Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts across Cultures

7/25/2019 Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts across Cultures

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/positioning-yoga-balancing-acts-across-cultures 1/41

Book title: Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts across Cultures. Contributors: Sarah

Strauss - Author. Publisher: Berg. Place of publication: New York. Publication year:

2!.

"#e-$rienting Yoga

Bo%bay& 'n(ia ) *arch& "++2

,he train pulle( out of the station. ' was ri(ing in the fa%e( #a(hani /press& on

the

way back fro% Bo%bay to 0elhi. Across fro% %e in the co%part%ent& two %i((le

-

age(& %i((le-class business%en looke( hot an( unco%fortable in their stan(ar(

1estern style business attire ) ackets& ties& the works. ,hey won(ere( what ayoung& unacco%panie(& non-'n(ian wo%an was (oing (resse( in salwar-ka%ee

3wo%en4s (ress of long tunic an( loose trousers5 an( stu(ying a 6in(i gra%%ar

book. 1hen ' e/plaine( that ' was an anthropologist& an( ha( co%e to 'n(ia to stu

(y

yoga in #ishikesh& they beca%e 7uite attenti8e& an( began to (iscuss the subect.

,heir pri%ary senti%ents were regret an( a%ae%ent: regret that they knew so li

ttle

of their heritage the%sel8es& an( what they knew (eri8e( solely fro% hearsay9

a%ae%ent that ' shoul( tra8el so far fro% ho%e& learn 6in(i& an( wear 'n(ian

clothing out of preference& all to stu(y a subect they consi(ere( i%portant to the

irown past& but not likely to loo% large in anyone4s future. Ne8ertheless& they agre

e(

that #ishikesh was an i(eal place to carry out such a stu(y& since it was well kno

wn

as a site of great spiritual power. As was often the case when ' %entione( yoga& t

he

business%en in7uire( whether ' ha( %et any real; yogis in %y tra8els& an( spec

u-

late( that there were 8ery few left in the country. 'n the ti%e of the *ahabharat a

n(

the #a%ayan& the great epics of 'n(ia& they %use(& there ha( been %any yogis

across the lan(. Perhaps& one sai(& if ' went south to ,a%il Na(& where people wer

e

still in touch with the tra(itions& ' coul( <n( so%e there. ,he other co%%ente( th

at

he ha( once encountere( a %an lying on a be( of nails& unscathe(: 1as that

yoga=;

>ocating Yoga

Yoga. ,he wor( e8okes a range of i%ages an( i(eas& fro% white-bear(e( 'n(ian %

ystics on%ountaintops to cross-legge( hippies burning incense an( urban busines



s people at a lunchti%e<tness class. Although there is no single correct; 8ersion

of yoga& a close e/a%ination of the8ariety of i(eas an( practices that is i(enti<e(

with yoga yiel(s a co%%on core. ,his book askshow the set of i(eas an( practice

s known as yoga has %o8e( fro% its birthplace on the 'n(iansubcontinent to beco

%e a global pheno%enon& an( how this transnationally pro(uce( yoga has

-"-

co%e ho%e to change the practice of yoga in 'n(ia itself. 1hat are the 8alues& in '

n(ia or

elsewhere in the worl(& that ha8e supporte( the popularity of yoga o8er the past

century=?ollowing a speci<c for% of yoga (e8elope( in #ishikesh& 'n(ia& by Swa%i

Si8anan(a an( his(isciples& we will e/plore how i(eas an( practices are transfor%

e( as they tra8erse culturalboun(aries9 an( how certain 8alues& like those of hea

lth; an( free(o%&; ha8e shifte( in%eaning o8er ti%e& allowing the% to be use( i

n the ser8ice of such practices.

Yoga can be (e<ne( in %any ways - as an attitu(e& a philosophy& a set of practices& a way of beingin the worl( - but its (e<nition is always locate( within a particul

ar historical conte/t. Althoughyoga has been stu(ie( e/tensi8ely as a philosophic

al an( religious syste%&" it has less often been

researche( ethnographically& as a syste% of bo(ily practices within a sociocultura

l conte/t.2 Yogao@ers an e/cellent e/a%ple of the inseparability of %in( an( bo(y

. ,he eight stages of Patanali4s

classical yoga begin with the practice of %orality in social life 3ya%a& niya%a: uni

8ersal an(personal rules for li8ing - see 'yengar "++: ")5& procee(ing to phys

ical practices 3asana&pranaya%a: physical poses an( breathing techni7ues5& an( t

hen to (i@erent states of %ental

attention or consciousness 3pratyahara& (harana& (hyana& sa%a(hi: gra(ual re%o8al ofe/ternal sensory input& focusing attention on a single point& uninterrupte( %

e(itati8e state& an(&(epen(ing on the school of thought& perfect isolation or union

with the Absolute 3?ort an(*u%%e "++5. Patanali4s yoga takes as one of its pri

%ary goals the %aintenance of physical<tness of the bo(y& which is a preli%inary

re7uire%ent for e8entual spiritual enlighten%ent3Darenne "+5. 'n contrast with

one well-stu(ie( south Asian health syste%& Ayur8e(ic%e(icine 3which also has a

long-stan(ing te/tual an( popular tra(ition: see >angfor( 229>eslie "+9 Ei%%

er%an "+F5& yoga has recei8e( far less aca(e%ic attention. Yet like Ayur8e(a&y

oga has attracte( attention in the 1est as an astern path to health an( well-

being.

