), p 1

[90] The Unbearable Lightness of Being. IMDb.com. Re-trieved 29 March 2008.

[91] Suvorov (1983), p 1

[92] Mastalir, Linda (28 June 2006). Tom Stoppards Rock'n' Roll"". Radio Prague. Retrieved 23 January 2008.

[93] Margolius-Kovly (1986), pp 178192.

[94] ulk, Jan (11 April 2008). The Prague Spring as re-ected in Czech postcommunist cinema. Britsk Listy.Retrieved 16 April 2008.

[95] Morrison (2006), pp 158159

[96] Legends of Hockey, Jaromr Jgr. Hockey Hall of Fameand Museum. Retrieved 23 January 2008.

7.1 Further reading Aspaturian, Vernon; Valenta, Jiri; Burke, David P.(1 April 1980). Eurocommunism Between East andWest. Indiana Univ Pr. ISBN 0-253-20248-5.

Bischof, Gnter, et al. eds. The Prague Spring andtheWarsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968(Lexington Books, 20100 510 pp. ISBN 978-0-7391-4304-9

Chafetz, Glenn (30 April 1993). Gorbachev, Re-form, and the Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Policy To-ward Eastern Europe, 19851990. Praeger Publish-ers. ISBN 0-275-94484-0.

Christopher, Andrew; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2005).The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and theBattle for the Third World. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00311-7. Retrieved 9 October 2009.

Cook, Bernard (10 January 2001). Europe Since1945: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-8153-1336-5.

Despalatovi, Elinor. Neighbors at War: Anthro-pological Perspectives on Yugoslav Ethnicity. PennState Press. ISBN 0-271-01979-4. Retrieved 9 Oc-tober 2009.

Dubek, Alexander; Hochman, Ji (1 January1993). Hope Dies Last: The Autobiography ofAlexander Dubcek. Kodansha International. ISBN1-56836-000-2.

Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committeeof the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Ac-tion Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslo-vakia (Prague, April 1968)" in Dubceks Blueprintfor Freedom: His original documents leading to theinvasion of Czechoslovakia. William Kimber & Co.1968

Fowkes, Ben (29 August 2000). Eastern Europe19451969: From Stalinism to Stagnation. Long-man. ISBN 0-582-32693-1. Retrieved 9 October2009.

Franck, Thomas M. (1985). Nation Against Nation:What Happened to the UN Dream andWhat the U.S.Can Do About It. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503587-9.

Goertz, Gary (27 January 1995). Contexts of In-ternational Politics. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-46972-4.

Gorbachev, Mikhail; Mlyna, Zdenk (8 October2003). Conversations with Gorbachev: On Pere-stroika, the Prague Spring, and the Crossroads of So-cialism. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11865-1.

Gorbanevskaya, Natalia (1972). Red Square atNoon. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-085990-5.

Grenville, J.A.S. (4 August 2005). AHistory Of TheWorld From the 20th To The 21st Century. Rout-ledge. ISBN 0-415-28955-6.

Hermann, Konstantin (2008). Sachsen und derPrager Frhling. Beucha: Sax-Verlag. ISBN 0-415-28955-6.

Judt, Tony (5 October 2005). Postwar: A History ofEurope Since 1945. Penguin Press. ISBN 1-59420-065-3.

Jutikkala, Eino; Pirinen, Kauko (2001). Suomenhistoria (History of Finland). ISBN 80-7106-406-8.

Kundera, Milan (1999). The Unbearable Lightnessof Being. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093213-9.

11

Kusin, Vladimir (18 July 2002). The IntellectualOrigins of the Prague Spring: The Developmentof Reformist Ideas in Czechoslovakia 19561967.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52652-3.

Margolius-Kovly, Heda (1986). Under a CruelStar: A life in Prague 19411968. New York:Holmes & Meier. ISBN 0-8419-1377-3.

Morrison, Scott; Cherry, Don (26 November 2006).Hockey Night in Canada: By The Numbers: From 00to 99. Key Porter Books. ISBN 1-55263-984-3.

Navazelskis, Ina (1 August 1990). AlexanderDubcek. Chelsea House Publications; Library Bind-ing edition. ISBN 1-55546-831-4.

Navrtil, Jaromr (1 April 2006). The Prague Spring1968: A National Security Archive Document Reader(National Security Archive Cold War Readers). Cen-tral European University Press. ISBN 963-7326-67-7.

Ouimet, Matthew (2003). The Rise and Fall of theBrezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy. Univer-sity of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and Lon-don.

Skilling, Gordon H. (1976). Czechoslovakias Inter-rupted Revolution. Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress.

Suvorov, Viktor (1983). The Liberators. London,Hamilton: New English Library, Sevenoaks. ISBN0-450-05546-9.

Williams, Kieran (1997). The Prague Spring andits Aftermath: Czechoslovak Politics, 19681970.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58803-0.

