Post-Aristotelians

After defeat of Athens… a period of pessimism and concern with everyday well-being

• The Skeptics

– Pyrrho of Elis (ca 365-275 BC) considered founder, although there are no surviving writings

– much in common with sophists

– attack on dogmatism (claim of irrefutable truth); argued for suspension of judgment, since all claims of truth seem equivocal.

– No point, therefore, for moral agonizing; well-being is doing whatever is convenient at the time- seek life of “quietude”

• Two primary guides for living:

– appearances: simple sensations and feelings

– convention: customs, traditions, laws of society

• The Cynics (Antisthenes and Diogenes)

– well-being is found in a life of self-denial, simplicity, removal from society. Happiness comes from acting naturally. Similar to some modern religious communes.

• Epicureanism (Epicurus of Samos)

– the goal of life is individual happiness… long-term happiness requires moderation and striving for tranquility

– well-being is found in freedom, simplicity, pursuit of moderate pleasure and avoidance of pain; avoid extremes. Everything in moderation.

– Hedonism… but only that which results from having basic needs satisfied

• Stoicism (Zeno , Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius) – Stoa = porch at Zeno’s school)

– world governed by a divine plan and we are all here for a reason.. There are no accidents; everything happens for a reason

– thus, we should live in accordance with nature; man is part of a greater scheme

– well-being founded on rationality, objectivity, and acceptance. Emotional reactions are unjustified. Each person is part of a greater natural scheme and each person should play their part as well as possible. Humility and acceptance.

– In Roman Empire, Stoicism was compatible with Roman emphasis on law and order… popular philosophy. With the decline of Empire, people looked for other definitions of “the good life”.

• Neoplatonism

– Philo (25BC-50AD), Plotinus (204-270 AD), Hypatia (370-415)

– As for Plato, truth and reality are not material

– Replaced Plato’s forms with divine explanations: God is the source of all truth and knowledge. Knowledge comes from divine revelation.

– Spiritual world is more perfect than the physical world.

– Through intense meditation, soul can be released from the body and live among the eternal and changeless

– Elements of this philosophy were adopted by Christianity

• So….. – Stoicism: live a life of accepting things as they are– Epicurianism: seek pleasure, but in moderation– Neoplatonism: turn away from empirical world in order to enter a

union of eternal things beyond the material world

• Galen (131-301 AD)– Roman physician– Proposed that there are physical causes for emotional states and

mental illness• Imbalance of humors• Recommended counseling for emotional problems

From Rome to the Renaissance

• Long period of stability– In western world, dominated by Christianity– Roman church: man is inherently sinful and

salvation is possible through repentance/faith– Mind-body dualism– Subordination of all knowledge to the revealed

word of God– Perfection found in another world

• St. Augustine (354-430)– North African– Confessions acknowledge wild life as a young man and

later conversion.– Focus on spiritual world– Shifted beliefs about human motivation from external

to internal causes.• Action based on free will.

– Thus, guilt, responsibility, sin, salvation become possible– However, observations about causes of behavior become

impossible.

St. Augustin (cont)

– Reason/observation subordinated to faith, emotion, and introspection of subjective states.

– Writings touchd on infant motivation (asocial, self-seeking), reward and punishment, memory, dreams