Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 51, Number 2, July 2011

PRACTICE ARTICLE

Informal learning in the workplace: A review of the literature

Megan Le ClusEdith Cowan University

In the last few decades, the workplace has been increasingly recognised as a legitimate environment for learning new skills and knowledge, which in turn enables workers to participate more effectively in ever-changing work environments. Within the workplace, there is the potential for continuous learning to occur not only through formal learning initiatives that are associated with training, but also through informal learning opportunities that are embedded within everyday work activities. This paper surveys the growing body of literature on informal learning, makes some critical observations about the importance of informal learning, and explains the various ways that informal learning can occur in the workplace.

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Introduction

Inthelastfewdecades,theworkplacehasbeenincreasinglyrecognisedasalegitimateenvironmentforlearningnewskillsandknowledge,whichinturnenablesworkerstoparticipatemoreeffectivelyinever-changingworkenvironments.Manyscholarsagreethattheworkplaceprovidesarichenvironmentforlearning(seeforexample,Hager2001,Beckett&Hager2002,Boud&Middleton2003).Billett(1996)proposedthatchangesinthecontemporaryworkplacerepresenttheimportanceofworkplacesassignificantsitesforlearning.Therefore,learninghasbecomeimportantonmanyorganisationalagendas.However,thereisnoclearorconsistentdefinitionofworkplacelearningand,althoughoftenconfinedtolearningthattakesplaceintheworkplace,definitionscanbebroadandincludeothertypesofwork-relatedlearningwhichsupportworkroles.

Consequently,intheliteraturelearningintheworkplacehasbecomeasomewhatconfusingconceptthatisrepresentedbyavarietyofmeanings.Hager(1998)describedworkplacelearningasambiguousandSpencerclaimedthat‘muchoftherhetoricproclaimingthevirtuesofworkplacerestructuringseldommatchesworkplacereality’(2002:298).Ayearearlier,Engeströmnotedthatcurrenttheoriesoforganisationallearningwere‘typicallyweakinspellingoutthespecificprocessesoractionsthatmakethelearningprocess’(2001:150).Forthisreason,workplacelearninghasbecomeacontestednotionbysomeeducationalists,despitetheprocessesinvolvedhavingreceivedlittleresearchattention(Boreham&Morgan2004).Theemergingbodyofliteraturerelatedtolearningintheworkplacesuggeststhatthisiswidelyresearchedandincontinuousdevelopment.

Thewayco-workersandtheirorganisationsperceivelearningcanbeverydifferent.Thisisperhaps,asHager(2001)suggested,becausetheterm‘learning’isusedinsomanydiversewaysanditcanreferto

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eitherprocessandproduct,orboth.Ingeneral,theseviewsincludeformaltypesoflearningthatareorganisational(seeforexample,Senge1990,Rylatt2000),andmorenon-formaltypesoflearning,suchasinformalandincidentallearning(e.g.Marsick&Watkins1990&1999,Marsick&Volpe1999,Hager&Halliday2006).Therefore,withintheworkplace,thereisthepotentialforcontinuouslearningtooccurnotonlythroughformallearninginitiativesthatareassociatedwithtraining,butalsothroughinformallearningopportunitiesthatareembeddedwithineverydayworkactivities.Thispapersurveysthegrowingbodyofliteratureoninformallearningintheworkplace,beginningwithanoverviewoflearningintheworkplace.

Learning in the workplace

Today’sco-workersareconstantlyfacedwithchallengesthataffectboththewaytheyperformtheirjobandtheirparticipationineverydayworkplaceactivities.Theyareexpectedtocontinuallymodifyandupdatetheirworkpracticesinordertosustaincompetitiveadvantage,remainemployableandperformwell.Forthisreason,theworkplaceisincreasinglyrecognisedasalegitimateenvironmentforlearningnewskillsandknowledgethatenableco-workerstobetterparticipateineveryday,work-relatedactivities.Iflearningthroughlifeisessentialtothelabourmarket,thenworkplacesandco-workersarecrucialinsupporting,valuinganddevelopingopportunitiesforlearning.