6ere& ' e/plore not only the shifts in how yoga itself has been un(erstoo(& but als

o the factorsthat ha8e contribute( to changing the (e%ographics of yoga practiti

oners. Although there were afew scholars outsi(e of 'n(ia (uring the se8enteenth

an( eighteenth centuries who wereintereste( in the classical yoga te/ts& it was o

nly in the late nineteenth century that wi(erau(iences of people in the Gnite( Sta

tes an( 1estern urope began to learn about yoga. *uch ofthis e/posure (eri8e(

fro% a series of public lectures gi8en by the 'n(ian Swa%i Di8ekanan(a.Di8ekana

n(a (e8elope( his i(eas about yoga while he was tra8eling in the Gnite( States a

n(urope& an( later pro%ote( the% in 'n(ia fro% his ho%e base in Holkata 3for%e

rly Calcutta5.Pre8iously known to his frien(s an( fa%ily 3but few others5 as Naren

(ranath 0atta& the youngswa%i ha( taken the new na%e of Di8ekanan(a for his 8oyage west. YoungNaren(ranathIDi8ekanan(a& chil( of a u(ge an( traine( in ur



opean-style philosophy an( law&ha( o8erco%e his e/tre%e skepticis% of religious

power through his interactions with Sri

-2-

#a%akrishna& one of the %ost fa%ous <gures of the nineteenth-century 6in(u wo

rl(& an( stillone of the %ost re8ere( spiritual teachers in all of 'n(ia. Although #a%akrishna was hi%self anuntutore( %ystic& in his fore%ost (isciple& Di8ekanan(a&

he ac7uire( an elo7uent spokes%an.

Yoga& (escribe( in Di8ekanan(a4s lectures as well as printe( pa%phlets& beca%e

a co%%o(ity&so%ething of 8alue that coul( be ac7uire( an( circulate( a%ong th

e literate %i((le class peopleof both 'n(ia an( the 1est. Swa%i Di8ekanan(a pres

ente( yoga as a spiritual co%%o(ity thatha( an e/plicit e/change 8alue for peopl

e in A%erica an( urope: he sai( that 'n(ia ha( anabun(ance of spiritual wealth&

an( that yoga was a %etho( that coul( help people to achie8espiritual well-

being. 'n return& the 1est - well known for its %aterial resources - coul( pay cashf

or the pri8ilege of learning yoga. Di8ekanan(a reasone( that the 1est lacke( spirituality& an( soa fair tra(e coul( be %a(e 3#aychau(huri "+F+9 Di8ekanan(a "++

c5. Di8ekanan(a inJuence(%any other %i((le-class people like hi%self 3not only i

n 'n(ia but also aroun( the globe5 topursue an ascetic lifestyle& or at least to inco

rporate aspects of classical 6in(u religiousphilosophy an( practice in their (aily li

8es 3Koshi 2"5. $ne of those strongly inJuence( byDi8ekanan(a4s teachings wa

s Swa%i Si8anan(a of #ishikesh& 'n(ia. As we will see& Si8anan(a&for%erly a secul

ar %e(ical (octor fro% south 'n(ia& left his successful career to beco%e one of'n(

ia4s best known twentieth-century religious <gures. ,his book traces a path out fr

o%Si8anan(a4s 0i8ine >ife Society in #ishikesh& through Ler%any an( the Gnite(

States& an( backto #ishikesh& to e/plore how the practice of yoga - though clearly

of 'n(ian origin - has co%e toe%bo(y the 8alues of health an( free(o% in a transnational conte/t.

,he 6istorical Conte/t of Yoga - in a Nutshell

,he Sanskrit root of the wor( yoga& yu& %eans to yoke or oin together9 the %ost

co%%onnglish translation is union&; usually referring to the union of the in(i8i(

ual self with theAbsolute or Gni8ersal Self. ' use the general ter% yoga; to refer t

o the broa( philosophicalperspecti8e 3yoga-(arsana5 nor%ally consi(ere( to cons

titute one of the si/ (arsanas3philosophies5 of 6in(uis% 3lia(e "+ M"+!F5. $n

e way to begin a (iscussion of yoga woul( beto re8iew the ancient 'n(ian te/ts. $f these& the %ost fa%ous are the Yoga Sutras of Patanali&(ate( tentati8ely to the

perio( 2 BC to A0 2 an( consi(ere( to be the %aster te/t forclassical; yoga

. ,he yoga sutras are so%ewhat cryptic 8erse for%s& easy for the (isciples of they

oga %asters to learn& but (iOcult to analye. ,he criticalIinterpreti8e tra(ition whi

ch (e8elope(aroun( the original te/ts continues to the present (ay. ,he 8erses o

utline what are consi(ere( theeight basic stages of the yoga syste%& inclu(ing gu

i(elines for %oral li8ing& physical postures&breathing techni7ues&

--

%e(itati8e practice. *uch has been sai( about this te/tual tra(ition 3see Aranya

"+F9 0as Lupta"+F+M"+29 B.S. *iller "++9 1erner "+& a%ong others59 here&



' will (iscuss ele%ents of suchte/tual theories of yoga only as they apply to the s

peci<c teachings of Swa%is Di8ekanan(a an(Si8anan(a.

,he original goal of classical yoga& kai8alya& or isolation of the self& is a far cry fro

% theconte%porary goals of health& stress re(uction& an( Je/ibility that are fre7u

ently encountere(within both 'n(ian an( non-'n(ian co%%unities. ,here are nu%

erous other Gpanisha(ic an(Puranic treatises that also (iscuss so%e facet of yog

a philosophy an( practice within the con<nesof ortho(o/; 6in(uis%& an( gener

ally fall within the BC to A0 perio(. 'n a((ition the(i8ergent paths of Bu(

(his% an( Kainis% ha8e generate( a substantial bo(y of early literature.!,hese a

ncient writings are certainly i%portant9 in this chapter& howe8er& they will be cons

i(ere(only in so far as they paint a back(rop for the e8ents of the past century.

