George Yule

PRAGMATICS George Yule

1. DEFINITIONS AND BACKGROUNDThe study of contextual meaning communicated by a speaker or writer, and interpreted by a listener or reader. (G.Yule)The study of the relation of signs to their interpreters. (Charles Morris)The study of the relations between linguistic forms and its users()Only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis: their assumptions, purposes, goals, and actions they perform while speaking. (G.Yule)

PRAGMATICS IS1- THE STUDY OF SPEAKER MEANING WHAT PEOPLE MEAN by their utterances rather than what the words or phrases might mean by themselves.

2- The study of contextual meaning

Importance of the CONTEXT: the circumstances and the audience or public.

3-The study of how more gets communicated than said.

The INFERENCES made by listeners or readers in order to arrive at an interpretation of the intended meaning.A great deal of what is UNSAID is recognized as part of what is communicated. The study of invisible meaning

4-The study of the expression of relative distance

The CLOSENESS or DISTANCE of the listener or reader determines how much needs to be said.For example: A: there is a store over there (Lets go inside)B: no (I dont want to go inside)A: why not? (why do you not want to go inside?)B: Im tired. (I dont want to because Im tired.)

IN OTHER WORDSPRAGMATICS studies HOW PEOPLE MAKE SENSE OF EACH OTHER LINGUISTICALLY.For example: A: So_ did you?B: Hey_ who wouldnt?Two friends in a conversation may imply some things and infer some others without providing any clear linguistic evidence. So, pragmatics requires us to make sense of what people have in mind.

REGULARITYLuckily, people tend to behave in fairly REGULAR ways when it comes to using language. As part of social groups we follow general expected patterns of behaviour.

For example: I found an old bike. The chain was rusted and the tyres flat. It would be pragmatically odd to say: I found an old bike. A bike has a chain. The chain was rusted. A bike aslo has tyres. The tyres were flat.2.DEIXIS and DISTANCE DEIXIS: pointing via langauge To accomplish this pointing we use deictic expressions or indexicals.i.e: Whats that? (used to indicate sth. in the immediate context.)Deictic expressions depend on the speaker and hearer sharing the same spatial context, in face-to face spoken interaction.

Types of indexicalsPerson deixis: used to point people. (me, you)Spatial deixis: used to point location (here, there).Temporal dexis: used to point location in time (now, then).i.e: Ill put this here, ok?

PERSON DEIXISThere are 3 categories: SPEAKER (I)ADDRESSEE (YOU)OTHERS (HE- SHE-IT- THEY)SOCIAL DEIXIS: forms used to indicate relative social status. In many languages deictic categories become markers of relative social status. HONORIFICS: expressions that mark that the addressee is of higher status. Examples of SOCIAL DEIXISIn Spanish the T- Usted distinction.The choice of one form will communicate something, not directly said, about the speakers view of his relation with the addressee.The higher, older and more powerful speaker will tend to use the t and viceversa. Nowadays, the age distinction remains more powerful than the economic distinction in many countries.Using the 3rd person formCommunicates distance and non-familiarity. Also, it has an ironic or humorous purpose.i.e: Would his highness like some coffee?Also used to make accusations:Somebody didnt clean up after himself (less direct than You didnt cleanSPATIAL DEIXISForms used to point to LOCATIONi.e: Here and There Come and Go

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCEWhen speakers mark how close or distant something is perceived to be.i.e: That man over there implies psychological distance.DEICTIC PROJECTION: when speakers act as if they are somewhere else.i.e: Im not here now. (telephone answering machine)Recording is a performance for a future audience in which I project my presence to be in the required location.16TEMPORAL DEIXISForms used to point to location in time.i.e: now - thenIn contrast to now, the distal expression then applies to both past and future time relative to the speakers present time.i.e: I was in Scotland thenIll see you then

DEIXIS AND GRAMMARThe distinctions for person, spatial, and temporal deixis can be seen at work in English grammar structures such as DIRECT and INDIRECT (reported)SPEECH.

i.e: Are you planning to be here this evening? I asked her.REPORTED FORMI asked her if she was planing to be there that eveningThere s a shift from the near speaker meaning of direct speech to the away from speaker meaning of reported speech, with the use of DISTAL DEICTIC forms.3. REFERENCE AND INFERENCEREFERENCE: an act in which a speaker or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader, to identify something.Words in themselves do not refer anything. People refer.REFERRING EXPRESSIONS: linguistic forms like proper nouns, definite or indefinite noun phrases, and pronouns. The choice of one type of these expressions rather than another is based on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows.FOR EXAMPLE:Look at him (use of pronoun)The woman in red (definite article)A woman was looking at you (indefinite article and pronoun) So, reference is tied to the speakers goals and beliefs about the listener knowledge in the use of language.INFERENCEFor successful reference to occur, we must recognize the role of INFERENCE and COLLABORATION between speaker and listener in thinking what the other has in mind.Sometimes we use vague expressions relying on the listeners ability to infer what referent we have in mind:i.e: The blue thing, That stuffWe sometimes even invent names.