Intheworkplace,learningcanbedescribedassituatedinthecontextofsocialpractice(Lave&Wenger1991),inwhichtheworksettingprovidesanopportunityforco-workerstoacquireknowledgethatconnectstheorytopracticeinarealisticandefficientway(Billett1996).Workplacelearningincludesexperience-basedlearning,incidentalandinformallearning(Marsick&Watkins2001,Marsick&Volpe1999,Foley1999,Hager&Halliday2006),

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self-directedlearning(Foley1999)aswellasformalorganisationallearning(Senge1990).Learningnewskillsandknowledgemakesitpossibleforco-workerstomanagechange,performwellandbesatisfiedwiththeirwork.Forthisreason,workandlearningaresynonymousasexperiencesaccumulateinthecourseofeverydayparticipationinworkactivities.Theworkandlearningexperienceencompassesthewayco-workersmakesenseofthesituationstheyencounterintheirdailylivesandespeciallyintheworksetting.

Learningineverydaysettingshasbeencoinedsituatedlearning(Lave&Wenger1991,Billett1996).Situatedlearningemphasisesthedynamicsofeverydaylearningandinteraction,andfocusesontheinteractiverelationshipbetweenco-workersandtheirworkenvironment.Situatedlearningprovidesmodelsoflearningincontext,andsuggeststhatlearningdoesoccurintheworkplacecontext(Lave&Wenger1991,Billett1996).Forexample,Billett(2001:1)suggestedthat‘workplacesandeducationalinstitutionsmerelyrepresentdifferentinstancesofsocialpracticesinwhichlearningoccursthroughparticipation’.

Animportantpartofsituatedlearningistheconstructionofknowledgewithinthesocialandculturalcircumstancesinwhichlearningoccurs,namelythesocialcontext.Forexample,Billett(1993)conductedseveralstudiesofcoalminersandworkersinotherindustries,concludingthat,intheinformallearningsettingoftheworkplace,effectivelearningresultedfromlearners’engagementinauthenticactivities,guidedbyexpertsandbyinteractingwithotherco-workers.Althoughlearningwasuniquetoeachco-worker,itwasalsoshapedbyworkplaceculture.AccordingtoBillett,thequalityoflearningdependedonthekindofactivitiesengagedin,accesstosupport,guidanceandhowco-workersconstructedtheirknowledgeofdifferentsituations:

…thesefactorsinfluencetheprocessoflearningandwhatislearnt.Indoingso,theyreflecttheinterdependencebetween

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workandlearning,providingabasistoconsidernotonlythecontributionsoftheworkplaceasalearningenvironment,butalsohowtheworkplacemightbeorganisedtoimprovelearning(2001:21).

Iflearningoccursaspartofeverydayexperiencesandparticipation,thenthereisalsothepotentialforlearningtooccurinmanydifferentways.Thisincludesinformalstrategies,aswellasformallearninginitiativesthatareassociatedwithtraining.Theimportanceoflearningintheorganisationisnotnew;however,muchoftheemphasishasbeenonthewayco-workersformallyacquireanddevelopnewknowledgeandskillsintheworkplace.

ResearchbyEnos,ThammKehrhahnandBell(2003)andearlierbyBellandDale(1999)suggestedthatmostofthelearningthattakesplaceinorganisationsisinformalandformspartofeverydayworkactivities.MarsickandWatkins(1990)distinguishedbetweeninformallearning,whichtheyviewaspredominantlyexperiential,andincidentallearning,whichoccursasaby-productofanotheractivity.Theimportanceofinformallearningfocusesontheinterplaybetweeninformallearningactivities,theenvironmentwheretheyoccurandthecharacteristicsofthoseengaged.Learningintheworkplace,fromtheperspectiveofinformallearning,ismeaningful,everydaylearningandparticipationinworkactivities.Itinvolvesmakingsenseofthedailylearningthatoccursinorganisationsandinvolvesexaminingembeddedknowledgeandencouraginglearnerstobeself-directedandreflectontheirlearningexperiences.

Insum,learningintheworkplacerepresentsavarietyofstrategiesandperspectivesthatenablesco-workerstolearnaspartoftheireverydayexperiencesatwork.Learningintheworkplacecanbeformallearningthatisplannedandprovidedbytheorganisationinanefforttoincreaseco-workereffectiveness.Workplacelearningcanalsobeinformallearningthatisunintentionalandresultsfrominteractionwithotherco-workers.Informallearning‘takes

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placealthoughpeoplearenotalwaysconsciousofit’(Marsick&Watkins1990:12)andisoftentakenforgrantedandtheresultofunplannedorunexpectedevents(Carter1995)inpeople’slivesthrougheverydayexperiences.Informallearningoccurswheneverpeoplehavetheneed,motivationoropportunityforlearning(Marsick&Watkins2001)andisoftenlinkedtothelearningofothers(Marsick&Volpe1999).Asinformallearningemergesduringeverydayactivitiesintheworkplace,thereisthepotentialforthistypeoflearningtooccurmoreoftenthanformallearning.