Before ' (el8e %ore (eeply into the theoretical concerns of this book& a few clari<

cations an((e<nitions are in or(er. ,he %ost co%%on usage of the ter% yoga; -

as seen in Lo8ern%ent of'n(ia tourist brochures or local tele8ision gui(es& or hear

( aroun( college ca%puses - hastypically referre( to the eight-fol( or astanga pat

h of #aa yoga& the classical yoga of Patanali4sYoga Sutras& (escribe( pre8iously. 'n recent years& howe8er& a proliferation of (i@erent yogasha8e appeare( on the s

cene& fro% Beryl Birch4s Power Yoga to 8arious styles labele( ?low Yogaan( beyon

(. *any& if not %ost& of these styles are associate( with a particular teacher - B.H.

S.'yengar& H. Pattabhi Kois& Swa%i Dishnu(e8anan(a - though others are fra%e( p

ri%arily inter%s of a broa(er e%phasis or style& such as astanga or kun(alini. #a

a yoga inclu(es %oralgui(elines& %e(itati8e techni7ues& an( the asanas& or poses

& of hatha yoga& whose purpose is to(iscipline the bo(y an( %in( through physica

l postures9 so%e consi(er hatha yoga to be acategory unto itself. #aa yoga& the y

oga of self-control& is one of the four paths of yoga intowhich Swa%i Di8ekanan(a

(istille( the %ultiplicity of yogas in the 6in(u tra(ition when hepresente( these p

hilosophies an( practices to the 1est in "F+.

#ishikesh& 'n(ia ) April& "++2

't4s . a.%. an( %y alar% has ust soun(e(. 'n the s%all (ark roo%& ' begin to h

ear

others %o8ing about the ashra% 3%onastery5 courtyar(. ' reach for %y clothes an

(

begin to (ress. ,i%e enough for a cup of tea an( a 7uick wash before walking (o

wn

the roa( to the Yoga Center on the banks of the Langa 3Langes #i8er5. Si/teen of

--

us con8erge on the large ce%ent structure at !."! a.%. ) a (oen non-'n(ian

stu(ents& %ostly wo%en9 a couple of 'n(ian stu(ents& both %en9 the instructor an

(

his assistant& also 'n(ian %en. So%e sit in silent %e(itation& while others begin to

stretch an( twist& war%ing up their bo(ies in the cool of (awn& while staring into t

he

%ist rising up o@ the Langa& the glint of the ri8er barely 8isible beyon( the wire

%eshwin(ows. At !.& Su%it& the instructor& begins to chant9 he in8okes the ai( of the



go( Si8a& e/e%plar of yogic practice& as we prepare to spen( two an( a half hour

s

in 8igorous pursuit of the perfect pose. As he barks out the na%es of asanas&

followe( by (etaile( e/planations& ' a% calle( upon to translate for the nu%erous

Ler%an stu(ents in the class. Although %ost of the% speak nglish fairly well&

Su%it4s hea8ily accente(& staccato 'n(ian nglish is too (iOcult for so%e to co%pre-

hen(& an( so ' try to help.

?ro% 6istory to Practice

Styles of conte%porary yoga practice 8ary fro% the gy%nastic to the subli%e. *o

st people whosee a photograph of the yoga class (escribe( abo8e 3?igure "5& with

its %e%bers twiste( an(stretche( on 8arious types of e7uip%ent& 8iew it as a 8ar

iant of a %e(ie8al torture cha%ber.Another typical e/a%ple 3?igure 25& this one of

a %an stan(ing on his hea( on an oriental carpet&see%s to agree with %ore people4s i(ea of what one ought to be (oing when practicing yoga. Yetboth photos wer

e taken within %inutes an( %eters of each other. ,hey reJect the (i8erse rangeof

yoga practices a8ailable to stu(ents worl(wi(e. ,here are& howe8er& %any 6in(u

te/tual an(popular tra(itions other than yoga whose fa%e has ne8er reache( bey

on( the bor(ers of thesubcontinent. 1hile the ter% yoga; has wi(esprea( na%e

-recognition& the wor(s De(anta or*i%a%sa will probably (raw only a blank stare

fro% any non-6in(u 3other than a Sanskritscholar5. But these three together %ak

e up half of the si/ classical schools of 'n(ian philosophy.$f these si/ philosophica

l fra%eworks& why has yoga alone %a(e it to the status of a %aorcultural e/port

;= 1hat %akes yoga (i@erent=

,he title of this chapter& #e-$rienting Yoga&; points to three %aor reasons for yo

ga4s surge inpopularity that ' shall outline. 1e will re8isit each of these %aor poin

ts in (etail& but for now 'si%ply want to lay out the keys to un(erstan(ing how yo

ga has (e8elope( o8er the past century.?irst& we can think about the shift in the o

rientation of yoga that began with Di8ekanan(a in"F+& at the Parlia%ent of the

1orl(4s #eligions at the Chicago 1orl(4s ?air. $riginally& yoga wasa philosophically

groun(e( set of practices (esigne( to facilitate spiritual enlighten%ent& an( itwas

%ostly consi(ere( the (o%ain of 6in(u %en. ,he practice of yoga in ancient 'n(ia

wasgeare( pri%arily towar( the %ale gen(er an( ha( as its purpose the control o

f the bo(y in ser8iceof the release of the spirit. Di8ekanan(a4s later

-!-

?igure " Yoga with props; 3author photo5

reinterpretation shifte( the focus of yoga towar( the pro%otion of two speci<c 8al

ues of the%o(ern worl(: health an( free(o%. 6ealth& as Kackson >ears 3"+F"5 an(

others ha8e shown& is apri%ary goal of the self-(e8elop%ent process& which is its

elf a key feature of the %o(ern worl(.1hile all people ha8e always enoye( being

healthy an( su@ere( when health is co%pro%ise(&not all populations see health a

s a speci<c en( in itself9 that is& while illness is always a %arke(category& health

