PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley

© 2013 Worth Publishers

Motivation and Work

Module 32: Basic Motivation Concepts, and Hunger

For example, Aron Ralston found the motivation to cut off his own arm when trapped on a cliff in Utah in 2003. What motivated him to do this? Hunger? The drive to survive? The drive to reproduce?

MotivationMotivation refers to a

need or desire that energizes behavior and

directs it towards a goal.

Perspectives on Motivation

Do Instincts Direct Human Behavior?

An instinct is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely to be rooted in genes and the body.

Instinctual nesting

Human “nesting” behavior

Instincts Evolutionary PerspectiveOther species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions.Do humans?Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals. We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection.Instinct theory has given way to evolutionary theory in explaining human behavior.

A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a physical need such as hunger or thirst.

Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that humans are motivated to reduce these drives, such as eating to reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state.

Drive Reduction

Seeking Optimum Arousal Some behavior cannot

be easily connected to a biological need, and instead seems driven by a need to either increase or decrease our physiological arousal level.

Curiosity, as with kids and these monkeys, may be a way of increasing stimulation to reach an optimum arousal level.

Arousal Theory of MotivationMy brother, Mike is a thrill seeker!

Hierarchy of Needs/Motives

In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed that humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy.

Violating the Hierarchy?

Do hunger strikers and mystics feel secure enough in meeting their needs that they can do without food temporarily to pursue a higher goal?

Soldiers sacrifice safety, but could they be seen as fighting for safety, both indirectly (protecting the country) and directly (defeating the people shooting at them)?

After spending years in the ocean, a mature salmon swims up its home

river to return to its birthplace. This behavior is an example of:

A. homeostasis.

B. a set point.

C. a refractory period.

D. an instinct.

A closer look at one need/motive: Hunger

Research on hunger is consistent with Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy:In one study, men whose food intake had been cut in half became obsessed with food.Hunger even changes our motivations as we plan for the future.

Physiology of Hunger Experiments and other investigations show a complex relationship

among the stomach, hormones, and different parts of the brain. Feeling hungry causes stomach contractions, but the feeling can

happen even if the stomach is removed or filled with a balloon.

Receptors throughout the digestive system monitor levels of glucose and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.

The Hypothalamus and Hunger

The hypothalamus then can send out appetite-stimulating hormones, and later, after eating, appetite-suppressing hormones.

The Body Talks Back to the Brain

Hormones travel from various organs of the body to the brain (the hypothalamus) to convey messages that increase or decrease appetite.

When scientists put 36 conscientious objectors on a semi-starvation diet for six months, all of

the following occurred EXCEPT:A. the men appeared listless and apathetic.

B. the men became obsessed with food.

C. the men spent more time thinking about sex.

D. the men lost interest in social activities.

In a classic experiment, obese patients whose daily caloric intake was dramatically reduced lost only 6 percent of their weight. This limited weight loss was due, at least in

part, to the fact that their dietary restriction led to:

A. a proliferation of their lymphocytes.

B. the inhibition of their dopamine reuptake.

C. a sharp decrease in their metabolic rates.

D. a dramatic surge in their cholesterol levels.

Regulating Weight When a person’s weight drops or

increases, the body responds by adjusting hunger and energy use to bring weight back to its initial stable amount.

Most mammals, without consciously regulating, have a stable weight to which they keep returning. This is also known as their set point.

A person’s set point might rise with age, or change with economic or cultural conditions. Therefore, this “set point” of stable weight is more of a current but temporary “settling point.”

Which foods to eat? Taste Preferences

Some taste preferences are universal. Carbohydrates temporarily raise levels of serotonin, reducing stress and depression.

Other tastes are acquired and become favorites through exposure, culture, and conditioning.

Different cultures encourage different tastes.

Some cultures find these foods to be delicious: reindeer fat and berries, or roasted guinea pig.

Biology, Evolution, and Taste Preferences

Differences in taste preferences are not arbitrary. Personal and cultural experience, influenced by biology, play a role. We can acquire a food aversion after just one incident of getting sick after tasting a food.It is adaptive in warm climates to develop a taste for salt and spice, which preserve food.Disliking new tastes may have helped to protect our ancestors.

How much do we eat?

Eating depends in part on situational influences. Social facilitation: the presence of others accentuates our typical eating habits

Unit bias: we may eat only one serving/unit (scoop, plateful, bun-full) of food, but will eat more if the serving size is larger

Buffet effect: we eat more if more options are available

Influences on Eating Behavior

Obesity is linked to

diabetes, heart problems,

arthritis, and some cancers.

Obesity refers to an amount of

body fat that increases the risk of health

problems to the point that

weight loss is a health priority.

Is Fat Bad? Having some body fat is

normal and healthy; fat stores energy effectively for later use.

Body fat has been seen as a sign of affluence, and thus has been considered attractive.

Standards vary in different cultures, sometimes creating an unhealthy norm of being overweight or underweight.

Being mildly overweight is not considered a problem if the person is in good physical condition or exercising.

Obesity and Life Expectancy

How does obesity develop,and why is it hard to change?

It was adaptive for our ancestors to crave energy-rich food when available.Problem: energy-rich ‘junk’ food is now easily available, and cheaper than healthy food

It is adaptive to slow down our burning of fat when food is scarce.Problem: in crash diets, our body can slow down weight loss

Obesity and Weight Control

Physiology of ObesityOnce a person is obese, losing weight is not so easy as “just eating less.”Fat has a lower metabolic rate then other tissue, so a person might gain weight when eating “normally.”Eating less to lose weight slows metabolism. This prevents weight loss, and ensures weight gain when returning to a normal diet.Even if weight loss succeeds, a formerly obese person will have to eat less than an average person just to prevent weight gain.

Genetics and ObesityAdopted siblings eating the same meals end up with a BMI/weight resembling biological parents, not people in the same household.Identical twins have similar weights, even when raised apart with different food.There seem to be many genes with effects on weight.

Lifestyle Factors and ObesityPeople who are restless and fidgeting burn off more calories and gain less weight than others.Inadequate sleep causes weight gain, despite increased active time, because of appetite hormones.Having an obese friend correlates with becoming obese.Sedentary lifestyles and fast food may be leading to increased body fat worldwide.

Social Psychology of ObesityDiscrimination based on weight has been found to be stronger than race and gender discrimination. In one study, actors were seen as less employable when made to look heavier. Even children are prejudiced against the overweight.Perhaps as a result, people who are obese are more likely to be depressed or isolated.

Losing Weight: The Challenge

If you decide to move your

body’s set point to a lower body

weight:

Because of the physiological factors and perhaps due to lifestyle and peer issues:once obese, weight loss is difficult, and permanent weight loss is even harder.obsessive weight loss attempts can add to shame, anxiety, depression, and disordered eating habits.

Begin with an understanding of the metabolic challenges you face, so that you blame slow progress on physiology, not poor willpower.

Begin with self-acceptance and a decision to change, rather than feeling shame.

Make gradual and consistent, not drastic and varying, lifestyle changes.

Increase exercise and healthy food choices.

Get support.

Losing Weight: The Plan