Project Work

Potential Manure Treatment Options for the Intensive Pig Farming in Catalonia

vorgelegt von

Josep Maria de Trincheria Gmez

Matr. Nr.: 39558

Erstprfer: Prof. Dr. -Ing. habil Ina Krner

Zweitprfer: Jrn Heerenklage

Hamburg, den 7.05.2010

Institut fr Umwelttechnik und Energiewirtschaft

iiDeclaration

iiiI. Abstract (numbered with Roman numeral)

ivII. Index of Chapters (numbered with Roman numerals continued

1. Introduction............................................................................................. 7 1.1 Rationale........................................................................................... 8 1.2 Structure of the Project Work........................................................... 8 1.3 Goals and Objectives......................................................................... 9

2. Methodology........................................................................................... 10

2.1 Description...................................................................................... 11 2.2 Flux Diagram.................................................................................... 12

3. Background............................................................................................. 13

3.1 Geographical Background................................................................. 14 3.2 Administrative Background.............................................................. 15 3.3 Economical Background.................................................................... 16 3.4 Environmental Background............................................................... 16 3.4.1 Temperature..................................................................... 16 3.4.2 Energy............................................................................... 17 3.4.3 Water Resources.............................................................. 18 3.4.4 Emission of Green House Gases....................................... 19 3.4.5 Soil..................................................................................... 19

4. Assessment.............................................................................................. 20 4.1 Characterisation of the Pig Farming in Catalonia.............................. 21 4.1.1 Catalonia as Spanish Autonomous Community................. 21 4.1.2 The Pig Farming Sector in Catalonia................................. 23 4.1.2.1 Stock Evolution (1997-2008).............................. 23 4.1.2.2 Pig Meat Production........................................... 26 4.1.2.3 Structure of the Pig Farming.............................. 27 4.1.2.4 Pig Farms............................................................ 29 4.2 Characterisation of the Pig Manure in Catalonia................................ 32 4.2.1 Manure: the concept........................................................ 33 4.2.2 Slurry: the Catalan concept...................................... ........... 33 4.2.3 Slurry Composition............................................................. 34 4.2.4 Quantity of Nitrogen contained in the Slurry..................... 36 4.2.5 Quantification of the Slurry produced in Catalonia............ 37 4.2.6 Agricultural Land................................................................ 38 4.2.7 Fertiliser economical value of the slurry.............................. 38 4.3 Management of the Slurry in Catalonia............................................... 39

v

4.3.1 Energy Consumption of the pig sector................................ 39 4.3.2 Water Consumption of the pig sector................................. 42 4.3.3 Price of the Energy in Catalonia.......................................... 43 4.4 Environmental Incidence of the Slurry in Catalonia............................ 44 4.4.1 General Effects to the Environment.................................... 44 4.4.2 Specific Effects to the Environment in Catalonia................ 46 4.4.2.1 Water Contamination.......................................... 47 4.4.2.2 Emission of Gases............................................... 47 4.4.2.3 Bad Odours........................................................ 47 4.4.2.4 Soil Degradation................................................. 47 4.4.2.5 Health Issues....................................................... 48 4.4.2.6 Heavy metals contamination................................ 48 4.4.2.7Nutritional Unbalances.......................................... 48 4.5 Manure Treatment Systems in Catalonia............................................ 49 4.5.1 Quantity of Manure Treated................................................ 49 4.5.2 Centralised Treatment Plants............................................... 49 4.5.3 On-farm Treatments............................................................. 50 4.5.3.1 Solid-Liquid Separation..................................... 51 4.5.3.2 Composting........................................................ 52 4.5.3.3 Nitrification-Denitrification (NDN).................... 53 4.5.3.4 Anaerobic Digestion............................................ 54 4.5.4 Case Studies.......................................................................... 58 4.6 Technological Slurry Treatment Improvements.................................... 63 4.6.1 Combination of unitary treatment processes......................... 64 4.6.1.1 Concept............................................................... 64 4.6.1.2 Costs..................................................................... 65 4.6.2 Digestate Treatment............................................................. 66 4.6.2.1 State-of-the-art of the digestate treatment........... 66 4.6.2.2 Characterisation of the Digestate........................ 67 4.6.2.3 Digestate Treatment Technologies...................... 68 4.6.2.4 Cost and Efficiency of the Digestate Treatment Technologies....................................................... 68 4.6.2.5 Case Study............................................................ 72 4.6.3 Belt Manure Harvesting..................................................... 75 4.6.3.1 Concept............................................................. 75 4.6.3.2 The RE-Cycle Concept..................................... 75 A. Manure Conveyor Belt................................. 76

B. Steam Reforming Gasification...................... 77 C. Recycling of Ash.......................................... 78 D. Recycling of the Nitrogen............................ 78

vi

E. The efficiency of the RE-Cycle Concept...... 79 F. Nutrient Concentration................................. 80 H. Separation Efficiency................................. 80 J. Gasifier......................................................... 81 K. Economic Assessment...............................82 4.6.3.3 The Hercules Project....................................... 83 A. Concept......................................................... 83 B. Manure Conveyor Belt................................ 84 C. Urine Fraction............................................ 85 D. Solid Fraction (urine + straw)...................... 85 E. Separation Efficiencies.............................. 85 F. Emissions: Ammonia................................... 85 G. Nutrient Composition.................................... 87 H. Evaporation................................................... 88 J. Final Products................................................ 88 4.6.3.4 Germany: Qalovis manure removal system (Qalovis, Farmer Automatic Energy).. 89 4.6.3.5 The Mobile Bottom under the Slat....................... 90 4.6.4 Separation on-source without manure belts......................... 92 4.6.4.1 Filer net and Convex Belt for a mechanised And manure removal system.............................. 92

4.6.4.2 Concrete slatted floor........................................... 93

5. Discussion................................................................................................... 95 5.1 The Environmental Needs of the Intensive Pig Farming in Catalonia.......................................................................................... 96

5.2 Critical Analysis................................................................................... 97 5.2.1 Combination of Treatments.................................................. 97 5.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion and Digestate Treatment.................... 97 5.2.2.1 Advantages and Shortcomings of the Anaerobic Digestion................................. 97 5.2.2.2 The Treatment of the Digestate.......................... 98 5.2.3 Manure Conveyor Belts to separate on-source urine and faeces.................................................................. 100 5.2.3.1 Advantages of the Separation on-source.............. 100 5.2.3.2 Shortcomings of the manure belts...................... 101 5.2.3.3 The RE-Cycle Concept...................................... 103 5.2.3.4 The Hercules Project......................................... 104 A. Comparison of the convex belt separation

vii

system and solid-liquid separation with a decanter centrifuge................................... 104 B. Comparison of the Hercules Systems with other manure treatment systems.................. 105 5.2.3.5 Qalovis............................................................... 106 5.2.3.6 The Mobile Bottom under the Slat...................... 107 5.2.37 Environmental Performance of the Manure Harvesting Systems........................................... 107 5.3 Qualitative Evaluation of the Technological Treatment Options............................................................................................... 108 5.3.1 Alternatives......................................................................... 108 5.3.2 Evaluation Matrix................................................................ 108 5.3.2.1 Treatments Evaluated........................................... 108 5.3.2.2 Dimensions and Criteria........................................ 109 5.3.2.3 Methodology....................................................... 111 5.3.2.4 Results................................................................ 112 5.3.2.5 Global Results.................................................... 113

6. Design and Recommendations............................................................... 114 6.1Recommendations.............................................................................. 115 6.1.1 Combined processes, Anaerobic Digestion and Digestate Treatment.................................................... 115 6.1.2 Separation on-source......................................................... 115 6.1.3 Treatements to do with the separate d fractions................. 116 6.2 Design of a potentital manure treatment scheme in Catalonia.......... 117 6.2.1 The system........................................................................ 117 6.2.2 The manure conveyor belt................................................ 117 6.2.3 The urine treatment............................................................. 118 6.2.4 The faecal fraction treatment.............................................. 119 6.2.5 Add-value products............................................................ 120 6.2.6 Final Considerations........................................................... 120

7. Conclusions 8. Appendices 9. References

viiiIII. List of Figures (numbered with Roman numerals continued

ix

xIV. Index of Tables (numbered with Roman numerals continued

xi

xiiV. List of abbreviations

xiii

1. Introduction

21.1 Rationale

Agriculture and pig farming have been complementary activities in Catalonia in the past: pig excreta were almost the only alternative to fertilise and amend the soil and the agriculture was the only source to provide feed to the livestock. However, the intensification of both the agriculture and the livestock has entailed the specialisation of the pig farms and the massive use of fertilisers to provide the nutrients required for the crop metabolism. During this specialisation process, the balance experienced between agriculture and livestock have broken (Bonmat, 2001) and it has been created a new manure management unbalanced situation: pig farms do not have enough land to reuse and recycle the manure generated by the pigs as a fertiliser (Magr, 2007). Thus, there is the production of huge volumes of pig manure exceeding the carrying capacity of the agriculture system to recycle the constituents of the manure via the soil. This fact and the constant increase of the livestock, the decrease of the agricultural surface and the increase in the dimension of the pig farms have converted the pig excreta in a waste rather than a resource (Bonmat, 2001) and it is creating a negative effect to the natural and ecological environment of Catalonia, i.e. air, soil, water and human health.