PRAGMATIC CONNECTIONA conventional association between a persons name and a kind of object within a socio-culturally defined community. i.e: Can I borrow your Shakespeare?Picassos on the far wallGiven the context, the intended and inferred referent is not a person but probably a book.THE ROLE OF CO-TEXTCo- text: the linguistic environment in which a word is used.The co-text clearly limits our range of possible interpretations we might have for a word.i.e: Brazil wins World CupBrazil would be the referring expression, and the rest of the sentence the co-text.CO- TEXT Just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used.CONTEXTThe physical environment in which a word is used.

GUESS THE CONTEXT FOR THESE REFERRING EXPRESSIONS Your ten-thirty just cancelled.

The heart-attack mustnt be moved

A couple of rooms have complained about the heat ANAPHORIC REFERENCEThe expressions used to maintain reference to something or someone already mentioned. i.e: A man was looking at us. He then disappeared.The initial reference is often indefinite (A man) and is called the ANTECEDENT. The subsequent reference is definite or a prononun (He) and is called ANAPHORA.PRESENTACIN ODT5. MAXIMS of the COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE1- QUANTITY: Make your contribution as INFORMATIVE as required. Do NOT make it more informative than required.2-QUALITYMake your contribution TRUE. Do NOT say what you believe is false. Do NOT say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

3- RELATION: Be relevant.4- MANNER: Be perspicuous:Avoid obscurity of expressionAvoid ambiguity.Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)Be orderly.

These maxims should be recognized as unstated assumptions we have in conversationsHowever, there are certain expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of NOT fully adhering to the principles.

HEDGES: cautious notes about how an utterance should be taken when giving information.EXAMPLES OF HEDGES:Hedges of QUALITY: As far as I know, theyre married.I may be mistaken, but I thought I saw a wedding ring on her finger.Im not sure if this is right, but I heard it was a secret ceremony.He couldnt live without her, I guess

HEDGES OF QUANTITY: As you probably know, Im terrified of bugs

So, to cut a long story short, we grabbed our staff and run

I wont bore you with all the details, but it was an exciting tripHEDGES OF RELEVANCE I dont know if this is important, but

This may sound like a dumb question, but

Not to change the subject, but Oh, by the wayWell, anywayHEDGES OF MANNERThis may be a bit confused, but

Im not sure if this makes sense, but

I dont know if this is clear at all, butCONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATUREThe basic assumption in conversation is that, otherwise indicated, the participants are adhering to the cooperative principle and the maxims.

The following examples show a speaker conveying more than he said via conversational implicature a: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.b: Ah, I brought the bread.Speaker B assumes that A infersthat what is not mentioned was not brought.a: Do you like ice-cream?b: Is the Pope catholic?

CONVENTIONAL IMPLICATURESIn contrast to the previous implicatures, these ones are NOT based on the cooperative principles maxims.They do NOT have to occur in conversation and dont depend on special contexts for interpretation.They are associated with SPECIFIC WORDS and result in additional conveyed meanings.

For example: the English conjunctions BUT and ANDThe interpretation of any utterance with the word BUT will imply an implicature of CONTRAST and with AND an ADDITION.Mary suggested black, but I chose white.The words EVEN and YET also have conventional implicature. Even implies contrary to expectation.Yet implies that the present situation is expected to be differerent at a later time.6. SPEECH ACTS and EVENTSActions performed via utterances are called Speech Acts. In English they are commonly known as: apology, compliment, complaint, invitation, promise, or request and apply to the speakers communicative intention.The circumstances surrounding the utterance are called the Speech Event and its their nature that determines the interpretation of an utterance as performing a particular speech act.For example: This tea is really cold!

This utterance can be interpreted as a complaint or as a praise, depending on the circumstances. (If it is winter or summer, a cold or a hot day, etc.)

SPEECH ACTS1- The locutionary act: the basic act of utterance which produces a meaningful linguistic expression.If you have difficulty in producing a meaningful utterance (because its a foreign language or youre tongue-tied), then you might fail to produce a locutionary act.Aha mokofaWHAT??2. ILLOCUTIONARY ACTThe communicative force of an utterance. We form an utterance with some kind of function in mind: An offer, a statement, a promise, a threat, etc.