8 External links Think Quest The Prague Spring 1968 Radio Free Europe A Chronology Of EventsLeading To The 1968 Invasion

Prague Life More information on the PragueSpring

The Prague Spring, 40 Years On slideshow by TheFirst Post

Victims of the Invasion A list of victims from theWarsaw Pact Invasion with method of death

Praha 1968 footage on YouTube

12 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses9.1 Text

Prague Spring Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Spring?oldid=671632934 Contributors: Kpjas, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Mal-colm Farmer, Roadrunner, SimonP, Maury Markowitz, Soulpatch, Olivier, Leandrod, Fred Bauder, Delirium, BigFatBuddha, Bogdan-giusca, Andres, Qertis, Jeq, Owen, Paranoid, Juro, Scriptwriter, Altenmann, Dittaeva, Naddy, Stewartadcock, Chiramabi, Smb1001,HaeB, Seth Ilys, David Gerard, HangingCurve, MMcCallister, DO'Neil, Matthead, JillandJack, Sesel, Explendido Rocha, Ruy Lopez,Formeruser-81, Piotrus, FelineAvenger, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Eranb, Lumidek, Klemen Kocjancic, Ratiocinate, GreenReaper, Adashiel,Lacrimosus, PZFUN, RossPatterson, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Aris Katsaris, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Kelvinc,RJHall, El C, Miraceti, Bletch, Art LaPella, John Vandenberg, Elpresidente, Darwinek, 1or2, Drol, Joshbaumgartner, Ashley Pomeroy,Mailer diablo, Dhartung, KapilTagore, Lecar, Tainter, Kitch, Fryede, Gmaxwell, Mrio, Rtdrury, Lapsed Pacist, Isnow, Rchamber-lain, Zzyzx11, Mandarax, Marskell, BD2412, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Koavf, Terribleman, Vegaswikian, Brighterorange, Tbone, FlaBot,Ground Zero, Str1977, Goudzovski, Gareth E Kegg, Introvert, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude, TSO1D, Brandmeister (old),RussBot, John Quincy Adding Machine, Hauskalainen, Hede2000, Elrith, Schoen, Daveliney, Rjensen, Howcheng, Retired username, Sza-las, Tony1, Mieciu K, PanchoS, Ms2ger, Silverhorse, Petri Krohn, Anclation~enwiki, Mais oui!, Curpsbot-unicodify, Alureiter, Allens,DVD R W, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Momirt, Mom2jandk, Aivazovsky, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Dahn, Wuapinmon, DHN-bot~enwiki,Earbox, Jamierc, KazMat32, Rhollenton, OrphanBot, JennCL, Mixed meters, BenjaminMuller, Edivorce, Mistico, Radagast83, Savi-dan, Kevlar67, Evlekis, Andrei Stroe, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Dono, Trojan traveler, Kingsh, Kuru, John, Marian Gladis, Barsle,Sugemax, Timmo11, Beetstra, SandyGeorgia, Interlingua, Citicat, Dl2000, Stone11375, Yarp, RudyB, Iridescent, Twas Now, Domi-tori, Tawkerbot2, Victoriagirl, Jokes Free4Me, Pseudo-Richard, Adam Trogon, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Sam Staton,Tec15, Garyp01, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Northumbrian, Escarbot, BokicaK, Jayron32, IrishPete, MarvinCZ, North Shoreman, Sluzzelin,Patxi lurra, .anacondabot, Nyttend, Mr.Karma, Cloudz679, Portogal, Pernambuco, MerryXIV, CommonsDelinker, Tulkolahten, LilacSoul, Karanacs, Fabs1~enwiki, Hodja Nasreddin, Oxguy3, Little Professor, NewEnglandYankee, D.A.Timm, SmilesALot, Robertgreer,Olegwiki, Nabukhandezar, Natl1, Pdcook, Cendvincent, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Rei-bot, LeaveSleaves, Vgranucci, Milkbreath, Waiguoren,Eurocopter, Grsz11, Monty845, Caspar esq., Steroid83, Gary Mackowiak, PeterBFZ, SieBot, Unpravda, Dca5347, Tompint, GrahamBeards, Gerakibot, Erik Jesse, Albanman, Rudoleska, Digwuren, Dominik92, Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Bombastus, Anchor Link Bot,ShellyCat, Iaroslavvs, FootballStatWhore, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Jacurek, TheOldJacobite, Piledhigheranddeeper, Grandpallama,Socrates2008, HaloZero00, Kopitarian, Iohannes Animosus, Redthoreau, Camboxer, Natyuyyyxhhthe, XLinkBot, Wertuose, Gerhard-valentin, SilvonenBot, DPacman, Good Olfactory, Batmen, Addbot, Tyrannophobe, Mosedschurte, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Country-Bot, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, Reindra, Raviaka Ruslan, Alexkin, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, KubicaPOL, 1exec1, YeshuaDavid,Materialscientist, Citation bot, Smallpeem, Xqbot, Aquila89, Loganhw, Dvitalewol, Omnipaedista, Frankie0607, Ringomcc, Learner001,Fredy.00, Adam9389, MLKLewis, Cathsoci, Trust Is All You Need, Oashi, HamburgerRadio, Gina Louise, Jonesey95, A8UDI, Wikiain,PB0305, LairepoNite, Thrissel, Trappist the monk, Monkthecat, VernoWhitney, EmausBot, Trilliumz, Dangling Reference, Tulandro,H3llBot, Brandmeister, IR393DrewGolding, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Aberdonian99, Helpful PixieBot, HMSSolent, Strike Eagle, Quillan13, Gob Lofa, Kinaro, Rubens26, User1961914, Gauravlath, Lucullus19, Tijoknol, YFdyh-bot,Khazar2, Dexbot, Extua, Pavel.Bore, Haminoon, Publico2020, Olsonspterom, Monkbot, Monopoly31121993, Mnagler, KasparBot andAnonymous: 253

9.2 Images File:10_Soviet_Invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_-_Flickr_-_The_Central_Intelligence_Agency.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

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Background1967 Writers Congress

Dubeks rise to powerLiterrn listy

Socialism with a human facePublications and media

Soviet reaction InvasionReactions to the invasion

AftermathNormalization and censorship Cultural impact

See also References Further reading

External links Text and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license

Documents

Prague Spring