Informal learning—past, present and future

Althoughexplicitwritingsaboutinformallearningdidnotemergeuntilthe1980s,characteristicsofinformallearningcanbetracedbacktotheearlywritingsofLindeman(1926),Dewey(1938)andKnowles(1970)whosuggestedthatadultlearnersbecomeawareoftheirlearningexperiencesthroughself-direction.WritingsbyWatkinsandMarsick(1992),MarsickandVolpe(1999)andBellandDale(1999)consideredtherelationshipbetweenthelearnerandtheenvironmentandacknowledgedthatmuchofthelearningoccurringintheworkplacetookplacethroughinteractionwithothers.Additionally,muchofthelearningthattakesplaceintheworkplaceoccursasaby-productofothereverydayactivitiesandisoftenhaphazardorunsystematic.Informallearningisrepresentedbyarangeofstrategiesincludingconversation,socialinteraction,teamworkandmentoring.Informallearninginvolvesinteractionbetweenpeopleandisnotlimitedtoapredefinedbodyofknowledge.

Theterminformallearningwasintroducedinthe1950sbyMalcolmKnowlesinhispioneerworkoninformaladulteducation.Sincethen,manyauthorshavewrittenaboutinformallearningandofferedtheiruniqueperspectiveonthemeaningoftheterm.Informallearningprovidesastraightforwardcontrasttoformallearningandsuggestsgreaterflexibilityforadultlearners.However,Erautdescribed

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dichotomiesas‘indicatorsoflazythinking’(2004:250)andpreferstodescribeinformallearningaslearningthatcomesclosertotheinformalratherthantheformalendofacontinuum.Thisincludeslearningthatisimplicit,unintended,opportunisticandunstructured(Eraut2004).Eraut(2004)alsoimpliedthatinformallearningalsorecognisesthesocialsignificanceoflearningfromotherpeopleandhasgreaterscopeforindividualagencythansocialisation.Earlier,MarsickandWatkins(1997)suggestedthatnotonlyisinformallearninguniquetotheindividual,butcontroloflearningrestsprimarilyinthehandsofthelearner.Informallearningdrawsattentiontothelearningthattakesplaceinthespacessurroundingpeople,activitiesandeventsintheworkplace.Itcanalsobeconsideredascomplementarytolearningfromeverydayexperience.

FollowingKnowles’workduringthe1950s,theroleofinformallearninghasemergedintheworkplacelearningliterature,although‘fewstudiestodatehaveproblematizedthephenomenonitselfwithreferencetoitsaccomplishmentinmoment-by-momentinteraction’(Sawchuk,2003:291).BoudandGarrick(inBoud&Garrick1999)haveacknowledgedinformalinteractionwithworkcolleaguesasapredominantwayoflearningintheworkplace;however,itisoftenconsidered‘partofthejob’andnotacknowledgedasformallearning(Boud&Middleton2003).

InformallearninghasbeendescribedbyMarsickandVolpe(1999)ashaphazard,idiosyncraticanddrivenbyserendipity.Theinformallearningliterature(e.g.Coffield1999,Cofer2000,Bell&Dale1999,Marsick&Volpe1999,Marsick&Watkins1990&1999)representstheway‘inwhichpeopleconstructmeaningintheir…sharedorganisationallife’(Marsick1987:4).AccordingtoMarsickandWatkins‘peoplelearnintheworkplacethroughinteractionswithothersintheirdailyworkenvironments’(1990:4).BoudandGarrick(1999)laterdescribedinformallearningaslearningfromothers.AccordingtoMarsickandVolpe(1999),informallearning

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involvesbothactionandreflectionwhichinvolves‘lookingbackonwhatwehavedone,measuringitagainstwhatwewantedtoachieve,andassessingtheconsequences’(p.7).Theproblem,however,isthatreflectionisdifficulttorecognise(Marsick&Volpe1999)andsoco-workersandtheirorganisationsmaynotrecogniseorbeabletoidentifyinformallearningexperiencesintheworkplace.Despitethisdifficulty,examininghowinformallearningoccurshasthepotentialtocontributetocurrentdebatessurroundingthenotionofworkplacelearning.

