PPT Schermerhorn Mgmt9 Ch14

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Management, 9/eJohn R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

Chapter 14:

Prepared by: Jim LoPresti

University of Colorado, Boulder

Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chapter 14: Motivation – Theory and Practice

Planning Ahead — Chapter 14 Study Questions

� How do individual needs influence

motivation?

� What are the process theories of

motivation?

Management 9/e - Chapter 14 2

motivation?

� What role does reinforcement play in

motivation?

� What are the alternative approaches to

job design?

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

motivation?

� Types of content theories:

�Hierarchy of needs theory


�ERG theory

�Two-factor theory

�Acquired needs theory


motivation?

� Motivation and individual needs� Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

� Needs


� Needs

� Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of

an individual.

� Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.

� Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.

� Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need

satisfaction.

Study Question 2: What are the different types of

individual needs?

� Hierarchy of needs theory

� Developed by Abraham Maslow.

� Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes.

Lower-order needs:


� Lower-order needs:

� Physiological, safety, and social needs.

� Desires for physical and social well being.

� Higher-order needs:

� Esteem and self-actualization needs.

� Desire for psychological growth and development.


individual needs?

�Hierarchy of needs theory

� Deficit principle

� A satisfied need is not a motivator of


� A satisfied need is not a motivator of

behavior.

� Progression principle

� A need at one level does not become

activated until the next lower-level need

is satisfied.

Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.



motivation?

� ERG theory

� Developed by Clayton Alderfer.

� Three need levels:

� Existence needs — desires for


� Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.

� Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

� Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.


individual needs?

� ERG theory

� Any/all needs can influence behavior at

one time.


one time.

� Frustration-regression principle.

� An already satisfied lower-level need

becomes reactivated when a higher-level

need is frustrated.


individual needs?

� Two-factor theory

� Developed by Frederick Herzberg.

� Hygiene factors:

� Elements of the job context.


� Elements of the job context.

� Sources of job dissatisfaction.

� Satisfier factors:

� Elements of the job content.

� Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.



motivation?

� Acquired needs theory

� Developed by David McClelland.

� People acquire needs through their life experiences.


experiences.

� Needs that are acquired:

� Need for Achievement (nAch)

� Need for Power (nPower)

� Need for Affiliation (nAff)


motivation?


� Need for Achievement (nAch)

� Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to


efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

� People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

� Involves individual responsibility for results.

� Involves achievable but challenging goals.

� Provides feedback on performance.


motivation?

� Acquired needs theory� Need for Power (nPower)

� Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.


responsible for other people.

� Personal power versus social power.

� People high in (nPower) prefer work that:� Involves control over other persons.

� Has an impact on people and events.

� Brings public recognition and attention.


motivation?


� Need for Affiliation (nAff)

� Desire to establish and maintain friendly

and warm relations with other persons.


and warm relations with other persons.

� People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

� Involves interpersonal relationships.

� Provides for companionship

� Brings social approval.


motivation?

�Questions for summarizing the

content theories of motivation:

� How many different individual needs

are there?


are there?

� Can a work outcome or reward satisfy

more than one need?

� Is there a hierarchy of needs?

� How important are the various needs?

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of

motivation?

� Process theories of motivation …� How people make choices to work hard or not.

� Choices are based on:

� Individual preferences.

� Available rewards.


� Available rewards.

� Possible work outcomes.

� Types of process theories:� Equity theory.

� Expectancy theory.

� Goal-setting theory.


motivation?

� Equity theory

� Developed by J. Stacy Adams.

� When people believe that they have

been treated unfairly in comparison to


been treated unfairly in comparison to

others, they try to eliminate the

discomfort and restore a perceived

sense of equity to the situation.

� Perceived inequity.

� Perceived equity.

Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social

comparison.



motivation?

� Equity theory

� People respond to perceived negative

inequity by changing …


� Work inputs.

� Rewards received.

� Comparison points.

� Situation.


motivation?

� Managerial implications of equity theory—

� Underpaid people experience anger.

� Overpaid people experience guilt.

� Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.


outcomes.

� Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.

� Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.

� Gender equity.

� Comparable worth.


motivation?

� Expectancy theory

� Developed by Victor Vroom.

� Key expectancy theory variables:

� Expectancy — belief that working hard


� Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.

� Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.

� Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.

Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of

motivation.



motivation?

� Expectancy theory

� Motivation (M), expectancy (E),

instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are

related to one another in a


related to one another in a

multiplicative fashion:

M = E x I x V

� If either E, I, or V is low,

motivation will be low.


motivation?

� Managerial implications of

expectancy theory—

� To maximize expectancy, managers


should:

� Select workers with ability.

� Train workers to use ability.

� Support work efforts.

� Clarify performance goals.


motivation?



� To maximize instrumentality, managers

should:


should:

� Clarify psychological contracts.

� Communicate performance-outcome

possibilities.

� Identify rewards that are contingent on

performance.


motivation?



� To maximize valence in a positive


� To maximize valence in a positive

direction, managers should:

�Identify individual needs.

�Adjust rewards to match individual

needs.


motivation?

� Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:� Set specific goals.

� Set challenging goals.


� Set challenging goals.

� Build goal acceptance and commitment.

� Clarify goal priorities.

� Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.

� Reward goal accomplishment.


motivation?

� Goal-setting theory

� Developed by Edwin Locke.

� Properly set and well-managed task goals can

be highly motivating.

Motivational effects of task goals:


� Motivational effects of task goals:

� Provide direction to people in their work.

� Clarify performance expectations.

� Establish a frame of reference for feedback.

� Provide a foundation for behavioral self-

management.


motivation?

�Goal-setting theory

� Participation in goal setting

� unlocks the motivational potential of goal


setting.