; is not. 6ealth is not only a central 8alue of %o(ernity 30ubos "+!9 6erlich"++

!5& but also a %arker for %o(ernity& in the sense that (e8elop%ent of nations is%easure( inpart by a series of health in(icators; such as %orbi(ity an( %ortalit



y rates. A secon( in(icatorfor national (e8elop%ent& as establishe( by the Gnite(

Nations& the Co%%onwealth of for%erBritish colonies& an( such pri8ate groups as

A%nesty 'nternational& is the (egree of in(i8i(ualfree(o% a8ailable to pri8ate citi

ens. 'n or(er to participate in one of these alliances oftheoretically e7ual an( fre

e nation-states& a go8ern%ent %ust ensure a %ini%al le8el of hu%anrights& with

personal free(o% the %ost fun(a%ental of these. ,he presentation of yoga in the1estern conte/t was seen as a way to reconnect with the spiritual worl(& re(uce

stress& an(regain health an( free(o% - all without ha8ing to lose the pro(ucti8e c

apitalist base upon whichA%ericans an( uropeans ha( stake( their futures. As t

he transfor%e( 8ersions of yoga fro%Di8ekanan(a an( others beca%e popular in

'n(ia& they fostere( si%ilarly transfor%e( notions ofthe 8alues of health an( free(

o% within the conte/t of global %o(ernity.

--

?igure 2 Su%it: ,he 6ea(stan( 3author photo5

Secon(& the title #e-$rienting Yoga; refers to the continuing (ebate on $rientalis%; begun bythe Palistinian critic (war( Sai( 3"++5. 'n his book of the sa%e na

%e& Sai( (iscusses theproble% of a 1estern colonial power& such as Lreat Britain

or ?rance& re(ucing %e%bers of acolonie( Asian society to a stereotypical or es

sentialie(; character. ,he ten(ency to re(uce an$riental or Asian $ther; to a si

ngular essence 3e.g. Spiritual 'n(ia;5 is not new. 6owe8er& 'suggest that the stu(

y of yoga i(eology an( practice pro8i(es an e/cellent e/a%ple of howessentialie

( i%ages ha8e been use( by the colonie( people the%sel8es& as a way of literall

y re-for%ing the physical bo(y an( i(eological %ake-up of both colonier an( colo

nie(. Yogao@ere( an in(igenous strategy for both the physical training to gener

ate the bo(ily strengthnecessary to reclai% 'n(ia after centuries of colonial rule&

an( also a %o(el of the %entalfortitu(e nee(e( by anyone who wante( to e@ectchange in his or her worl(. ,he power an(Je/ibility of the yoga philosophy itself a

llowe( Di8ekanan(a to turn one si%pli<e( set of i(easan( practices to two 8ery (i

@erent en(s: the spiritual awaking of the 1estern public& an( thespiritual reu8en

ation of the 'n(ian people.

--

,he thir( way that this 8olu%e (e%onstrates the re-orientation of yoga can be se

en in the literalfact of recirculation of i(eas an( practices fro% one place on our p

lanet to another& an( back. ,he%o(ern perio( is increasingly characterie( by th

e rapi( (isse%ination of people& goo(s& i(eas&i%ages& an( practices aroun( the gl

obe. 6owe8er& the %aority of stu(ies which a((ress thesetransnational pheno%

ena focus on Jows fro% a center or core; of politicalIecono%ic power&usually so

%ewhere in the 1est& to a peripheral; locale 31allerstein "+5. But yoga& origin

atingin 'n(ia& is now wi(ely recognie( an( practice( in relati8ely %ainstrea% an

( globally a8ailablesettings& such as youth clubs or public a(ult e(ucation progra

%s in the Gnite( States or Cana(a.'n 'n(ia& yoga4s popularity has followe( on the

heels of its 1estern (isse%ination9 in so%e sense&though it ha( not actually left

; 'n(ia& yoga was ne8ertheless re-$riente(.;

Yoga an( the Pia @ect;



Anthropology& as Appa(urai 3"+FFa5 re%in(s us& is replete with concepts that ha8

e beco%e%etony%ous with speci<c locales or regions9 caste in 'n(ia illustrates th

is pheno%enon well.FSo%e places ha8e beco%e so thoroughly i(enti<e( with par

ticular i(eologies& practices& or typesof social structure& that although those featu

res of the sociocultural lan(scape %ay be presentelsewhere& the ethnographic res

earcher or intereste( obser8erIpractitioner feels co%pelle( to goto that original place in or(er to obtain an authentic; perspecti8e on the subect.+ But as Bharati3

"+5 (e%onstrates& %any obects& processes or i(eas that are generally i(enti<e

( as thepro(uct of a particular people& culture or place& such as pia for 'taly& we

re in fact (e8elope( orelaborate( upon in a 8ery (i@erent conte/t& or by 8ery (i@e

rent people than those whosuppose(ly originate( the thing in 7uestion. Bharati u

ses the pia e@ect; to (e%onstrate howthe neo-6in(u renaissance itself was co

nstitute( in large part through the e@orts an( inJuenceof people li8ing outsi(e of

'n(ia. Si%ilarly& #ahea 3"++5 (e%onstrates that the %o(ernconstitution of cast

e; in 'n(ia was to so%e e/tent an artifact of e@orts by the British #a to %apout t

he syste% they percei8e(& rather than the actual relationships that e/iste( a%on

g %e%bersof 'n(ian society. Yoga& as a %etony% for spirituality %ore broa(ly taken& also retains thisartifactual status9 its conte%porary (e<nition an( practice reJ

ects %ore about %o(erntransnational cultural Jows than pristine ancient tra(itio

ns. $ne of the central <gures in there(e<nition of yoga was Di8ekanan(a.