Informallearningisrepresentedbyarangeofstrategiesincludingconversation,socialinteraction,teamworkandmentoring.Informallearninginvolvesinteractionbetweenpeopleandisnotlimitedtoapredefinedbodyofknowledge.ThishadledauthorslikeCoffield(1999)andHagerandHalliday(2006)toadvocateinformallearningasanimportantformoflearning.Otherauthorshavesuggestedthatinformallearningcanbesuccessfulifusedinconjunctionwithformallearning(Bell1977,Bell&Dale1999).AccordingtoAlpern(1997),organisationsarenolongerrelyingjustontechnicalskills,butareplacingmoreemphasisoncompetenciesinotherareas,likeknowinghowtolearn,problem-solving,creativethinking,interpersonalskills,abilitytoworkinateam,communicationskillsandleadershipeffectiveness.Mostofthislearningissituatedwithinsocialsituationsandisalsoreferredtoasincidentallearning(Marsick&Watkins1990).

Overthelastthreedecades,anumberofresearchershavestartedtoshowaninterestinnon-formaltypesoflearning(e.g.Marsick&Watkins1990&1999,Boud&Garrick1999,Bell&Dale1999,Boud&Middleton2003,Conner2003).Duringtheearly1990s,MarsickandWatkins(1990)offeredatheoreticalframeworktodefineanddescribeinformallearning.AccordingtoMarsickandWatkins(1990),informallearningmayincludeself-directedlearning,networking,mentoring,coachingandtrialanderrorandcanoccuranywhereand

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atanytime.MarsickandWatkinscontinuedtoexaminethedifferencebetweenformalandinformallearningandbecameleadingwritersaboutinformallearning.In1992,WatkinsandMarsickwroteaboutnewwaysofincreasingefficiencyintheworkplaceandemphasisedtheneedforemployerstorecognisethebenefitsofinformallearningasopposedtoformallearningactivities.Intheliterature,informallearningisoftencontrastedtoformallearning.MarsickandWatkins(1990:12)describedthiscontrastinthefollowingway:

Formallearningistypicallyinstitutionallysponsored,classroombased,andhighlystructured.Informallearning,acategorythatincludesincidentallearning,mayoccurininstitutions,butisnottypicallyclassroombasedorhighlystructured,andcontroloflearningrestsprimarilyinthehandsofthelearner…informallearningcanbedeliberatelyencouragedbyanorganisationoritcantakeplacedespiteanenvironmentnothighlyconducivetolearning.

Non-formallearningincludeslearningthatisnothighlystructuredorclassroom-based,notformallyassessed,anddoesnotleadtoformalqualifications.MarsickandVolpe(1999)arguedthat,despitepastattemptsbyorganisationstosupportorganisationaleffectivenessbyprovidingformaltrainingandeducation,‘mostworkplacelearninghasbeenleftinthehandsofemployeesandhasbeengainedthroughinformalmethodsandthroughtrialanderror’(p.1).Theyarguedthatastheethosoforganisationshaschanged,moreandmoreorganisationsarefocusingonwaysoffosteringinformallearning.Furthermore,theystatedthatorganisationsnowneedtopurposelyprovideaworkingenvironmentthatpromotesandencouragescontinuousinformallearning.Asummaryofempiricalresearchoninformallearningwillnowbeprovided.

Empirical research on informal learning

In1988,researchbyMcCall,LombardoandMorrisonaboutmanageriallearningrevealedthattheacquisitionofmanagerialskillssuchasnegotiationandproficiencywerepredominantlydeveloped

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throughinformallearning.Theyfoundthatoutof35managerialjobskills,managersself-reportedhavingdeveloped30ofthemthroughinformallearning.Inthelate1990s,Garrick’s(1998)researchinthebuildingindustryandBoud’s(1999)studyofacademiahighlightedthatamajorpartofinformallearninginvolveslearningfromothersatwork.BellandDale(1999)alsoconsideredtheimportanceofinformallearningintheworkplace.Intheirstudyoninformallearningintheworkplace,BellandDale(1999)describedinformallearningaslearningwhichtakesplaceintheworkcontextandrelatestotheindividual,theirjobandtheirperformance.Theyarguedthatsuchlearningisnotformallyintegratedintoalearningprogramoractivitybytheemployerandthatinformallearningmaybemotivatedbyeverydayactivitiesorneedandcouldtakeplaceinconversationsandsocialinteractions.Furthermore,Conner(2003)hasstatedthatinformallearningisalearningprocesswherebythelearnercanacquireattitudes,values,skillsandknowledgeaspartoftheirdailyroutine.