To reach safe environmental quality standards require managing the pig manure in an integrated and approaching as well as working at a different levels and scales. Two important dimensions which play a key role in the internalisation of the environmental externalities of the intensive pig farming and exceeding generation of manure are the management measures to reduce on-source the production of manure and technological treatments approaching the adaptation of the manure composition to the needs of the surrounding environment, the reduction of its pollutant charge as well as valorising economically and energetically the manure (Bonmat, 2001). It is precisely in these two dimensions that this investigation focuses: the reduction on-source of the manure generated by the pig farming and the technological treatment of the manure generated in order to alleviate its negative effects to the environment.

This investigation will highlight the environment criteria by means of giving to this dimension a crucial role and a double weight compared to the other important dimensions in the manure treatment: the economical, technological and material and energy dimensions. Therefore this paper wants to identify what treatment technology could improve the environmental effects related to the exceeding pig slurry in Catalonia

1.2 Structure of the Project Work

This paper is structured by chapters. The chapter 1, the Introduction, describes the basic reasons that justify this investigation and sets up the research question as well as the goals and objectives of the Project Work. The chapter 2, the Methodology, discusses the methodology used to achieve the goal and objectives. The chapter 3, the Background, wants to introduce some basic concepts about different aspects of Catalonia which could play a role in understanding adequately further sections of the paper. The chapter 4, the Assessment, characterises and analyses firstly the

3current situation of the pig farming in Catalonia, secondly the manure generated and its general and specific environmental effects, thirdly the current manure treatments carried out in Catalonia to tackle the manure surplus and fourthly the potential technological options that could be carried out in the Catalan context. The chapter 5, the Discussion, evaluates the different technological options proposed focusing on the environmental dimension and compare them. The chapter 6, the Design and Recommendation deals with what and how these technological options could be implemented in Catalonia. Finally, the chapter 7, the Conclusions, gathers the most important findings and answers the research question and the goal and objectives of this paper.

1.3 Goal and objectives

The goal of this project is the identification of potential technological treatment options for the slurry generated by the intensive pig farming in Catalonia that leads the reduction of the environmental burden of the pig manure surplus in Catalonia. To achieve this goal there is a need to accomplish the next set of objectives:

1. To realise an exhaustive assessment of the current situation of the Intensive Pig Farming Industry in Catalonia and the management of its slurry, taking into all the characteristics that model it as a system. That is, sociological, economical, legislative and environmental factors.

2. To review and gather the current and potential new technologies to treat the slurry from the Intensive Pig farming in Catalonia focusing on the environmental dimension.

3. To analyse and evaluate the potential technology options by means of a Qualitative Matrix in order to determine which of the technological options gathered allow a better achievement of the goal of this project.

4. To design the ideal situation and suggest recommendations to implement these technologies identified by this investigation.

4

2. Methodology

52.1 Methodology

The methodology used to achieve the goal and the objectives as well as to answer satisfactorily the research question can be divided in two main parts: the assessment and the design.

During the initial part of the assessment there is a need to assess and characterize the situation of the intensive pig farming and its manure management in Catalonia as well as the environmental situation related to this sector. In addition, there is also a need to characterize the current technologies to treat and manage the manure currently available and assess its use in Catalonia as well as to find out new technologies that could reduce the environmental burden of the pig manure in Catalonia. To carry out the assessment, the main tool used was the literature research. In addition, there were performed two different interviews and a field visit to an Intensive pig farm in Catalonia. The interviews were performed to a pig farmer which owes a pig farm in Catalonia and the author of one of the technological improvements proposed in the investigation. There have also been in contact with representatives of the Catalan government and different agencies directly related with the manure treatment in Catalonia. Finally, the international conference Progress in treatment of manure and digestate (IBBK, Heiden, Germany) was attended. In the final part of the assessment, all the data and new technologies were gathered and analysed. To evaluate them it was carried out a qualitative multicriteria evaluation matrix (see XXX) taking into account criteria of four different dimensions, the environment (double weight), the technological, economical and the material and energy dimension.

The second part of the paper consists of designing a potential implementation of a manure treatment in Catalonia that facilitates the internalisation of the environmental externalities caused by the manure surplus as well as it also suggests different recommendations to achieve the reduction of the environmental burden of the intensive pig farming activity.

2.2 Flux Diagram

The figure 1 is a diagram of the methodology used in this paper.

6

3.1 Decision about what the technologies most suitable for the manure treatment in

Catalonia are

4.1 What manure treatment and how should be carried out in Catalonia and why?

AS

SE

SS

ME

NT

3. Decision &Evaluation

4. Recommendation

/Design

2.1 Identification of all the current technologies implemented in Catalonia

1.1 Gathering of information about the Intensive Pig Farming Manure Management and Treatment in Catalonia

2. Analysis

DE

SIG

N

1. Literature Research &

Data Collection

1.2 Gathering of information about Technological Options for the Manure Treatment

3.2 Qualitative Evaluation of the best manure treatment focusing on the environment

2.2 Identification of potential options for the Manure Treatment in Catalonia

Figure 1: Diagram of the methodology used in this investigation. Own source

1.3 Visit to an Intensive Pig Farm in Catalonia + Interviews with pig farmers and the author of one manure conveyor belt

7

3. Background

8 3.1 Geographical Background

Catalonia is located in the Iberian Peninsula, on the North-East of the Spanish State at the coordinates 4149N 128E (GeoHack, 2010) bordering Andorra and France on the North, the Spanish Autonomous Community of Aragon on the West, the Valencian Community on the south and the Mediterranean Sea along all its eastern coast.

Even though the weather is considered Mediterranean at a macroscale, Catalonia has a large variety of complex microweathers due to its latitude position: between the warm and tropical climatic zones, between two Seas and two continents and with a huge geographical variety within the Catalan territory (DMAH, 2008). Catalonia is a small Mediterranean region with a total surface area of 31.895 Km2 (GEC, 2010) and a population slightly higher than 7.2 Million of people/inhabitants (IDESCATa, 2009) (out of 45.000.000 inhabitants in Spain). The average population density in Catalonia is relatively low when compared to the average of the World, 218 inhabitants per Km2 in 2008 (EURLEX, 2010). However there are huge variations of this value within the Catalan territory. Thus, the population density of the metropolitan area of Barcelona is 4994 inhabitants per Km2 whereas in Lleida has a value of 35 inhabitants per Km2 (IDESCATa, 2009).

Figure 2: Geographical Situation of Spain (left) and Catalonia (right) Source: (CIA, 2010), (GEC, 2010) and (XTEC, 2008)

93.2Administrative Background

Spain is a Constitutional Monarchy divided in 17 Autonomous Communities and 2 Autonomous Cities. Catalonia is one of these 17 Autonomous Communities.

Each Autonomous Community is divided in Provinces. Catalonia has 4 Provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona. Each Province also is divided in different Regions. Catalonia has 41 different Regions (ICC, 2009).

.

Similarly, each region is divided in several municipalities. There are 946 municipalities in total. Catalonia is highly concentrated along the coastal zone. The coastal municipalities have an average density of 1479 inhabitants/Km2 (DMAH, 2008). This value is 6.7 times higher than the Catalan average. The area of highest population concentration is the so called metropolitan area of Barcelona. Thus, 43% of the population lives in 10 out of the total 946 municipilaties. 70% of the population lives in no more than 60 municipalities. On the other hand, 79% of the municipalities have populations lower than 5000 inhabitants (IDESCATa, 2009).

Figure 3. Division in Provinces and Regions of Catalonia (left) and Spanish Autonomous Communities (right). Source: (ICC,

2009)

103.3 Economical Background

The Catalan GDP is 195.284 Million Euros and the average GDP per capita is 27.824 (2006). This value is higher than the Spanish value (22.152 ) and also higher than the European Union average value (23.500 ). The average GDP per capita of Catalonia also beats the GDP of countries like Finland, Sweden, France or Germany (DMAH, 2008).

As in the rest of the developed countries, the weight of the primary sector within the Economy is very low, with a value of 3% (DMAH, 2008) out of the total number of active workers. However, there are sectors like the cava (sparkle wine), wine, fruit and pork meat which compete at a worldwide scale. The agricultural and livestock production revenue values were 1.290 and 2.294 Million respectively in 2005 (DMAH, 2008).

3.4 Environmental Background

3.4.1 Temperature

Catalonia has a warm weather with annual mean temperatures relatively high. The average annual temperature varies between 5C and 16C (EUREG, 2010). As it can be noted in the figure 4, in most of the Catalan regions the mean annual temperature are between 12C and 20C (DMAH, 2008).

The weather in Catalonia is dry, with winters and summers with low rainfall values and autumn and springs with torrential rainfall episodes. The average annual rainfall varies between 350mm to 1250mm. 65% of the territory shows a water shortage equal to 100 mm (EUREG, 2010). As it is shown in the figure 4, there is a huge central zone in Catalonia with very low rainfall values, between 250mm to 400 mm per year (DMAH, 2008). The most humid zones are in the Northern Central part of Catalonia. Actually, this zone is a transition zone towards the Atlantic Weather.

Figure 4: Annual Mean Temperature Distribution Map 2006. Source: (DMAH,

2008)

11

3.4.2 Energy

Most of the energy production is in the form of Nuclear Energy (86.3%), which is focused in the Southern area of Catalonia. The second type of the energy most produced is the group formed by the Renewable Energies (9.7%). Hydraulic Energy is the most important within this category, which has the highest share (4.4%). Biogas production in Catalonia, comprising all types of biogas generation [livestock manure, municipal organic waste and landfilling wastes, has a value of the 0.6% the total energy produced (DMAH, 2008)].