Di8ekanan(a4s presentation of yoga to the 1estern public& an( his subse7uent re-

presentation ofyoga to his country%en in 'n(ia four years later&" %arks a turnin

g point in the way this ancientsyste% of i(eas an( practices has been un(erstoo(

3B.S. *iller "++5. Poise( between worl(s&Di8ekanan(a (rew on both

-F-

his e/periences as a pri8ilege( chil( of the Holkata elite 3the bha(ralok& or respectable people;5&a well-e(ucate( son of a u(ge& an( his co%%it%ent to Sri #a%ak

rishna& (e8otee of the Lo((essan( 6in(u e/e%plar-saint for the alienate( %i((le

-class youth of Holkata 3Sarkar "++25. SinceDi8ekanan(a4s ti%e 3"F) "+25& the

ter% yoga has taken on a life of its own& co%ing to signifye8erything fro% the 1

on(er that was 'n(ia; 3Basha% "+!5 to a %etho( for uni8ersal sal8ation.

*o(ern yoga& as represente( in the writings of Swa%i Di8ekanan(a at the en( of

the nineteenthcentury& is a transnational cultural pro(uct. 1hile anthropologists

%ay argue about thecentrality of caste for un(erstan(ing 'n(ia& the pri%ary trait

%any people& both non-'n(ian an('n(ian alike& i%agine as 7uintessentially 'n(ian

is spirituality& often contraste( with the 1est4sstereotypical %aterialis% 3#.L. ?o/"+F+5. Another way to un(erstan( this attribute is to call itspiritual capital&; a sp

eci<c type of cultural capital 3Bour(ieu "+& "+F9 Loul(ner "++5 thatser8es %

uch the sa%e function as stan(ar( econo%ic un(erstan(ings of capital: to suppor

t agoo( life&; howe8er (e<ne( 3Barit "+F+5. Yoga& then& can be un(erstoo( as a

practical %etho(for ac7uiring spiritual capital. But it can also be un(erstoo( as a

co%%o(ity that has 8alue as abo(ily techni7ue9 yoga can be custo%ie( for (istri

bution to speci<c target au(iences. Bye/a%ining the 8ariable life goals an( priorit

ies of both 'n(ian an( non-'n(ian househol(ers an(renouncers 3those who ha8e

oine( a %onastic co%%unity an( relin7uishe( the ties of worl(lysocial life an( po

ssessions5 who share co%%on knowle(ge an( practices of Si8anan(a4s yoga& this

research contributes to an ongoing (iscussion of the relationship between religious i(eology an(practice an( e8ery(ay 8isions of the goo( life in South Asia 3Hu%ar



"+F9 *a(an "+F5& as well asthe relationship between 'n(ia an( the uro-

A%erican 1est.

#ather than trying to represent e8ery 8ersion of yoga practice now e/isting& an i

%possible task& 'instea( focus on the sa%pra(aya& or i(eological co%%unity& (eri

8ing fro% the teachings ofSwa%i Si8anan(a of #ishikesh. Si8anan(a use( Di8eka

nan(a4s (i8ision of the yoga tra(ition intofour %aor orientations: #aa 3typically a

ssociate( with the classical yoga of Patanali - the king;of yogas& utiliing techni

7ues of %oral& physical& an( %ental (iscipline59 Bhakti 3the path lo8e or(e8otion5&

Knana 3the path of knowle(ge or intellectual learning59 an( Har%a 3the path of wor

kor selJess ser8ice to others5 as the basis for %ost of his own writings about yoga

. 6e also use(Di8ekanan(a4s organiations& the #a%akrishna *ission an( the De(

anta Societies in the 1est& as%o(els for his own 0i8ine >ife Society in #ishikesh.

Born in "FF& Si8anan(a left his bo(y in"+&"" but his writings an( (isciples con

tinue to trans%it the 8ersion of yoga practice hepro%ote(. 6owe8er& in his origin

al crest an( %otto for the 0>S& Si8anan(a links all ofDi8ekanan(a4s categories int

o Ser8e& >o8e& *e(itate& #ealie; - e7ui8alent to the Har%a& Bhakti&#aa& an( Knana yogas."2 't is i%portant to note that none of

-+-

these 8ariants of yoga were in8ente(; by Di8ekanan(a9 rather& what Di8ekanan(

a (i( 3an(Si8anan(a further popularie(5 was to crystallie %any (i@erent philoso

phical paths 3fro%hun(re(s of years of te/tual tra(itions5 into four key categories

3the na%es of which e/iste(pre8iously5 that coul( be o@ere( to a public eager for

practical instruction in spiritual progress.

As proponents of yoga in the global conte/t& Swa%is Di8ekanan(a an( Si8anan(a

were both wellaware of conte%porary uro-A%erican scholarship as well as tra(itional 6in(u thought 30i8ine>ife Society "+F!a9 #aychau(huri "+F+: 22+5& but the

y were also inescapably i%%erse( in thecolonial conte/t of the nationalist struggl

e in 'n(ia. ,he particular co%bination of i(eas use(initially by Di8ekanan(a in his

presentation of yoga reJects an eclectic %i/ of 8arious tra(itional6in(u te/ts ran

ging fro% the Bhaga8a( Lita to ,antris% an( Bu((his%& fro% A(8aita De(antato t

he %ore (ualist classical yoga of Patanali& as well as uropean i(eas about ration

ality&charity& e7uality& an( in(i8i(ualis%." Di8ekanan(a use( A(8aita& or non-

(ualist&un(erstan(ings of the nature of (i8inity to groun( his 8ersion of yoga. ,he

A(8aita tra(ition was%ore easily aligne( with Christianity an( other %onotheistic

tra(itions fa%iliar to his non-'n(ian au(iences."

