PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation

Chapter 9: Learning

1

Lecture Overview

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive-Social Learnin

g The Biology of Learning Using Conditioning and

Learning Principles

2

Introductory Definitions

Learning (relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes resulting from practice or experience)

Conditioning (process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses)

3

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Contribution • Classical Conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

4

Pavlov’s Original Experiment

5

Classical Conditioning--Key Terms Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that,

before conditioning, doesn’t naturally bring about the response of interest

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits an UCR occurring without previous conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned reaction to an UCS occurring without prior conditioning

6

Classical Conditioning--Key Terms (Continued)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously NS that, through repeated pairings with an UCS, now causes a CR

Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to a CS occurring because of previous repeated pairings with an UCS

7

8

Why Study Psychology? It Helps You

Understand Popular Cartoons!

9

Classical Conditioning (Continued)

10

Classical Conditioning (Continued) Conditioned Emotional

Response (CER):

Watson demonstrated how emotions can be classically conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus (NS).

John B. Watson

11

Watson and Rayner Created a Fear of Rats (a CER) in Little Albert

12

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles

Stimulus Generalization: learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimuli (CS)

ALLALL Snakes

bite!

13

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

Stimulus Discrimination: learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli

Now I know that somesome snakes are

nice!

14

Extinction: gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR)

Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)

15

Higher-Order Conditioning:

neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS)

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

16

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Higher-Order Conditioning

17

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences

18

Operant Conditioning (Continued)

Thorndike’s Contribution

• Law of Effect: the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence

19

Operant Conditioning (Continued) Skinner’s

Contribution

• Conducted systematic research using a Skinner box

20

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles

Reinforcement: strengthening a response

21

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Primary Reinforcers:

normally satisfy an unlearnedunlearned biological need (e.g., food)

Secondary Reinforcers: learnedlearned value (e.g., money, praise)

22

External and internal reinforcers

External reinforcersReinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced

Internal reinforcersReinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced

External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers.

chapter 9

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

• Positive Reinforcement: adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur (e.g., praise)

24

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

• Negative Reinforcement: taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur (e.g., headache removed after taking an aspirin)

25

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

26

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules of Reinforcement1. Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforcement occurs

after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number or amount) is fixed

2. Variable Ratio (VR): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies

27

3. Fixed Interval (FI): reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed

4. Variable Interval (VI): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued)

28

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued)

29

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued)

If you want to increase the overall number of responses, which schedule of reinforcement should you choose?

30

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

Shaping:

reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response

31

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

Punishment: weakening a response

32

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

• Positive Punishment: adding (or presenting) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur (e.g., shouting)

33

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

• Negative Punishment:

taking away (or removing) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes

it less likely to recur (e.g., restriction)

34

Punishment

The process by which a stimulus weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.Primary punishers are inherently punishing.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers.

chapter 9

Types of punishment

Positive punishmentWhen an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur.

Negative punishmentWhen an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.

chapter 9

Your turn

Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience?1. Positive reinforcement2. Negative reinforcement3. Positive punishment4. Negative punishment

chapter 9

Your turn

Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience?1. Positive reinforcement2. Negative reinforcement3. Positive punishment4. Negative punishment

chapter 9

Side Effects of Punishment Judging by this woman’s

expression, is she experiencing an example of increased aggression, passive aggressiveness, avoidance behavior, modeling, temporary suppression, or learned helplessness?

39

Cognitive-Social Learning

Cognitive-Social Theory: 

emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior

40

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued)

Kohler’s chimps demonstrated insight learning (sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution).

41

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Tolman’s rats built a cognitive map (a

mental image of a three-dimensional space). They also displayed latent learning

(hidden learning

that exists without

behavioral signs).

42

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Observational

Learning: learning new behaviors or information by watching others

Bandura's Famous Bobo Doll study

43

Observational Learning and Modeling

Note the increasing bicep circumference of these G.I. Joe action figures. What are the effects of this type of modeling?

44

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued)• Observational Learning

involves four processes:

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motor Reproduction

4. Reinforcement

45

The Biology of Learning: Neuroscience and Learning

When we learn something, we experience the creation of new synaptic connections and alterations in many brain structures.

46

The Biology of Learning: Evolution and Learning

Classical Conditioning Taste Aversion:

classically conditioned negative associations of food to illness

47

The Biology of Learning: Evolution and Learning (Continued) Biological Preparedness: built-in (innate)

readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

Instinctive Drift: conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response pattern

48

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles

Classical Conditioning can be seen in:

• Marketing• Prejudice• Medical Treatments• Phobias

49

50

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles (Continued) Operant

Conditioning can be seen in:

• Prejudice• Biofeedback• Superstitions

51

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles (Continued)

Cognitive-Social Theory can be seen in:

• Prejudice • Media Influences

52