� management by objectives (MBO) promotes

participation.

� when participation is not possible, workers

will respond positively if supervisory trust

and support exist.

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement

play in motivation?

� Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …

� Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of

external environmental consequences on

behavior.

Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on


� Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on

future behavior.

� Operant conditioning:

� Developed by B.F. Skinner.

� Applies law of effect to control behavior by

manipulating its consequences.


play in motivation?

�Operant conditioning strategies:

� Positive reinforcement

� Increases the frequency of a behavior


through the contingent presentation of a

pleasant consequence.

� Negative reinforcement

� Increases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an

unpleasant consequence.


play in motivation?

�Operant conditioning strategies:

� Punishment

� Decreases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent presentation of


through the contingent presentation of

an unpleasant consequence.

� Extinction

� Decreases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an

pleasant consequence.


play in motivation?

� Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on

� Law of contingent reinforcement —

Reward delivered only if desired


�Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.

� Law of immediate reinforcement —

�More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.


play in motivation?

� Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:� Clearly identify desired work behaviors.

� Maintain a diverse inventory of


� Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.

� Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.

� Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.

� Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.


play in motivation?

� Guidelines for using punishment:

� Tell the person what is being done

wrong.

Tell the person what is being done


� Tell the person what is being done

right.

� Match the punishment to the behavior.

� Administer punishment in private.

� Follow laws of immediate and

contingent reinforcement.

Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case

of total quality management.


Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play

in motivation?

� Schedules of reinforcement:

� Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

� Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.


� Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement.

� Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent.

� Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.

Study Question 4: What are the alternative

approaches to job design?

� Job.

� A collection of tasks performed in support of

organizational objectives.

� Job design.


� Job design.

� The process of creating or defining jobs by

assigning specific work tasks to individuals and

groups.

� Jobs should be designed so that both

performance and satisfaction result.



� Job simplification.� Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.

Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope


� Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.

� Automation.� Total mechanization of a job.

� Most extreme form of job simplification.



� Potential advantages of job simplification:

� Easier and quicker training of workers.

� Workers are less

� Potential disadvantages of job simplification:

� Productivity suffers.

� Cost increases due


� Workers are less difficult to supervise.

� Workers are easier to replace.

� Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.

� Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers.

� Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.

Figure 14.6 A continuum of job design alternatives.




� Job rotation and job enlargement:

� Expands job scope.

� Job rotation.

� Increases task variety by periodically shifting

workers among jobs involving different task


workers among jobs involving different task

assignments.

� Job enlargement.

� Increases task variety by combining two or

more tasks previously assigned to separate

workers.

� Horizontal loading.



� Job enrichment.

� Building more opportunities for

satisfaction into a job by expanding its


satisfaction into a job by expanding its

content.

� Expands both job scope and job depth.

� Frequently accomplished through

vertical loading.



� Critical psychological states:

� Experienced meaningfulness of work.

� Experienced responsibilities for work


� Experienced responsibilities for work

outcomes.

� Knowledge of actual results of work

activities.



� Core job characteristics:

� Skill variety.

� Task identity.


� Task identity.

� Task significance.

� Autonomy.

� Feedback.



� Moderating variables:

� Growth-need strength (GNS).

� People with high GNS will respond most


� People with high GNS will respond most

positively to enriched jobs.

� Knowledge and skills.

� Context satisfactions.



� Improving core job characteristics:

� Form natural units of work.

� Combine tasks.


� Combine tasks.

� Establish client relationships.

� Open feedback channels.

� Practice vertical loading.



� Checklist for enriching jobs:

� Remove controls that limit people’s discretion

in their work.

� Grant people authority to make decisions


Grant people authority to make decisions

about their work.

� Make people understand their accountability

for results.

� Allow people to do “whole” tasks or complete

units of work.

� Make performance feedback available.



� Compressed workweek.� Any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.

� Benefits — more leisure time, lower


� Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.

� Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.



� Flexible working hours.

� Any work schedule that gives employees

some choice in the pattern of their daily

work hours.


work hours.

�Core time — all employees must be at work.

�Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.



� Potential benefits of flexible working

hours:

� People have greater autonomy in work

scheduling while ensuring maintenance


scheduling while ensuring maintenance

of work responsibilities.

� Organizations can attract and retain

employees who have special non-work

responsibilities.

� Worker morale may be improved.



� Job sharing.

� One full-time job is split between two

or more persons.


�Work sharing.

� An agreement between employees to

cut back their work hours to avoid

layoffs or termination.



� Potential advantages of work sharing:

� Trained and loyal workers can be retained

while temporarily cutting labor costs.

� Continued work but with reduced earnings


� Continued work but with reduced earnings

for those who would otherwise be laid off.

� Potential disadvantages of work sharing;

� Employees who might otherwise be protected

by seniority may suffer an income loss.

Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes

using the core characteristics model.


Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.



� Telecommuting.

� A work arrangement that allows a

portion of scheduled work hours to be


portion of scheduled work hours to be

completed outside of the office.

� Hoteling.

� Virtual offices.



� Potential advantages of telecommuting:� Freedom from

� Constraints of commuting.

� Fixed hours.

� Special work attire.


� Direct contact with supervisors.

� Increased productivity.

� Fewer distractions.

� Being one’s own boss.

� Having more personal time.



� Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:� Working too much.

� Having less personal time.


� Having less personal time.

� Difficulty in separating work and personal life.

� Less time for family.

� Feelings of isolation.

� Loss of visibility for promotion.

� Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.



� Part-time work.

� Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.


employee.

� Contingency workers

� Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.

� Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.



� Implications of part-time work:

� Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands.


cyclical labor demands.

� Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.

� Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.

Figure 14.8 A sample flexible working hours

schedule.


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PPT Schermerhorn Mgmt9 Ch14