'n a((ition to ha8ing speci<c theoretical agen(as relating to uni8ersal spirituality

an( globalunity& Di8ekanan(a an(& to an e8en greater e/tent Si8anan(a& focuse(

attention on the notion ofpractice; 3abhyas in 6in(i5. Practice is in(ee( central t

o un(erstan(ing the role yoga has co%eto play in the li8es of its a(8ocates9 it ent

ails both the bo(ily enact%ent of yoga i(eology as wellas the speci<c physical po

stures an( %etho(s for breathing (escribe( in the %any te/ts."! ,he<rst 7uestio

n ' was aske( by nearly e8eryone& %ale or fe%ale& 'n(ian or not& practitioner or n

ot&was 1hat is your practice=;." 6elena 1ul@ reports a parallel e/perience in h

er co%prehensi8estu(y of transnational ballet culture& suggesting that a central

(ichoto%y in the ballet worl( isthe one separating the act of (oing ballet fro% wa

tching ballet; 31ul@ "++F: F5. Although balletis generally thought of as a perfor%ing art that by (e<nition inclu(es so%e kin( of au(ience& an(yoga is consi(ere( t



o be %ore of a personal practice& the transfor%ation of yoga fro% thestu(ent-

(isciple %o(e of earlier centuries into the public acti8ities of classes an( e8enco

%petitions has %a(e these parallels e8en %ore co%pelling. ?or yoga practitioner

s& the bene<tsgaine( through yoga practice can be fully un(erstoo( only by so%e

one who shares thosepractices& ust as the aesthetic an( painful e/periences of b

allet are share( only by (ancers.Although there are a plethora of classical te/ts on the philosophy of yoga& an( countless popularhow-to; gui(es for all le8els of a

spiring yogis& yoga re%ains a for% of e%bo(ie( knowle(ge&which no a%ount of r

ea(ing or telling can i%part." $nly actual bo(ily engage%ent - (oingyoga; - ca

n pro8i(e the sensory an( %uscular %e%ories that are essential to realiing theb

ene<ts of this practice. 'n(ee(& ' argue that yoga pro8i(es an increasingly wi(espr

ea(techni7ue (u corps; 3*auss "+M"+: bo(ily

-"-

techni7ues5 for coping with the stresses of e8ery(ay life un(er the ter%s of late

%o(ernity. 'n thissense& yoga <lls the sa%e role as %any other bo(ily practices& s

uch as aerobics& ogging& tai chi& ororganie( sports.

Nota Bene: ,er%s of #epresentation

A couple of ca8eats are in or(er here: ?irst& %y (iscussants use the broa( ter% y

oga; to refer totheir own application of yoga-(arsana to (aily life& through both p

hysical hatha yoga practicesan( general outlook."F ?or the%& this entails the a(o

ption of a particular attitu(e& or so%atic%o(e of attention; 3Csor(as "++5 towar

( a gi8en set of practices: focusing one4s concentrationon the acti8ity in 7uestion&

not allowing the %in( to stray& not worrying about e/ternalperceptions of the acti

on& but only about the process of carrying it out. ' follow their usage& takingyoga; as a general ter%& specifying only if reference to particular aspects of the tra(iti

on is%eant. Secon(& in speci<c portions of this book& ' ha8e use( an essentialiin

g shorthan(&contrasting the 1est; with 'n(ia.; 1hile 7uite aware of the hornet4

s nest such a tactic willlikely pro8oke& ' <n( it e7ually proble%atic to ignore the ac

ti8e use of this (ichoto%y by thepeople whose li8es an( writings ' (escribe.

Although Sai( an( others4 concern for the hege%ony of $rientalist (iscourse is w

ell place(& wenee( to bear in %in( that the story is %ore co%ple/ than that alone

%ight suggest9 a 8olu%e on$cci(entalis% e(ite( by Ka%es Carrier 3"++!5 attests

to the i%portance of un(erstan(ing the%utual i%plications of such (ichoto%iing

(iscourse. $ne cannot (e<ne the situation si%ply inter%s of being for; or against; $rientalis% as Sai( (e<nes it. #ather& it is i%portant to realiethat the opposit

ional pairing of 'n(ia an( the 1est has been use( to strategic a(8antage 3Spi8ak"

+FF& "++5 by %any pro%inent 'n(ians o8er the past century."+ ,he $rientophili

a; of 8arious1estern intellectuals was put to goo( use by Asian intellectuals& %an

y of who% ha(& like Lan(hian( ,agore& spent a consi(erable a%ount of ti%e abro

a(. As 8an (er Deer 3"++:"5 points out&there was not a one-way i%position of

$rientalist (iscourse on Asian realities& but rather anintense intellectual interactio

n between $rientalists an( 'n(ian scholars.; ,hese intellectualswere perhaps %or

e like each other than like their fellow country%en 3Shils "+"5.2

?urther& this astern %onolith has often been characterie(& by both lay an( aca(e%icco%%entators& by its spirituality as against the %aterialis% of the 1est 3#.L.



?o/ "+F+9 *cHean"++9 Spencer "++!5. As a %e%ber of this group& Swa%i Di8eka

nan(a 8ery (eliberatelyrepresente( yoga an( the De(antic tra(ition as 'n(ia4s gift

to the 1est& for which %onetaryassistance to ai( the po8erty stricken 'n(ian %as

ses woul( be a %ost appropriate e/change3#aychau(huri "+F+:

-""-

22)2+5. 'n his a((ress to the citiens of Holkata upon returning fro% his <rst ou

rney to the1est& Di8ekanan(a aske( his fellow 'n(ians to oin his cause: we %ust

go out& e/change ourspirituality for anything they ha8e to gi8e us: for the %ar8el

s of the region of spirit we wille/change the %ar8els of the region of %atter; 3Di8

ekanan(a "++c:"+5.