Energy Production Consumption ktep % ktep % Total 6.873 100 26.515 100 Petrol 137 2 12.759 48.1 Natural Gas 0 0 6.150 23.2 Nuclear 5.930 86.3 5.930 22.4 Renewable Energies 666 9.7 630 2.4 Hydraulic 303 4.4 303 1.1 Coal 82 1.2 298 1.1 Urban Solid Wastes 118 1.7 118 0.4 Forest Agricultural Biomass 93 1.3 93 0.3 Biogas 41 0.6 41 0.2 Biofuels 73 1.1 38 0.1 Wind 27 0.4 27 0.1 Solar 12 0.2 12

12The total energy consumption in Catalonia was 15.874ktep in 2006. This consumption is characterised by the use of fossil fuels, natural gas and electricity. Petrol is the energy source most consumed in Catalonia, with almost the 50% out of the total. However, natural gas shows the steepest growth in the Energy consumption between 1995 and 2006, with a total value equal to 6.150 ktep (DMAH, 2008). This value is three times higher than in 1995. The Biogas Energy consumption amounts 0.2% out of the total Energy consumption in Catalonia in 2006. The thermal solar energy is also an important renewable energy source consumed in Catalonia

3.4.3 Water Resources

Catalonia is a country with typical irregular dry and wet periods which have short recurrence time and severe droughts with much higher recurrence time. The last dry period finished in 2007, when the water reservoirs were at one of the lowest values never registered, 28.21%. (DMAH, 2008). From that moment, it started a wet period, which still lasts. In the year 2010, the water volume in the reservoirs is 73% of the total (ACA, 2010). As it can be shown in the table 2, the activity which consumes more water resources is the agriculture by far (70%). The livestock sector is the sector with the lowest demand, 2% out of the total. However, it is important to highlight that a significant share of the livestock producers do not use water from the reservoirs but from groundwater (private or public wells). In the case that the wells are private, the Catalan Water Agency cannot have any kind of register of the water used by the livestock farmers.

Figure 6: Shares of Energy Production and Consumption in Catalonia 2006 Source: adapted from (DMAH, 2008)

Consumption(%) PetrolNaturalGasNuclear

RenewableEnergiesHydraulic

Coal

UrbanSolidWastesForestAgriculturalBiomassBiogas

Biofuels

Production(%) PetrolNaturalGasNuclear

RenewableEnergiesHydraulic

Coal

UrbanSolidWastesForestAgriculturalBiomassBiogas

Biofuels

Wind

Solar

13

3.4.4 Emissions of Green House Gases (GHG)

Spain is the fifth country with highest GHG emissions out of the 25 State Members of the European Union (EU25) with a share equal to 9%. Moreover, the rate of GHG emission has increased 52% in Spain and 47% in Catalonia during the period 1990-2005 (DMAH, 2008).

The agriculture sector has increased its emissions during the same period a value equal to 13%. This value corresponds to 8.34% of the total GHG in Catalonia (DMAH, 2008). It is important to stress the fact that the pig is the animal which produces relatively lower methane emissions. Thus, the main contribution to the GHG emission comes from the indirect N2O released from the fertiliser to produce the feed of the pigs and the CO2 emitted by the fossil fuel consumption used in the transport, manufacturing and distribution of the pork and its derived products. In addition, the methane emissions from the manure decomposition are also a very significant contributor to the global GHG emissions, with a value of 10Mt [4% of the anthropogenic global emissions, (3tres3a, 2009).

The livestock activities emitted to the atmosphere 12.74 Mt CO2 equivalents in 2006. These emissions come from methane emissions (70%) produced during the legally mandatory storage to adjust the manure production to the requirements of the agricultural soil and to reduce the concentration of pathogens as well.

3.4.5 Soil

The most important soil degradation processes in Catalonia are desertification, erosion, acidification and soil contamination (DMAH, 2008). This is mainly due to the pressure exercised by human activities, amongst them the livestock agriculture, which is directly related to soil pollution causing accumulation of heavy metals and salinization and acidification.

Demand Total

hm3 %

Domestic 573 18.3 Industrial 283 9.1

Urban 856 27.4 Irrigation 2202 70.5 Livestock 65 2.1

Agriculture 2.267 72.5 Total 3123 100

Table 2: Total Reservoir Demand per Sector 2006. Source: adapted

from (DMAH, 2008)

14 The arable zones occupy 32.6% of the total land surface and the forest surface 59.3% out of the total surface (DMAH, 2008).

The soil in Catalonia can be considered the typical one found in a semi-arid climate. In its majority, is calcareous, with a strong buffer capacity. Most of the ancient best zones in terms of fertility, i.e. those close to the rivers or on the alluvial zones, have been occupied by human settlements. The other zones available for agriculture have continuously been used during hundreds of years. Since the second half of the 20th century, the introduction of the modern agriculture techniques and the developments in the chemistry spur on the modern agriculture revolution. These agricultural intensive practices in addition to the edaphic and climatic conditions of Catalonia have caused that the large majority of soil available for agriculture is low in inorganic matter with a high mineralisation rate, which leads to poor physical conditions. As it can be noted in the figure 7, Catalonia is considered a region between moderate and high severity human-induced soil degradation.

Figure 7: World Soil Fertility Degradation Map. Source: adapted from (DMAH, 2008)

15

4. Assessment

164.1 Characterisation of the Pig Farming in Catalonia

4.1.1 Catalonia as Spanish Autonomous Community

In 2008, Catalonia is the Spanish autonomous community with the largest pig stock, with a share equal to 25% out of the total. The total average number of pigs in Catalonia is 6.427.417 heads. Due to this large number, Catalonia is the sixth European Region with a larger pig stock, after the regions of the Southern the Netherlands, Brittany, the Lower Saxony, Flanders-Brussels and Northern Rhineland (EUROSTAT, 2010). The regional data of the pig stock production in the European Union is more useful for illustrating the pig stock distribution than the national data. The main productive region comprises the geographical basin from Denmark to Vlaams Gewest (Belgium). The other important regions are Catalonia and Murcia (Spain), Lombardy (Italy), Brittany (France), and zones of central Poland and northern Croatia (3tres3, 2010).

SPANISH AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES

(AA.CC.)

Total Pig Livestock

December 2008

Average 2008

%

Cantabric Region 3.812 2726 0.01Asturian Region 20.011 21213 0.08Vascian Country 32.357 31963 0.13

Madrid 29.193 38520 0.15Canarian Islands 61.085 75412 0.30Balearic Islands 69.239 70706 0.28

La Rioja 135.808 132533 0.52Navarra 559.543 520828 2.05

Galician Region 1.066.130 926701 3.65Valencian Region 1.103.151 1195990 4.72

Castilla y la Mancha 1.395.359 1451667 5.72Extremadura 1.300.827 1417016 5.59

Murcia Region 2.084.784 1948329 7.68Andalucian Region 2.427.440 2468946 9.73

Castilla y Len 3.656.583 3433253 13.54Aragon Region 5.432.062 5198875 20.50

CATALONIA 6.648.288 6427417 25.34Total Spain 26.025.672 25362099 100.00

Table 3: Spanish Stock Number of Pigs in 2008. Source: adapted from (MAPA, 2010)

Figure 8: European Regional Distribution of the pig herds.

Source (3tres3, 2010)

17

0

10000000

20000000

30000000

PigHerdSize(2008)perAutonomousCommunity

The other Spanish AA.CC with larger pig stocks are Aragon (20%, 5.2 Millions), Castile y Len (13%, 3.5 Millions), Andaluca (10%, 2.5 Millions) and (8%, 2.0 Millions), as it is shown in the figure 9. It is important to stress the fact that 45% out of the total number of pig heads is distributed between Aragon and Catalonia. These two regions are neighbouring communities and share one of the most important rivers of Spain, the Ebre river, which is the main source of agricultural water for the northern east part of Spain (MAPAa, 2009).

Even though the pig farming is a common activity practiced all over Spain, it is not equally distributed but strongly concentrated in the few autonomous communities mentioned previously, as it is shown in the figures 9 and 10. The same situation occurs in Catalonia, where also exists a strong concentration of the pig farming at the provincial and regional level, as it is shown in the figure 8. The Spanish provinces with the largest pig herd size in 2008 are Lleida, situated in the western part of Catalonia, with 3.483.977 pig head (MAPAa, 2010). After Lleida,

Figure 9: Regional European (left) and Spanish Pig Geographical Distribution (right) (2008). Source: adapted from (MAPAa, 2010) and (EUROSTAT, 2010)

Figure 10: Spanish Autonomous Communities Pig Stock Distribution (2008). Source: adapted from (MAPA, 2010)

Stock Pig Distribution in Spain

(2008, Million)

Regional European pig density distribution

(2008)

18Huesca, Murcia, Zaragoza and Barcelona are the Spanish regions with larger stocks. The 53% of the total Pig Stock is concentrated in these 5 regions.

4.1.2 The Pig Farming Sector in Catalonia

The pig farming is a key integral part of the Catalan livestock agriculture and food sector. In Catalonia there are 6.6835 pig farms with more than 6.4 Million heads (IDESCATd, 2009) which produce 16.7 Million of pigs to slaughter every year. The pig production is 1/3 of the total in Spain, which in addition to the pig meat manufacturing and distribution and supply systems are the components most valuable of the agriculture and food system in Spain, and as an extension, a vital sector for the Catalan and Spanish economy.