3. THE PERLOCUTIONARY ACT: The effect of an utteranceTake the next utterance and state the illocutionary act/force. Ill see you later

The same locutionary act can represent different illocutionary forces: A prediction

A warning

A promise

How can the speaker assume that the intended illocutionary force wil be recognized by the hearer?IFIDs: Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices

Felicity ConditionsIFIDsFelicity ConditionsThe most common IFIDs are performative verbs: verbs that explicitly name the illocutionary act being performed.

i.e: I promise you thatI warn you thatI predict that

Certain expected or appropiate circumstances for a speech act to be recognized as intended.i.e: I sentence you to six months of prisonIf the speaker wasnt a judge in a court, this performance would be infelicitous or inappropiate.

OTHER IFIDs Other Felicity conditions Word orderStressIntonationi.e: Youre going! (I tell you)

Youre going?( I request confirmation)

Are you going?( I ask you if)General Conditions: on the participants, for example, that they can understand the same language, and that they arent play-acting or being non-sensical.Content Conditions: for example, a promise must be about a future event.Preparatory Conditions: specific requirements prior to an utterance in order for it to count as a particular speech act.Sincerity conditions: requirements on the genuine intentions of a speaker. For example: for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action.

The essential Condition:A requirement that the utterance commits the speaker to the act performed.

The utterance changes my state from non-obligation to obligation.Speech Act Classification1- DECLARATIONS: speech acts that change the world via an utterance. The speaker has to have a specific role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropiately.I now pronounce you husband and wife (Priest)Youre out (referee)

2- REPRESENTATIVES: speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not.

Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, descriptions, etc.

The Earth is flat.

Chomsky didnt write about peanuts.

3- EXPRESSIVES: speech acts that state what the speaker feels.They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow.

Im really sorry!

Congratulations!

4- DIRECTIVES: speech acts used to get someone else to do sth.They express what the speaker wants. They are: commands, orders, requests, suggestions. They can be positive or negative.

Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.Dont touch that.Could you lend me a pen, please?5- COMMISSIVES: speech acts used by speakers to commit themselves to some future action.They are: promises, threats, refusals, pledges, etc. Ill be back.

We are going to get it right next time.

We wont do that.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTSDIRECT: when theres a direct relationship between the structure (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and its communicative function (statement, question, commnad/request.)

INDIRECT: Indirect relation between the structure and function.Example of indirect speech acts:Move out of the way! (the only direct command.)

Do you have to stand in front of the T.V?(A question functioning as an indirect command)

Youre standing in front of the T.V!.( a declarative functioning as an indirect request)

7. POLITENESS and INTERACTIONA linguistic interaction is necessarily a social interaction.We take part in a wide range of interactions, mostly with strangers, where the social distance determined by external factors is dominant.However, there are other factors, like amount of imposition or degree of friendliness, which are often negotiated.POLITENESSPolite social behaviour within a culture. We assume that participants in an interaction are generally aware of such cultural norms and principles of politeness.Face: the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects the other sto recognize. Politeness in an interaction can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another persons face.

Examples of social distance: respect or deferenceExcuse, Mr. Buckingham, can I talk to you for a second?

Social closeness: friendliness, camaraderie, or solidarity.Hey, Bucky, got a minute?Face Wants: A persons expectations that their pulic self-image will be respected.If a speaker says sth. that represents a threat to another individuals expectations, regarding self-image, its described as a face-threatening act.When someone says an utterance that avoids a potential threat t a persons face, its called face-saving act. Example A: Im going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now!! (Face-threatening act)

B: Perhaps you could just ask him if hes going to stop because its getting late and we need to sleep (Face- saving act)

Self and Other: Say nothingImagine you arrive at a lecture but youve forgotten a pen to take your notes. You think that teh person next to you may provide the solution. In this scenario, youre going to be SELF, and the person next to you OTHER.You: (look in bag, rummage in, search in pockets)The Other: Here, use this.

That was called a Say nothing approachWithout uttering a word, you have the intention that your problem will be recognized.Many people prefer to have their needs recognized by others wihout having to express those needs in langauge.When those needs are in fact recognized, more has been communicated than was said.Say something: Off and On record Uh, I forgot my penHmm, I wonder where I put my penThese statements are not directly addressed t the other. The other can act as if they have not even been heard.Off record expressions: utterances notdirectly addressed t another one.

On record experssions: are direct address froms.Give me a pen Lend me your penThese are known as bald on record- theyre the most direct approach, like the use of imperatives. Would you lend me a pen, please? Here we use mitigating devices, like would and please, that soften the demand.