Di8ekanan(a4s e%phasis on uni8ersal spirituality ha( %uch to (o with his interest

s in resol8ingine7uities at the national 3caste5 an( international 3colonialis%5 le8e

ls9 in a si%ilar fashion& thea(option of his approach by non-'n(ians in the ninetee

nth century see%s to ha8e been (ri8en toa great e/tent by concern for class ine7

uities an( social proble%s. But by the "+!s& after thethreat of global (estruction%a(e possible by the ato%ic bo%b ha( been clearly un(erstoo(&Si8anan(a4s %es

sage of uni8ersal spirituality took on an urgency relate( less to nationalist an(%o

re to global concerns. 'n both cases& these swa%is use( an essentialie( 8ision of

'n(ia topro%ote a particular %o(ern an( ecu%enical cause& an( to ignore their o

wn usage see%s %oreproble%atic to %e than to e/pose it for analytic re8iew.

*o(ern Yoga: Seeking 6ealth an( ?ree(o%

1ith ?oucault 3"+F5& ' see %o(ernity as an attitu(e& a society4s way of relating t

o the worl(.*ore speci<cally& ' (e<ne %o(ernity as a critical %o(e of engage%ent in the worl( - a proect; -that assu%es that unli%ite( progress is both possible

an( (esirable. As a way of approaching theworl(& %o(ernity (irects our attention

to certain key 8alues& a%ong the% free(o% an( health.,he pursuit of these 8alue

s occurs& especially in what ha8e been ter%e( late; or reJe/i8e;%o(ernities& b

etween two poles: the see%ingly oppose( tren(s towar( in(i8i(ualiation an(glo

baliation 3G. Beck et al. "++5. Such a 8ision of %o(ernity ac7uires its shape thro

ugh both thereJe/i8e proect of the in(i8i(ual self as well as the increasing ten(e

ncy towar( globaliation.$8er the course of the nineteenth an( twentieth centuri

es& that is& (uring the transition fro%early to late %o(ernity& concern with person

al health an( free(o% shifte( (irection& fro% ser8ingthe interests of the nation to

ful<lling the %ore uni8ersal or global agen(a which (e8elope( inthe after%ath of1orl( 1ar ''. 1hile these are concepts that are (ebate( in highest le8els ofphilos

ophical (iscourse 3what is a goo( life=5& for an or(inary person-inthe-worl(& health

an(free(o% %ust always be un(erstoo( in the conte/ts of local cultures an( co%

%unities. ,hepercei8e( bene<ts of %o(ernity - health& happiness& leisure 3Chatter

ee "+F:F5 - togetherco%prise the increase( stan(ar( of li8ing that is the e/pec

te( result of increase( pro(ucti8itythrough the wi(esprea( use of technology an(

the e/tensi8e control of hu%an an( other naturalresources. Such changes in the

stan(ar(s of co%fort were in large part the reason for Lan(hi4sopposition to %o(

ern technology& for he was ustly concerne( that such e/pectations

-"2-



of co%fort woul( lea( to increase( (esires an( (e%an(s& with no en( in sight an(

no way to paythe piper.2"

,he classical social theories of *ar/& 1eber& an( 0urkhei% (escribe( the (istincti

on betweentra(itional an( %o(ern societies& an( analye( the social& econo%ic&

an( political structures thatconstitute( the%. But this stark opposition fails to e/p

lain %uch of what we encounter in theconte%porary worl(& where %o(erniation

; proects ha8e been seen to both succee( an( failbeyon( the e/pectations of the

ir architects& lea8ing in their wake entirely (i@erent %o(ernitiesfor which the (ich

oto%y of the %o(ern an( the tra(itional has outli8e( its utility. 'nstea( ofe/a%ini

ng yoga fro% the perspecti8e of a tra(itional; set of i(eas an( practices being a

(opte( by%o(ern; societies& ' choose to 8iew the situation as one of alternati8e

%o(ernities& here seen as%any fracture(; an( perpetual proects 3Koshi 2"5 re

Jecting a range of (i@erent aspirations.As Hnauft 32: 225 has so elo7uently sta

te(& %o(ernity as a concept is fraught with(iOculties& especially in the singular.;

Yet one can go too far in localiing or regionaliing%o(ernity& losing sight of its sti

ll-rele8ant origins in 1estern notions of progress an((e8elop%ent. 'n this book& ' oin %any other anthropologists an( social theorists in trying toa8oi( the rei<catio

n of %o(ernity as a %onolithic force& while retaining the i%pact of itscollecti8e pa

st on the yearnings of people li8ing in the present an( future.

,his e@ort to refra%e what is %eant by %o(ernity; is crucial& because the curren

tly popular wayof un(erstan(ing the trans%ission of yoga as a unilineal traectory

fro% 3tra(itional5 'n(ia to the3%o(ern5 1est (oes not per%it the co%ple/ity of th

e pro(uction of yoga as an e/plicitlytransnational proect spanning the perio( sin

ce the "F+s& as (escribe( in this book. ,hese8arious %o(ernities& in 'n(ia as wel

l as across the 1est& ha8e e/change( 8isions of health an(free(o% with each oth

er& with the actual results in each case (epen(ent upon the particularconstellatio

n of participants an( histories for a gi8en locale o8er a speci<c perio( of ti%e.