4.1.2.1 Stock Evolution (1997-2008)

The Catalan pig stock number has overall increased between 1997 and 2009. From the figure 10, it can be noted that in 1997 there was a considerable increase which culminated in 1999, when it occurred an episode of a generalised pig epidemic which caused a significant decrease in the head stock, -7.7% with respect to 1998 (Teira, 2008). From that moment, the pig stock remained stable until there was a steep increase from 2006 to 2008. However, from 2008 to 2009 there is a stabilisation of this tendency showed by a slight decrease in the pig stock number in 2009.

Figure 11: Total Catalan Evolution of the Pig Stock. Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

4,500,000

5,000,000

5,500,000

6,000,000

6,500,000

7,000,000

EvolutionofthePigStockinCatalonia

19Lleida and Barcelona are the provinces with the highest pig stock, 3.5 millions (55%) and 1.7 Million (26%). Girona and Tarragona have a significantly lower pig herd, 0.9 Million and 0.5 Million respectively.

In Catalonia as a whole there are 0.9 pigs per one Catalan and 207 pigs per Km2. However, the indicators pig density and pigperson density give more accurate figures. Thus, according to the population and area registers in 2009 (GEC, 2009), in Lleida there are 8 pigs per one person and 289 pigs per Km2. In Barcelona, there are 0.3 pigs per person and 222 pigs per Km2. In Girona, 1.22 pigs per person and 154 pigs per Km2. Finally, in Tarragona there are 0.7 pigs per person and 87 pigs per Km2.

These variations in both the pig herd size and density that Lleida shows are in part related to the huge increase in the pig stock experimented in this province. Thus, there has been a 75% increase of the pig heads during the last 10 years in Lleida. The only Catalan province which shows a decrease in the pig herd size is Tarragona, with a 9% decrease.

BARCELONA GIRONA LLEIDA TARRAGONA CATALUNYA 19972008%

7% 12% 75% 9% 33%

2008 1.712.104 898.653 3.483.977 553.529 6.648.2632007 1.672.327 719.175 2.995.323 495.787 5.882.6122006 1.669.338 664.589 3.037.168 484.619 5.855.7142005 1.670.702 772.727 3.206.822 549.289 6.199.5402004 1.778.807 872.819 3.298.339 555.481 6.505.4462003 1.780.504 796.200 3.051.752 575.290 6.203.7462002 1.618.591 906.785 2.928.787 539.838 5.994.0012001 1.759.906 898.563 2.776.812 513.005 5.948.2862000 1.732.251 909.415 2.753.290 490.429 5.885.3851999 1.706.072 862.145 2.920.959 530.456 6.019.6321998 1.702.103 791.875 2.537.424 525.821 5.557.2231997 1.596.239 819.484 1.985.790 577.240 4.978.753

Table 4: Catalan Evolution of the Pig Stock per Provinces. Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

Figure 12: Pig Stock Provincial Distribution. Source: adapted from (MAPA, 2010)

0

2,000,000

4,000,000

6,000,000

8,000,000

PigH

eads

CatalanProvinces

20

As it can be noted in the figure 13, the Catalan pig farming is concentrated at both the provincial and regional scale. At the provincial scale, Lleida has the 52% out of the total pig population in Catalonia. Barcelona is the second, with 26%, followed by Girona (14%) and Tarragona (8%) (DARb, 2010). At the regional scale, the figure 12 also shows the geographical distribution of the Catalan regions with higher numbers of pig stock in 2007. The darker zones point regions with pig stock higher than 100.000 heads. This situation occurs in 16 Catalan regions out of the total 41 and it comprises of both the North of Catalonia and the Southern and Central part of Lleida. This zone creates a belt that crosses in diagonal the entire Catalan territory from North-East to South-West.

Out of the total number of Catalan regions, 6 of them (Segri, Osona, La Noguera, Bages, Pla d'Urgell, and l'Urgell) have 60% total number of censed pigs. However, only Segri (16.25%) Osona (14.71%) and the Noguera (12.2%) account for more than 43%. There are also important the regions of Bages (5.73%), el Pla de lUrgell (5.46%) and lUrgell (5.14%). Therefore, it can

Figure 13: Regional Pig Stock Distribution (2007). Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

Pig Head Number

21be concluded that there is a high regional concentration of the pig herd size in Catalonia (DARa, 2009).

4.1.2.2 Pig Meat Production

The total pig meat production in Catalonia in 2008 was 1.348.840 Tonnes, increasing 57.7% respect to 1997. The final destination of the pig meat produced and consumed in Catalonia is shown in the figure 15, having the highest number in Barcelona, where most of the population is concentrated.

4.1.2.3 Structure of the Pig farming

TotalPigMeatConsumptionperSectors(Tonnes)Year Piglets RestofthePigs Total

DirectCons. IndustrialCons. Total1997 5.048 306.355 467.112 773.467 778.5151998 353 336.681 570.841 907.521 907.8751999 190 398.583 539.547 938.130 938.3202000 88 378.753 537.982 916.735 916.8232001 215 479.838 467.845 947.684 947.8982002 255 555.637 455.292 1.010.929 1.011.1842003 177 599.882 505.829 1.105.711 1.105.8872004 199 641.184 506.182 1.147.366 1.147.5642005 278 708.279 516.370 1.224.648 1.224.9262006 351 657.748 569.440 1.227.188 1.227.5392007 175 786.962 523.465 1.310.426 1.310.6022008 308 929.017 419.515 1.348.532 1.348.840

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Tonn

es(T

housan

ds)

PigMeatProductioninCatalonia

0

1000

2000

Tonn

es

(Tho

usan

ds)

DestinationofthePigMeat

Figure 14: Catalan Pig meat production Evolution. Source: adapted from (DARb,

2010)

Figure 15: Destination of the Catalan Pig meat production. Source: adapted from

(DARb, 2010)

Table 5: Catalan Pig meat production Evolution in tonnes. Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

22In the province of Lleida, the fattener pig sector is the predominant one. The production cycle starts in the Catalan regions which have the highest number of piglets due to the fact that they have held a significant number of sows. These regions are mainly Osona and Segri. The piglets are also imported from northern-west Spanish regions and from Europe, mainly Holland. The piglets generated are sent to the fattener farms, where the most significant share of feed, materials and energy are consumed to fat the pigs. The fattening sector is the most important in Catalonia and is the articulator of the pig farming sector (Teira, 2008).

Year Piglets FatteningPigs BreedingPigs Catalonia

2008 1.907.636 4.166.487 574.140 6.648.2632007 1.752.724 3.970.366 581.262 6.304.3522006 1.508.265 3.766.572 580.880 5.855.7172005 1.687.263 3.942.116 570.162 6.199.5412004 1.575.527 3.822.314 573.228 5.971.0692003 1.479.988 4.130.589 593.169 6.203.7462002 1.392.176 3.890.893 614.471 5.897.5402001 1.448.049 4.069.474 591.085 6.108.6082000 1.369.672 3.925.601 590.111 5.885.3841999 1.537.722 4.243.262 566.471 6.347.4551998 1.236.855 3.780.036 540.332 5.557.2231997 1.264.325 3.220.462 493.966 4.978.753

0

1,000,000

2,000,000

3,000,000

4,000,000

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

PigS

tock

EvolutionPigStockpertype

Breeding

Fattening

Piglets

Table 6: Evolution of the Simplified Pig Structure in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

Figure 16: Graphical Evolution of the Simplified Pig Structure in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (DARb, 2010)

23

Pig Stock in Catalonia 2008

Provinces and Catalonia

Total

Piglets 1time

Breeding Sows or resting

Catalonia 8.384 565.756 63.431 53.789 329.392 119.145

Lleida 5.327 270.505 30.346 30.229 157.933 51.997

Barcelona 2.007 182.817 16.830 11.217 118.077 36.692

Girona 607 60.922 12.850 6.043 28.437 13.593

Tarragona 443 51.512 3.405 6.300 24.944 16.863

Table 7: Detailed Pig Structure in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (MAPAa, 2010) and (DARe, 2009)

244.1.2.4 Pig Farms

The number of pig farms has significantly decreased as it can be noted in the table 8. This is due to the intensification process of the pig farming, which amongst other factors implies a reduction of the number of small farms (i.e. farms with the lowest pig herd sizes). Simultaneously to this reduction in the number of farms, there is an increase of the number of pig heads in the medium and big size farms (DARa, 2009). .

NumberofPigFarms

1999 2009 %19992009

Barcelona 2.433 1.850 -23.9 Girona 1.861 1.320 -29.0 Lleida 3.181 3.112 -2.1

Tarragona 490 461 -5.9 CATALONIA 7965 6743 -15.2

The number of pig farms has experienced a strong reduction during the 1990s and the 2000s, which meant the disappearance of more than 40% of the smallest pig farms (FAC, 2002). In Catalonia, 99.7% of the pig farms are intensive pig farms (MAPAc, 2009).