ResearchbyEnos,ThammKehrhahnandBell(2003)ontheextenttowhichmanagersengagedininformallearningfoundthatemployeessuccessfullylearnedcoremanagerialskillsfrominformallearningactivities.Theyfoundthatsignificantinformallearningactivitiesincludedinteractionandwatchingotherstomakesenseoftheirexperiencesandlearnnewskills.Onthebasisoftheirstudy,theresultsindicateamoveawayfromformaltrainingtotherecognitionofinformallearningopportunitieslikeinteractionwithothers,observingothersandencouragingreflection,andchallengingexperiences.Furthermore,researchbyFuller,Ashton,Felstead,Unwin,WaltersandQuinn(2003)conductedinavarietyofworkplacesincludingahairdressingsalon,accountancypracticeandacardealership,foundthatinformallearningwasapartofeverydayworkpracticesandoccurredoutsideofformaleducationandtrainingsettings.Similarly,byapplyingtheoriesofinformallearningtosocialmovements,Foley(2004)describedinformallearningasthetype

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oflearningthatoccursconsciouslywhenaco-workeristryingtolearnfromanexperience.Accordingtohim,informallearningcanoccurduringamanagementcommitteemeetingorbyemployeesre-designingtheirjobthroughconsultationwithmanagement.

Thetypeofknowledgegainedvialearninginformallyintheworkplacecanbealsoreferredtoastacitknowledge.AlthoughMcAdam,MasonandMcCrory(2007)havesuggestedthatthereisconsiderabledisagreementintheliteratureonhowbesttodefinetacitknowledge,forthepurposeofthepresentstudy,tacitknowledgeisinterpretedasthesubjectiveandpersonalknowledgeacquiredbyindividuals.Gourlay’s(2002,2004)reviewofresearchstudiesfromdifferentdisciplinescharacterisestacitknowledgeaspersonal,experiencebased,jobspecific,transferredthroughconversation,andbothknownandunknowntotheuser.Informallearning,then,canbeonewaytoacquiretacitknowledge.

Insum,informallearningcanbeplannedbutisoftenspurofthemoment.Informallearningmayoccurthroughnetworkingwithotheremployees,oraparticularpersonmaybeidentifiedasbeingan‘expert’intheareaandhelpscontributetheirknowledge.Interactionbetweenco-workersmayinitiatesocialandpersonalrelationshipsthatcontributetothewell-beingofotherco-workersandtheorganisation.Mostofthislearningistacitandsituatedwithinsocialsituationsandthereforeco-workersmayhavelittlecontroloverwhenorwherethelearningoccurs.Morespecifically,thelearningmayoccurduringtheprocessofperformingotheractivitiesandmaybemoreincidentalthaninformal(Foley2004).

Whiletheterm‘informallearning’generallydominatesintheliterature,itissometimesusedinterchangeablywithincidentallearning.In1990,MarsickandWatkinsdrewadistinctioninfocusbetweeninformalandincidentallearning.Theydescribedinformallearningasfocusingonexperientialformsoflearningandincidentallearningasfocusingonunintentionalformsoflearning.Inthis

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context,learningisassumedtobeanactionarisingfromexperiencethatmayenablethelearnertodevelopandacquirenewskills.Thelearnermaynotbeconsciousofthislearningasitisunintentionalandoccursasaby-productofeverydayexperiencesandactivitiesintheworkplace.Forexample,throughrepetitionorobservation,employeesmaylearnbasiccomputerskillsornewwaysofdoingeverydaytasksintheworkplace.Thislearningmayoccurthroughinformalinteractionwithotherco-workers,andthereforesocialinteractionmayplayasignificantroleinhowthistypeoflearningoccurs.Forthisreason,thenatureofincidentallearningwillbeexaminedingreaterdetailinanattempttodeterminetheroleofsocialinteractionanditsimpactoninformallearningintheworkplace.