Table 8: Variation in the pig farms number. Source: adapted from (IDESCATb, 2009) and (DARc, 2010)

Figure 17: Evolution in the number of the pig farms. Source: from (IDESCATb, 2009) and (DARc, 2010)

Farms

Num

ber

of fa

rms

Pig

Her

d Si

ze

Pig Head

25

Table 9: Intensification of the Pig Farming Structure in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (IDESCATb, 2009) and (DARc, 2010)

Total 2000-2007

Size of the Farms Number of Pig Farms

Category Range of Places 2000 2007 Variation (%) Variation (places)

0 1to4 330 77 -77 -253 1 5to9 836 239 -71 -597 2 10to19 1.122 284 -75 -838 3 20to49 1.703 547 -68 -1.156 4 50to99 1.122 481 -57 -641 5 100to199 1.198 733 -39 -465 6 200to399 1.372 976 -29 -396 7 400to999 2.251 2.119 -6 -132 8 1000 1.437 1.772 23 335

Total 11.371 7.228 - -4.143

Total 2000-2007

Size of the Farms Number of Sows

Category Range of Places 2000 2007 Variation (%) Variation (places)

0 1to4 961 190 -80 -771 1 5to9 4.060 804 -80 -3.256 2 10to19 13.648 3.080 -77 -10.568 3 20to49 47.756 15.066 -68 -32.690 4 50to99 65.125 29.504 -55 -35.621 5 100to199 114.790 77.622 -32 -37.168 6 200to399 136.066 123.247 -9 -12.819 7 400to999 141.852 203.948 44 62.096 8 1000 83.344 136.908 64 53.564

Total 607.602 590.369 - -17.233

Total 2000-2007

Size of the Farms Number of Fattener Pigs

Category Range of Places 2000 2007 Variation (%) Variation (places)

0 1to4 829 351 -58 -478 1 5to9 6.173 1.469 -76 -4.704 2 10to19 18.321 5.931 -68 -12.390 3 20to49 91.071 38.759 -57 -52.312 4 50to99 184.982 103.883 -44 -81.099 5 100to199 412.424 293.700 -29 -118.724 6 200to399 667.713 512.869 -23 -154.844 7 400to999 1.526.820 1.449.419 -5 -77.401 8 1000 2.378.911 3.108.413 31 729.502

Total 5.287.244 5.514.794 - 227.550

26In the table 9 is shown the variation of the number of farms and the variation of the herd size of both sows and fattener pigs. During the period 2000-2007 there has been a significant decrease in the number of farms with a pig herd size between 1 and 999. However, this decrease is progressively lower as the number of pig places increases. On the other hand, all the farms with pig herd size higher than 1000 are increased. The same situation occurs with the number of sows and fattener pigs. All of these types of pigs have decreased in the smallest farms. However, this decrease become softer as the size of the farm increases until reaching both sizes higher than 400 and 1000 pig places, when the pig herd size of these types of animals increases significantly. These figures show the tendency to the intensification of the pig farming in Catalonia.

274.2 Characterisation of the Pig Manure in Catalonia

4.2.1 Manure: the concept

The Catalan legislation defines manure as the excreta and the waste generated by the livestock, either separated or combined, even though being previously transformed. Several classifications can be done depending on the origin of the animal excreta and the dry matter content (ARCd, 2004). According to Burton & Turner (2003) this gives rise of three broad categories:

- Liquid manure (slurry): It is produced when the pig excreta is collected in liquid form. This is due to the fact that the animals are kept on sloping solid floors that are regularly swept clear of any excreta with water, which will dilute significantly the pig excreta.

- Mixed manure: Two streams are produced: solid and liquid manure. In this housing system, the animals are kept on beeding materials but liquids are colllected by means of the drainage from the bedding and collected.

- Solid manure: Only solid manure is produced due to the fact that aninals are kept on bedding materials which is collected together with all excreta as solid or farm yard manure.

4.2.2 Slurry: the Catalan concept

In Catalonia, dealing with pig manure means dealing with pig slurry, which even has its own word in Catalan, pur. The proportion of manure from housed pigs produced as a liquid is higher than 95% in Catalonia (Burton & Turner, 2003).

In Catalonia, slurry is understood as a heterogeneous liquid mixture of most of the waste outputs produced in the pig farm. Firstly, slurry is made from pig manure, which is liquid due to the type of feeding given to the pigs (high protein and energy content feeds) (Teira, 2008). Secondly, it is also made from the cleaning of the bed, which in Catalonia currently is made from plastic or cement and usually in slat configuration. The slurry is made from the feed leftovers as well, due to the fact that not all the food is eaten by the pigs. Finally, the slurry is made from water. Water that directly comes from the cleaning of the pig housing, the water not drank by the pigs, looses in the refrigeration systems and even sometimes and depending on the pig farm, the rainwater and/or drained water from the surface pig farm area. Due to this fact, the water content in the slurry is very high, and usually is higher than 90% of the total slurry content (Teira, 2008).

In Catalonia and Spain there is a prevalence to increase the housing system to fully slatted (Burton & Turner, 2003). However, in 2009 or 2010, there is a new legislation which forces the pig farmers to allow the pigs to be most their life in the exterior. This legislation will have an effect in the manure collection. Even though the bed can still be fully slatted out of the farm.

284.2.3 Slurry Composition

According to Flotats et al., (2004) and the Agricultural Production Agency of Catalonia [SPA, (2009)], the characteristics of the manure depend on a large number of factors: the type and the nutrient composition of the feed, the physiological conditions and stage of the pigs, the pig species, the type of bed and/or slat, the type of troughs, the cleaning practices of the housing farms, the type of pig production system, the storage time of the slurry, the stratification of the pond and the season of the year. Therefore, the composition values are highly variable characterised by large intervals. However, the composition remains mainly constant at a global scale annually (SPA, 2009): if there are not significant changes in the manure management of a pig farm, the amount of slurry produced and the nitrogen excreted is almost the same every year.

The table 10 shows the results in the slurry composition found by Flotats, et al., (2004) which conducted an analytical study of the slurry from several pig farms of Catalonia. The main conclusions derived from this table are:

-High water content: The difference between the average of both the total solids and the total fresh matter content is 937.84Kg, which means that 93.8% of the slurry is water.

-Low organic matter content: This can be concluded taking into account the total volatile solids (TVS) or the Chemical Oxygen Demand (CDO), which corresponds to the amount of oxygen necessary to oxidise the organic matter content (Flotats et al.; 2004). Thus, the average value VS/TS is 65%, which is low if compared with values found in manure from cattle or poultry, usually higher than 80%. In this case, the huge difference between the maximum and minimum values is due to the fact that the slurry can be stored for long time under the slat of the pig housing (Flotats et al.; 2004).

-High ammoniacal nitrogen: As it can be observed in the table 10, the average total ammoniacal nitrogen can represent 76% out of the total Nitrogen of the slurry. This ammonia content in addition to the low organic matter content causes that slurry is considered a mineral fertiliser rather than an organic soil amender.

-Significant Heavy metal content: Cupper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) are the main compounds found in the pig slurry. The problem with these compounds is that they accumulate in the soil and can create phytotoxicity problems at long term. If the concentrations of Cu and Zn are within the upper range shown in the table 10, treatments which use bacteria can be negatively affected for these high concentrations. The reduction of these metals in the feed means to obtain a higher quality manure, which will have a positive effect in the manure management and treatment, either the manure is applied directly to the soil or treated to economically value the solid fraction of the manure (Flotats, et al.; 2004).

29

-Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K): Both are limiting nutrients for the vegetal metabolism. Phosphorous concentration is especially high in pig slurry when compared to other type of manure. This means that the pig manure has a high pollution potential if the slurry gets in contact with surface or groundwater. Due to this fact, in many countries phosphorous is starting to be the second target in the legislative reforms and there are limits for its application to the soil, as it occurs with nitrogen. However, oppositely than nitrogen, phosphorous cannot be eliminated from the slurry but separated or concentrated. Therefore, a key approach to manage phosphorous should be reduce its content in the feed.

Another important characteristics are:

- Low C/N ratio: Thus, the slurry cannot carry out a spontaneous fermentation aerobically or if it does, the yield is very low. The slurry is degraded anaerobically at a slow rate more than ferments aerobically. Therefore, it a fertiliser which has not an organic value but mineral (Teira, 2008).

Parameter Units Minimum Maximum Mean

Total Solids (TS) g/Kg 13.68 169 62.16

Volatile Solids (VS)

g/Kg 6.45 121.34 42.33

Percentage (VTS/STS)

% 46 76 65

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

g/Kg 8.15 191.23 73.02

Total Nitrogen Kjeldahl (NTK)

g/Kg 2.03 10.24 5.98

Ammonia Nitrogen (N-

NH4+)

g/Kg 1.65 7.99 4.54

Organic Nitrogen (Norg)

g/Kg 0.4 3.67 1.54

Percentage N-NH4+/NTK

% 57 93 75

Phosporous (P) g/Kg 0.09 6.57 1.38 Potassium (K) g/Kg 1.61 7.82 4.83

Cupper (Cu) mg/Kg 9 192 40 Zinc (Zn) mg/Kg 7 131 66

Table 10: Characterisation of the fresh slurry. Source: adapted from (Flotats et al., 2004)

30

- Basic pH (buffer capacity due to the carbonates, ammonia and fatty volatile acids) (Teira, 2008).

- High Electrical Conductivity.

- Presence of faecal and pathogens microorganisms.

- The slurry has a value as a liquid mineral fertiliser (Teira, 2008). Its limitations are similar than any mineral fertiliser (N, P or K) with the exception of a low concentration of macronutrients.

4.2.4 Quantity of Nitrogen contained in the Slurry

To calculate the amount of nitrogen produced in a farm is not necessary to analyse the slurry (Teira, 2008). Moreover, even thought there are standardised and official methods to analyze nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium or heavy metals in food, water and soils, there is not a single standardised method to analyse specifically the slurry. In addition, the slurry has high ammonia contents, which evaporates almost completely in the drying process. Thus, the results will vary significantly whether the sample is fresh or not (Teira, 2008). In addition, the concentration of nitrogen in the slurry will largely depend on other different factors more: the type of troughs and its management, the protein content and mineral salts of the feed, the cleaning system, the canalisation of rainwater, the refrigeration system, the evaporation and weather conditions depending on the season and the structure and geometry of the collection and storage of the slurry (Teira, 2008). As stated previously, the result is a large variability in the slurry composition and the nitrogen concentration.

The amount of slurry produced in Catalonia cannot be easily quantified (Teira, 2008). There are no standardised parameters about the amount and the concentration of nitrogen excreted, as it happens with the actual general composition of the slurry. Even though there are unitary normative figures regarding the amount of slurry produced (volume of slurry generated per pig place) and the concentration of nitrogen contained in the slurry (kg N/m3) created by the Catalan Government, there is a large variability in the results because these figures are no accurate regarding the type of pig and the amount of manure produced per pig.

31There is a table made for Flotats et al., 2004, which summarises the results of a huge literature review regarding the amount of slurry produced by the pigs in Catalonia.

4.2.5 Quantification of the Slurry produced in Catalonia

The three main sources of nitrogen in Catalonia are the livestock manure, the chemical fertiliser and at a minor extent, the sludge from the wastewater treatment plants. Catalonia produced in 2007 16 Million m3 slurry containing 120.000 Tonnes of Nitrogen (ARCa, 2009) from all types of animal manure. The pig sector produces 43% out of the total (ARCa, 2009), i.e. 51.600 Tonnes of N. To quantify the total quantity of nitrogen applied per ha and year, there is a need to divide the quantity of nitrogen generated in every Catalan region between the agricultural available surface, i.e. the land where the slurry can be applied. In the figure 18, it is shown that 15 out of the 42 regions of Catalonia experience a strong pressure with regard to the Nitrogen application per ha and year. The regions of Osona, Pla de lEstany and

Valls Oriental are the ones with the highest generation of nitrogen per area. It is important to highlight that in those regions it is not allowed more than 170 kg N/hayear. Thus, these regions

Kg N/placeyear Slurry

m3/placeyear Manure

t/placeyear Closed cycle Sow (mother+ descendants until the

weaning) 57.60 17.75 -

Sow + piglets

32are not accomplishing the current legislation and either they are paying to other companies to treat the slurry, or paying the transport costs to regions with lower values of Nitrogen per ha or simply not accomplishing the law. The result is that every year the levels of nitrates in the groundwater and surface water increase. Due to this fact it is logical to take into account the possibility that the current values are not low enough and that is necessary even lower values in the vulnerable and not vulnerable zones.

The amount of exceeding slurry in 2007 in Spain was from 5 to 7 Million tonnes. Catalonia has a mean slurry production per surface unity equal to 400m3/Km2 (Teira, 2008). It is very difficult to calculate with accuracy the amount of surplus nitrogen in the entire Catalonia due to the fact that the there are different sources of Nitrogen, the high variability of the slurry composition and the differences in the accounting of the agricultural available surface to apply this nitrogen. However, there are maps that indicate the zones where it is estimated to be a surplus, even though there is not reliable numerical data for the entire territory. In addition, every year the nitrogen contamination of the water bodies keeps increasing every year and the nitrogen vulnerable zones have also increased since the 1990s.

4.2.6 Agricultural Land

The agricultural available surface in Catalonia is 1 Million Ha. 37% are cereals, 30% wood crops (olive tree, vineyard, etc.) and 33% irrigated land (Bonmat, 2008).

4.2.7 Fertiliser economical value of the manure

The economical value of the fertilizer capacity of the slurry is in 2008 11.08 /m3. It has increased 72% its economical value from 2006 (Vzquez, 2003).

Figure 19: (Top) Surplus of Nitrogen (Kg N/hayear) Source: from (ACA, 2010)

334.3 Management of the Slurry in Catalonia

The Catalan Agency of the Wastes is in charge to supervise the management of that fraction of the slurry that must be treated before the application.

In the figure 20, it is shown the geographical distribution of the manure treatment plants in Catalonia (also see 4.5). When the slurry is treated, it can be done either on-farm, i.e. that is in a facility located in the own farm or ex-situ. In the latter case, the management is carried out for a third stakeholder, usually a private company, which from the moment he gets the slurry is responsible for its management. In Catalonia this companies either they compost the slurry, eliminate the nitrogen fraction or use it to obtain energy in a cogeneration plant. When the treatment is done in-situ, the main treatments that are carried out are the solid-liquid separation, nitrification-denitrification (NDN), anaerobic digestion and the combination of all of them (ARCb,

2009). This management on-farm has to be done taking into account the performance of the treatment and/or the volume of nitrogen as well as the management of the final fractions obtained after the treatment. The Government is promoting the anaerobic treatment of the slurry in Catalonia through the Biodigestion Slurry Plan of Catalonia (2008-2012). The goal of this plan is to reduce the GHG emissions of the agriculture and livestock sector, especially CH4 and promote the construction of anaerobic digestion plants at both farm and collective scale (ARCb, 2009). Even though the main final use of the slurry is the direct application to the soil and that the main sub-products of the treatment plants are also applied to the soil, this practice involves a set of difficulties, limitations and shortcomings. First of all and most importantly is the lack of agricultural available soil to apply the slurry in Catalonia. This situation clearly affects the entire management of the slurry in Catalonia. However, these other factors are also important:

Figure 20: Slurry treatment plants in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (ARCa, 2009)

34

a) The high water content of the slurry, with values higher than 90%, causes the transports cost are very high. In this way, the price that a pig farmer must pay to bring the slurry to some other area where can be applied is very high and determines the availability of this practice.

b) The application of the slurry must be done according the crop needs, i.e. the system soil-crop. This requires taking into account the relation N-P-K needed for each crop and the N, P and K content in the slurry, which is highly variable as stated in the point 4.2.2.1. In any case, the current application of the slurry to the soil in Catalonia is only carried out, in most of the cases, taking into account the nitrogen parameter. This means that not only the relation P and K of the slurry is forgotten, but also the fertility requirements of the soil where is applied.

c) The slurry stratifies during the storage time forming a three layer compound: sedimented material at the bottom, liquid fraction in the middle part and a solid crust at the top. This, in addition to the highly variable nutrient composition makes very difficult to apply the correct dose to the soil.

d) In Catalonia, sanitary criteria are only applied in cases of animal epidemics. However, the pathogens presence is obvious and should be minimised. Boixadera & Teira (2001) state that due to the fact that the relation C/N is especially low in the slurry, this does not spontaneously ferment. Thus, there is not a heat generation to kill the pathogens. Therefore, the pathogens survival is much higher than in other types of manure. The transmission mechanisms of the pathogens through the slurry are of relevance among the pigs in the same farm and for the soil, the water and air contamination, which can affect until 5 Km (Teira, 2008). On the other hand, pathogens find in the soil unfavourable conditions which are not adequate for them. Factors like the pH, temperature, solar radiation, natural toxic substances, soil antibiotics and antagonist organisms reduce dramatically the initial concentration in 2-3 months. Boixadera & Teira (2001) also notes that the pathogens presence is not an inherent risk to the slurry application to the soil as a fertiliser because there is a need to take into account other factors: the virulence of the microorganism, the survival during the storage time and/or in the soil and the pathogen concentration in the crops or pasture in. However, it is necessary to follow the following precaution rules:

The manure or slurry must be treated to reduce as much as possible the presence of pathogens.

The preferred use of the slurry must be used as a fertiliser of the agriculture soil The slurry must not be applied to eatable crops but if the minimum time

necessary to kill the pathogens is respected. When the slurry is applied on pastures, it must be stored for a time period higher

than 60 days before the application. In addition, the livestock will only be allowed to graze 30 days after the application.

35

Avoid the application in zones closer to human settlements with both high population or livestock densities.

Boixadera & Teira (2001) suggest that states that there is not a need to hygienise specifically the slurry. However, there are some treatments that can carry out or accomplish these requirements. These are: composting, anaerobic digestion, termophilic anaerobic, the thermal drying and the pasteurisation. Oppositely, mesophilic treatments do not hygienise the slurry.

4.3.1 Energy consumption of the pig sector

According to Maneja (2008), the 80% of the energy consumption of the pig farm is produced to supply heat to the sows when they bear the piglets as well as for the piglets themselves and their breastfeeding stage. The total energy consumed for the pig farming sector in Catalonia is 17.691.419 kWh per year equivalents a 1.521 tep. The value of this energy is 1.158.970 per year. The total average energy consumed per pig is 49kWh per year. The share of electrical energy corresponds to 7.8 kWh per pig and year and the thermal energy consumed is 35.4 kWh per pig and year. Thus, 82% of the energy consumed in the pig farm corresponds to thermal energy. The pig sector consumes 80% out of the total energy consumed by the livestock sector in Catalonia (Maneja, 2008). The total average energy consumption value per year is 261 MWh. 42% of the pig farms consume not more than 200 MWh/year, 39% between 200 and 400 MWh/year and the rest more than 400 MWh/year. Similarly, the 40% expends between 10.000 and 20.000/year (Maneja, 2008).