Incidental learning

Theterm‘incidentallearning’isasub-setofinformallearningandissometimesusedinterchangeablywithinformallearning.Incidentallearningisdescribedastheunintentionalactivitiesthatoccurasaby-productofeverydayexperiences(Marsick&Watkins1990).Asincidentallearningisasub-setofinformallearning,itisalsodefinedintermsofthetacit,taken-for-granted,everydayactivitiesoccurringintheworkplace(Marsick&Watkins1999).Inmostcases,incidentallearningisunintentionalorunplannedlearningthatresultsfromotheractivitiesintheworkplace.Incomparisontoinformallearning,incidentallearningcanbearesultoflearningfrommistakesorthehiddencurriculumthatmaybeassociatedwithformallearning,suggestingthatincidentallearningisnotaplannedaction.Otherexamplesofincidentallearningarethehiddenagendaofanorganisation’sculture,learningbymistakes,orthroughtrialanderror(Marsick&Watkins2001).

Previousstudieshaveshownthatincidentallearningincludeslearningthroughconversation(vandenTillaart,vandenBerg&Warmerdam1998),observation,repetition,socialinteraction

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(Cahoon1995)andproblemsolving(Kerka2000).SimilartotheviewtakenbyMarsickandWatkins(1990),Foley(1999)suggestedthatlearningthroughsocialactionisincidentaland,consequently,isnotlegitimatelyrecognisedaslearningasit‘almostalwaystakesplacealthoughpeoplearenotalwaysconsciousofit’(Marsick&Watkins2001:25).Therefore,learningistaken-for-granted,tacitandunconscious.Incidentallearningisalsounintentionalorunplannedlearningthatisaresultofotheractivities(Kerka2000).InresearchconductedbyCallahan(1999),intervieweescommonlyreferredtoincidentallearningasthe‘karmainthewallsandhalls’.Themostsignificantcharacteristicsofincidentallearning,however,arethatitisalwaysoccurringandis‘highlyinfluencedbythesocialandculturalnormsofothers’(Marsick&Watkins2001:31).

Areviewoftheliteratureoninformalandincidentallearninghighlightsthatincidentallearningisunplanned(Tusting2003),unintentional(Marsick&Watkins1990,Bell&Dale1999,Tusting2003)andtakesplaceintheworkcontextalthoughisoftennotrecognisedbytheemployer(Bell&Dale1999),atleastnotformally.MarsickandWatkins(1999)havedefinedincidentallearningintermsofthetacit,taken-for-granted,everydayactivitiesoccurringintheworkplace.Inmostcasesincidentallearningisunintentionalorunplannedlearningthatresultsfromotheractivities,suchasinteractionwithco-workers.Incontrasttoinformallearning,whichmaybefacilitatedthroughstrategieslikementoring,incidentallearningcanbetheresultoflearningfrommistakes,butnotalways.

AnumberofempiricalstudieshavebeenconductedonincidentallearningbyAstin(1977),Mealman(1993),Cahoon(1995),VandenTillaart,VandenBergandWarmerdam(1998)andLawrence(2000).ResearchconductedbyAstin(1977)foundthatuniversitystudentslearnedthroughincidentallearningsimplybybeingoncampusandinteractingwiththeirlecturersandpeers.Inasimilarstudy,Mealman(1993)suggestedthatunintentionallearning,throughinteraction

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andpersonalcontexts,playedanimportantpartinstudents’overallexperience.Inhisstudyonthecomputingindustry,Cahoon(1995)foundthatmostlearningintheworkplaceoccursinthecourseofeverydayworkpracticesandcontributestoasocialisationprocess,andinturn,benefitson-the-joblearning.Cahoon(1995)establishedthatincidentallearningaboutcomputersthroughcoachingandproblemsolvingwasmoreimportantindevelopingskillsthanformaltraining.Accordingly,VandenTillaart,VandenBergandWarmerdam’s(1998)researchintheprintingindustryshowedthatemployeeswereabletokeeptheirskillsandqualificationscurrentbyproblemsolvingandthroughassistancebymoreexperiencedworkers.DuringadultlearningworkshopsLawrence(2000)foundthatmoreeffectivecommunity-basedlearningtookplaceasmuchduringsocialactivitiesasduringtheformalcoursestructure.