Figure 21: Energy Consumption Distribution in the Catalan pig farming. Source: adapted from (Maneja, 2008)

Gasoil Electricity Propane

364.3.2 Water consumption of the pig sector The total water consumption in Spain is 30.400 Hm3 per year. The irrigation share equals to 24.200 Hm3 per year (80%). This data include part of the water consumed by the pig sector, but not everything because a significant share of the livestock farmers have their own wells and then there is not any type of control about the water consumed. In Catalonia, 49% of the water consumed comes from the irrigation water supply. 26% comes from the municipal water supply. The rest comes from other sources, which are mainly private wells located in the farms (25%) (Babot, 2007).

The water consumption on the pig farm is directly related to the volume of the slurry generated. According to Babot (2006), a reduction of the 25% of water implies a reduction of the 31% of the slurry production. The water is mainly used for the animal itself, the cooling of the animals and the cleaning of the pig housing.

Type of water used Mean Water Use

(L/day) Sow 11.6 Fattening 12.0 Gestation 15.6 Breeding 19.4 Cooling 1.0 Cleaning 3.1 Total mean Value 10.45

Most of the water consumed by the pig is excreted with the urine. The faeces are between 62%-79 water, and it is between 8-9% of its weight dairy the production (Babot, 2007). The slurry is generated by the addition of the water to clean the pig housing. That water is used to soak the pig housing, and clean the yard, pen, cages and feeding troughs. This water is usually used with detergents. 40% of the water used in the pig farm is due to the cleaning and disinfecting of the pig housing. The common hoses are the systems most used. The period with highest water consumption is the breeding, 208 L per period. During the gestation period is 53 L per day. The average value for all the phases is 76.5L/period (Babot 2006, 2007).

Table 12: Main distribution of the water consumption in a Catalan Pig Farm. Source: (Babot 2006, 2007)

374.3.3 Price of the Energy in Catalonia

Gasoil: 0.603 /L (DARc, 2010) Electricity: 0.0519/kWh (DARc, 2010) Water

Water (/m3)

2008 2009 % 2008-2009

Barcelona 1.38 1.49 7.9 Girona 1.07 1.14 6.5 Lleida 0.92 0.97 5.4 Tarragona 1.20 1.25 4.1

.

Table 13: Price of the Water (November 2009). Source: (DARc, 2010)

384.4 Environmental Incidence of the Slurry in Catalonia

4.4.1 General Effects to the Environment

The slurry is not applied exclusively in the soil but in the entire agricultural system (Teira, 2008). This implies that any action carried out in a part of the system has its consequences in the rest of the system. Therefore, when the slurry is applied without taking into account these interactions or simply it is applied exceeding the carrying capacity of the system, there is a negative effect in the system.

The nitrates are considered in Catalonia and Spain as the substance most problematic to manage and treat. The nitrates, due to its solubility, lixiviate. Thus, they can be fast and easily washed from the soil, being drained to the zone where they are not any more accessible to the roots of the crops, then being a potential contaminating substance of the groundwater (Burton&Turner 2003).

However, the slurry has positive and negative effects to the environment:

Positive effects: Manure has been regarded historically as a material beneficial to soil since it is an effective fertiliser and provides organic matter that improves the soil physical properties (Burton&Turner 2003). Thus, it can have a fertiliser effect, i.e. a release of nutrients to the

soil (improvement of the crop yield) and it is also a soil amender, i.e. increasing of the porosity, water retention capacity, strength and erosion

resistance because it builds up structure (Flotats et al., 2004). In addtion, it can help to stabilise soil aggregates which also prevents erosion. It also improves the structure of soil promoting good tilth, good moisture retention in drought areas and good drainage in wet areas (Burton&Turner 2003). It has been shown that pig slurry used for up to 12 years on agricultural calcareous soil used for cereal crops, fruit trees and almond trees, under irrigation in a semi-arid climate, improved the soil fertility by increasing the organic matter, organic-C, total-N and total-P of the soils (Burton&Turner 2003).

Negative effects: Oppositely, the impact of pig manure goes beyond the pollution created by the nitrogen (Burton&Turner 2003), even though the Catalan and Spanish legislation focus in this parameter to develop the action and impact plans. Thus, the pollution hazards related to the pig manure production, which are summarised in the table 14, may be grouped in three impact areas, soil, water and air (Burton&Turner 2003). Soil pollution is caused by the exceeding manure application to the soil causing an overload of nutrients to the soil, which can create negative effects to the plant growth. Water pollution is caused by the direct runoff or infiltration after the

Figure 22: Potential environment pollution from manure spreading. Source: from

(Burton&Turner 2003)

39

Table 14: Negative Impacts to the Environment related to the Slurry. Source: from (Martnez&Burton, 2003)

field application, leaking of earthen manure stores and contamination of poorly sealed wells. Finally, air pollution can be caused from odours and gases created by manure decomposition, microbial agents and dust from feed systems and the animals (Burton&Turner 2003).

Environmental Concern/issue

Environmental and other impacts

Scale of agricultural contribution

Scale of impact

Nitrate (NO3-)

Water quality. Eutrophication. Health

Economic loss to farmers.

Cost of removal.

Major source

Local: on-farm surface waters.

Regional: surface waters; catchment; aquifers

National/international: maritime waters

Nitrite (NO2-) Water quality.

Fish stocks and health. Major source

Local: on-farm surface waters.

Regional: surface waters and wells.

Ammonia (NH3)

Acid rain. Acidification of soils.

Eutrophication of natural systems. Direct toxicity

Major source (>85%)

Local: on-farm deposition.

Regional: deposition on natural ecosystems

National/international: cross boundary transfer of

NH3 and deposition

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Greenhouse gas. Global warming.

Ozone interactions

Substantial (likely to increase in importance

as other sources decrease)

Global

Nitric oxide (NO)

Tropospheric ozone precursor. minor ? Global

Phosphorus (P)

Water quality. Eutrophication.

Health. Toxins from algal

bloom. Economic

Cost of removal

Substantial increasing as industrial point sources decrease

Local: on-farm surface waters

Regional: surface waters, catchments

National/international: maritime waters (cross

boundary transfer) Methane

(CH4) Greenhouse gas. Global warming Substantial Global

404.4.2 Specific Effects to the Environment in Catalonia

Catalonia belongs to the Mediterranean climatic zone, which is characterised regarding the pig farming by firstly its landscape, predominantly mountainous and hilly lands. Secondly by having mild wet winters and hot dry summers. This fact together with an irregular rainfall distribution along the year causes a limited availability of water for irrigation. Finally, the Mediterranean soils are in a middle desertification process and they have a strong demand for soil amenders (Burton&Turner, 2003).

The Agriculture and Livestock in the Mediterranean countries is challenged by the following factors:

The temperature range is very high. Strong water shortage, which currently is compensated with irrigation. Nutrient loss from fertilisers applied in agricultural zones which causes serious

environmental problems in specific spots of the ecosystem. Soil degradation processes like desertification, erosion, salinisation, organic matter loss

and changes in the soil practices (Teira, 2008).

The potential negative effects to the environment of the slurry, the characteristics of the environmental background of Catalonia and the manure management practices creates some environmental dimensions as a especially vulnerable environmental dimensions.

Figure 23: Vulnerable zones with regard the nitrogen pollution and its effects to the groundwater reservoir (left at the top) and the surface water (right at the bottom).

Source: from (ICC, 2009)

41

4.4.2.1 Water Contamination

35% of the water consumption in Catalonia comes from groundwater reservoirs. The vulnerable zones with regard the nitrate pollution (see attachment I) comprise 6237 Km2 and are zones where the water can infiltrate to deeper zones thus inducing the pollution of groundwater and surface water.

The nitrogen concentration of the water bodies of both the vulnerable and non-vulnerable zones is increasing during 2004-2007 (IDESCATc, 2009). 4655 farms are in these vulnerable zones which produce between 7 and 13 Million m3 slurry.

It is important to include that the Ebre, the most important river for the agricultural practice of Catalonia also takes the water from Arag, the second autonomous community with the highest values of pig heads and volume of exceeding manure.

4.4.2.2 Emission of Gases

Green House Gases (GHG), i.e. the livestock sector in Spain emits 9.8% of total GHG emissions (3tres3a, 2010). These GHG gases are mainly methane, nitrous oxide and the combustion of fossil fuels to provide energy to the farms. On the other hand, the ammonia volatilisation also has a significant effect. All these gases are also toxic for human health.

4.4.2.3 Bad Odours

They are caused by the decomposition of organic substances. The bad odour caused by the manure, either in the pig farms or the application to the soil is a major problem in pig farms and/or crop fields near villages or cities.

4.4.2.4 Soil degradation

It is created by the surplus of Copper, Zinc, Phosphorous, Nitrogen and Potassium. The manifestations are:

- Soil Acidification: It is caused by the nitrification process of the ammonia, which produces a change in the pH of the soil with consequences to the entire agricultural system. However in Catalonia most of the soils are basics have a strong buffer capacity.

- Soil Salinisation: This causes a decrease in the fertility of the soil.

The main zones related to the intensive pig farming are calcareous soils, conglomerates and sandstone. Thus, these types of soils are vulnerable to pollution because they do not retain pathogens and other pollutants like fine-textured soils (clays, silts). These types of soils, with coarse texture and fracture rocks, like sand, sandstone and limestone soils with cracks provide a relatively poor barrier against pathogens and pollutants (3tres3, 2008).

42

4.4.2.5 Health Issues

It is cause by microbial and chemical contamination of components contained in the slurry into the food chain as well as spreading of diseases. The legislation does not take into account the environmental risks associated to the slurry regarding zoosanitary products, i.e. antibiotics and hormones, disinfectants, phenols, and products derived from the decomposition of pig proteins like ammonium, nitrates, fatty acids and PCSs (3tres3, 2008).

4.4.2.6 Heavy metals accumulation

Some of them, like Cu and Zn, can be toxic above certain limits.

4.4.2.7 Nutritional unbalances

The nutrient proportion contained in the fertilisers is variable and not always proportional to the crop requirements.

434.5 Manure Treatment Systems in Catalonia

4.5.1 Quantity of Manure Treated The manure is applied directly to the soil in Catalonia. Out of the 16.000.000 m3 generated in Catalonia annually (ARCa, 2009), 93.9% is applied directly without any kind of treatment but the storage and in some cases the additions of additives. The remaining 6.1%, approximately 927.000 m3 are treated before being applied in the soil (ICAEN, 2010; Boixadera, 2010). The amount of exceeding slurry in Catalonia is estimated as 1.75 Million Tonnes (Teira, 2008).

4.5.2 Centralised Treatment Plants

In Catalonia there are 6 centralised plants to treat pig slurry. All of them are cogeneration plants, and they are located in Lleida (4) and in Barcelona (2). Out of these 6 cogeneration plants, 3 of them carry out anaerobic treatment and the other 3 NDN processes (ICAEN, 2010; Boixadera, 2010).

Company Municipality Slurry Capacity (t/year) Tracjusa Juneda (Lleida) 110.000 VAG Juneda (Lleida) 110.000 VAG Miralcamp (Lleida) 110.000 Anaerobic digestion Solid-Liquid Separation pH adjustment Evaporation Drying DDP Alcarrs Alcarrs (Lleida) 115.000 DDP Voltreg Masies de Voltreg (Barcelona) 115.000 DDP Corc Santa Maria Corc 115.000 Nitrification and Denitrification Physical and Chemical AdditiveEvaporation Drying

Table 15: Centralised co-generation plants in Catalonia. Source: (Bonmat, 2008)

Figure 24: Distribution of the Slurry Management and Treatment in Catalonia 2007. Source: adapted from (ICAEN, 2010;

Boixadera, 2010). 93.9%

6.1%Managementoftheslurry

DirectlytothesoilWITHOUTtreatment

DirectlytothesoilWITHtreatment

44

Other common characteristics of the 6 centralised plants are:

Capacity: 110.000- 115.000 t per year.

They are funded by the Government.

Solid fertiliser as a final product.

Total authorised capacity: 675.000 t per year

Total slurry treated: 555.000 t/year (82%).

In Catalonia it is difficult to locate centralised anaerobic treatment plants due to fact that they have a very low social acceptance (Bonmata, 2008)

4.5.3 On-farm treatments

In 2010, the total number of livestock farms which carry out individual treatments of the manure is 95 (Bonmata, 2008; ICAEN, 2010; Boixadera, 2010). This is 1% out of the total number of livestock farms in Catalonia. The total number of treatment systems is 116.

Barcelona is the province with more farms which carry out on-farm treatments: 77 (85%), followed by Lleida 11, (9%), Girona (6) and Tarragona (1). The region with more treatments in-situ is Osona (69), followed by Valls Oriental (4), Pl dUrgell (6) and Segri 2. (Bonmata, 2008; ICAEN, 2010; Boixadera, 2010).

The type of treatment more common is the composting. However, in this type of treatment pig manure or the solid fraction of the slurry is not the only substrate. The other manure treatments carried out in Catalonia are the Solid-Liquid Separation, (NDN) and Anaerobic Digestion.

Figure 25: Centralised co-generation plants in Catalonia. Source: (Bonmat, 2008)

45

4.5.3.1 Solid-Liquid Separation

Number of pig farms: 38 Individual treatment 16. As a complementary 22 Type of solid-liquid separation: mechanical separation (natural decanting, screw press

and belt-press) plus chemical additives

Variable efficiency The values depend on the manure characteristics (storage time, water content, etc.), the calibration of the system, the type of running of the system (continuous or non-continuous) and the use of chemical additives (polyelectrolytes). The data, which must be included in the management plan of the livestock farm, is not public. However, usually there are reached values equal to the 20% out of the initial volume and between 15 to 30% nitrogen in the solid fraction (Teira, 2008).

Liquid fraction:

-Application to nearby lands. -Further treatment (Anaerobic Digestion and NDN).

Solid fraction -Application to distant lands (lower transport costs). -Further treatment (composting). -Transfer to another system (an external waste manager).

Anaerobic Digestion Solid-Liquid Separation

(32%)

Nitrification-Denitrification

Composting

55%

Figure 26: On-Farm Treatment Systems in Catalonia. Source: adapted from (Bonmat, 2008)

12.5%

0.5%

46

4.5.3.2 Composting

There are 64 facilities which carry out a composting process from livestock manure. The technology used is composting trough forced aeration 33 (17 Confined, 18 Open) and rotary piles 31 (19 Composting, 14 Pre-composting). The maxim authorised capacity of manure composting is 241.000 t per year (Bonmat, 2008).

The two types of manure used in Catalonia for composting are the cattle manure and/or the solid fraction of the pig slurry as well as the poultry manure. The treatment system most used in Catalonia is the static systems with forced aeration. The quality of the compost is limited by the heavy metals Cu and Zn. In some cases there is also Cd, Cr and Hg (Bonmat, 2008).

Figure 27: Solid-Liquid Separation Treatment in Catalonia. Source: (Bonmat, 2008)

47Under the current legislation, the final product does not have legal problems to be commercialised. The technology is highly consolidated in Catalonia, mainly carried out as a complementary treatment by third stakeholders.

4.5.3.3 Nitrification-Denitrification (NDN)

In 2008 there are 11 farms which carry out the nitrification-denitrification process but 4 of them have stopped this activity temporarily due to two reasons: technical control usually carried out by an external person and the operational costs are high [oxygenation, (Bonmat, 2008)]. The Solid fraction is applied to distant agricultural lands. It can be also further treated or transferred to a third external waste manager.

Figure 28: Composting Treatment Process in Catalonia. Source: from (Bonmat, 2008)

Figure 29: Nitrification-Denitirifcation Treatment in Catalonia. Source: from (Bonmat, 2008)

48

The liquid fraction is applied directly to nearby lands. This technology is relatively consolidated in Catalonia.

In Catalonia there is a continuous NDN located in la Caseta den Grau (Osona). This farm treats the liquid fraction of the slurry generated in the farm.

Other farms that carry out this process take benefit of the manure storage tanks to run the process. Even though it is cheaper, the system is more difficult to control (Teira, 2008). In addition, there is a Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) pilot case in Catalonia (Teira, 2008).

4.5.3.4 Anaerobic Digestion

One of the objectives of the Energy Plan of Catalonia (2006-2015) is that the renewable energy consumption reaches 9.5% out of the total by 2015, i.e. 2.949 ktep (DMAH, 2008). In 2006, this value is 2.4% but it has increased from 443.7 ktep in 1995 to 630.3 ktep in 2006 [42.1% of increase, (Flotats, 2009].

In Europe, the primary energy produced by anaerobic digestion in 2006 was approximately 5.35 Mtep. 1.28 Mtep was produced in anaerobic digestion plants from manure and urban organic waste fraction. Spain contributed in 0.33 Mtep, with a value equal to 25.8 tep produced from manure and municipal organic wastes (Flotats,

Figure 30: Liquid fraction in a NDN Treatment in Catalonia. Source: (Bonmat, 2008)

Figure 31: Municipal Biogas Potential Distribution Map. Source:

(Samuelsen&Medrano 2007)

492009).

The potential biogas production in the primary sector using manure from the pig, poultry and cattle sector is estimated to be 1.5 Mtep per year. The intensive pig farming sector has a potential of 0.82 Mtep per year (Flotats, 2009).

The profitability of manure biogas plants in Spain, according to the selling prices of the electricity stipulated in the Royal Order 661/2007 is highly sensitive to the biogas production per tonne of digested manure. Thus, there will be positive results when the specific production is higher than 30m3 per tonne. This figure will also depend on the inversion costs, which behave according to a marked economy of (Flotats&Sarquella, 2008).

Pig slurry shows productivity values between 10 and 20 m3 per tonne, due to the fact that it has low organic matter content. This value can be even lower if the storage time is significantly high. Therefore, the method preferred to increase the productivity is the mixing with different types of highly organic content wastes. These co-substrates, in the Spanish and Catalan case are mainly, vegetal oils and margarines (800 m3 per tonne), soils used in the filtering process of oils (300-400 m3 per tonne), pulp fruit (70-120 m3 per tonne) or sludge from the food processing industry (50-70 m3 per tonne) (Flotats&Sarquella, 2008).

The practical experiences of the anaerobic treatment plants at any level are limited in Catalonia. Currently there are 3 centralised plants within a cogeneration scheme, 2 in Juneda (Lleida) and 1 in Miralcamp (Lleida). The slurry of 150 pig farms is dried with the residual heat from the generation of electricity with natural gas and biogas.

Municipality Type of Zone Numberof far