OnthebasisofthesestudiesbyAstin(1977),Mealman(1993),Cahoon(1995),VandenTillaart,VandenBergandWarmerdam(1998)andLawrence(2000),incidentallearningoccursthroughwork-relatedinteractionandsocialisationprocesses.Incidentallearningcanbedescribedasunintentionalorunplannedlearningthatresultsfromotheractivitiesincludingobservation,repetition,socialinteractionandproblemsolving.Althoughadultlearnersdonotnecessarilydistinguishorrecogniseincidentallearningopportunities(Cahoon1995)intheworkplace,co-workerinteractionisassumedtoplayasignificantroleinhownewskillsandknowledgeareacquired.Inlightofthestudiesreviewedinthissection,incidentallearningcanbedescribedasasocialprocessandcanbeconceptualisedusingLaveandWenger’s(1991:53)notionofa‘communityofpractice’where:

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Activities,tasks,functions,andunderstandingsdonotexistinisolation;theyarepartofabroadersystemofrelationsinwhichtheyhavemeaning.Thesesystemsofrelationsariseoutofandarereproducedanddevelopedwithinsocialcommunities,whichareinpartsystemsofrelationsamongpersons…Learningthusimpliesbecomingadifferentpersonwithrespecttothepossibilitiesenabledbythesesystemsofrelations.Toignorethisaspectoflearningistooverlookthefactthatlearninginvolvestheconstructionofidentities.

LaveandWenger’s(1991)statementimpliesthatlearningisasocialprocessandcanbeinfluencedbytherelationshipsinwhichindividualsengage.Inhisstudiesonsocialmovements,bycomparingthelearningexperiencesofmineworkersandhomemakers,Foley(1999)arguedthatsocialactionandinteractioncanfacilitateincidentallearning.Foleydescribedhowmalemineworkersdiscussedandcritiquedmanagementpracticesoverdinnerwithotherco-workers,indicatingthatworkersretreatedtoasafeplaceandwithpeopletheyfeltcomfortablewithtoreflectonworkpracticesandexperiences.Byreflectingonworkinthisway,itcanbesaidthattheseco-workersengagedinatypeofsociallearningoccurringinwhatLaveandWenger(1991)woulddescribeasacommunityofpractice.

Theliteratureonincidentallearninghashighlightedthatthistypeoflearningisunintentionalorunplannedlearningthatresultsfromotheractivitiesintheworkplace.Itoccursoftenintheworkplacethroughobservation,socialinteractionandproblemsolving.Incidentallearningisoftennotrecognisedbyemployeesaslearningper se,andlikeinformallearning,isnotalwaysrecognisedbytheorganisationaslegitimatelearning.Aspreviouslyhighlighted,MarsickandWatkins(1990)usedinformalandincidentallearningtodistinguishbetweenplannedandunplannedlearning.Theydescribedinformallearningasexperientialandnon-institutional,andincidentallearningasunintentional,aby-productofanotheractivity.

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Concluding comments

Insummary,thisreviewoftheliteratureoninformalandincidentallearningintheworkplacehasshownthatinformallearningisabroadtermthatdescribesawiderangeofexperiencesandactivitiesthatfacilitatenon-formallearningintheworkplace.Thenatureofinformallearningsuggeststhatthesocialandculturalenvironmentinwhichlearningtakesplacehasthepotentialtoinfluencehowlearningoccurs.ResearchersincludingMarsickandWatkins(1990,1999,2001),Garrick(1998),BellandDale(1999)andCoffield(1999)haveconsideredtheroleofinformallearningintheworkplace.Theirstudieshaveshownthatinformallearningisplannedorunplannedlearningthatisoftenspur-of-the-momentlearning,self-directed,andinvolvestryingnewthingsandlearningalongtheway.Moresignificantly,thesestudieshavehighlightedtheimportanceofthesocialcontextinwhichinformallearningoccurs.Thisisimportantbecauseifinformallearningemergesduringeverydayactivitiesintheworkplace,thereisthepotentialforthistypeoflearningtooccurmoreoftenthanformallearning.

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About the author

Dr Megan Le Clus is a lecturer in the Faculty of Business and Law at Edith Cowan University. Throughout her academic career, Megan has developed a strong research interest in the way that co-workers learn in the workplace, and more specifically, how opportunities for informal learning are potentially afforded or constrained by the social context.

Contact details

270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup 6027, Western AustraliaTel: +61 8 6304 2418Email: m.leclus@ecu.edu.au