6ealth has beco%e one of the pri%ary %arkers for (e8elop%ent i%ages of %o(er

nity& a way of%easuring the progress of (e8elop%ent progra%s. 1ithin the real%

of general health in(icatorsare %ore specialie( e8aluations& such as those base(

on the epi(e%iological transition theory of$%ran 3"+"5 an( others. *o(erniatio

n theorists consi(er causes of (eath& such as infectious(isease& chronic (isease&

or lifestyle; (iseases 36uss-Ash%ore et al. "++"5& in or(er to (eter%inehow %o

(ern; a country has beco%e.

6ealth an( free(o% therefore beca%e the sy%bolic cart by %eans of which yoga

coul( bebrought to new au(iences in the Gnite( States an( urope& as well as to those newlyreac7uainte( with it in 'n(ia. ?or the 1estern au(ience& the appeal lay

in the presentation of auni8ersal spiritual fra%ework that was non-e/clusi8e& sci

enti<c; 3testable through personalpractice5& an( see%ingly

-"-

22)2+5. 'n his a((ress to the citiens of Holkata upon returning fro% his <rst ou

rney to the1est& Di8ekanan(a aske( his fellow 'n(ians to oin his cause: we %ust

go out& e/change ourspirituality for anything they ha8e to gi8e us: for the %ar8el

s of the region of spirit we wille/change the %ar8els of the region of %atter; 3Di8

ekanan(a "++c:"+5.



Di8ekanan(a4s e%phasis on uni8ersal spirituality ha( %uch to (o with his interest

s in resol8ingine7uities at the national 3caste5 an( international 3colonialis%5 le8e

ls9 in a si%ilar fashion& thea(option of his approach by non-'n(ians in the ninetee

nth century see%s to ha8e been (ri8en toa great e/tent by concern for class ine7

uities an( social proble%s. But by the "+!s& after thethreat of global (estruction

%a(e possible by the ato%ic bo%b ha( been clearly un(erstoo(&Si8anan(a4s %essage of uni8ersal spirituality took on an urgency relate( less to nationalist an(%o

re to global concerns. 'n both cases& these swa%is use( an essentialie( 8ision of

'n(ia topro%ote a particular %o(ern an( ecu%enical cause& an( to ignore their o

wn usage see%s %oreproble%atic to %e than to e/pose it for analytic re8iew.

*o(ern Yoga: Seeking 6ealth an( ?ree(o%

1ith ?oucault 3"+F5& ' see %o(ernity as an attitu(e& a society4s way of relating t

o the worl(.*ore speci<cally& ' (e<ne %o(ernity as a critical %o(e of engage%en

t in the worl( - a proect; -that assu%es that unli%ite( progress is both possiblean( (esirable. As a way of approaching theworl(& %o(ernity (irects our attention

to certain key 8alues& a%ong the% free(o% an( health.,he pursuit of these 8alue

s occurs& especially in what ha8e been ter%e( late; or reJe/i8e;%o(ernities& b

etween two poles: the see%ingly oppose( tren(s towar( in(i8i(ualiation an(glo

baliation 3G. Beck et al. "++5. Such a 8ision of %o(ernity ac7uires its shape thro

ugh both thereJe/i8e proect of the in(i8i(ual self as well as the increasing ten(e

ncy towar( globaliation.$8er the course of the nineteenth an( twentieth centuri

es& that is& (uring the transition fro%early to late %o(ernity& concern with person

al health an( free(o% shifte( (irection& fro% ser8ingthe interests of the nation to

ful<lling the %ore uni8ersal or global agen(a which (e8elope( inthe after%ath of

1orl( 1ar ''. 1hile these are concepts that are (ebate( in highest le8els ofphilosophical (iscourse 3what is a goo( life=5& for an or(inary person-inthe-worl(& health

an(free(o% %ust always be un(erstoo( in the conte/ts of local cultures an( co%

%unities. ,hepercei8e( bene<ts of %o(ernity - health& happiness& leisure 3Chatter

ee "+F:F5 - togetherco%prise the increase( stan(ar( of li8ing that is the e/pec

te( result of increase( pro(ucti8itythrough the wi(esprea( use of technology an(

the e/tensi8e control of hu%an an( other naturalresources. Such changes in the

stan(ar(s of co%fort were in large part the reason for Lan(hi4sopposition to %o(

ern technology& for he was ustly concerne( that such e/pectations

-"2-

of co%fort woul( lea( to increase( (esires an( (e%an(s& with no en( in sight an(

no way to paythe piper.2"

,he classical social theories of *ar/& 1eber& an( 0urkhei% (escribe( the (istincti

on betweentra(itional an( %o(ern societies& an( analye( the social& econo%ic&

an( political structures thatconstitute( the%. But this stark opposition fails to e/p

lain %uch of what we encounter in theconte%porary worl(& where %o(erniation

; proects ha8e been seen to both succee( an( failbeyon( the e/pectations of the

ir architects& lea8ing in their wake entirely (i@erent %o(ernitiesfor which the (ich

oto%y of the %o(ern an( the tra(itional has outli8e( its utility. 'nstea( ofe/a%ini

ng yoga fro% the perspecti8e of a tra(itional; set of i(eas an( practices being a

(opte( by%o(ern; societies& ' choose to 8iew the situation as one of alternati8e%o(ernities& here seen as%any fracture(; an( perpetual proects 3Koshi 2"5 re



Jecting a range of (i@erent aspirations.As Hnauft 32: 225 has so elo7uently sta

te(& %o(ernity as a concept is fraught with(iOculties& especially in the singular.;

Yet one can go too far in localiing or regionaliing%o(ernity& losing sight of its sti

ll-rele8ant origins in 1estern notions of progress an((e8elop%ent. 'n this book& '

oin %any other anthropologists an( social theorists in trying toa8oi( the rei<catio

n of %o(ernity as a %onolithic force& while retaining the i%pact of itscollecti8e past on the yearnings of people li8ing in the present an( future.

,his e@ort to refra%e what is %eant by %o(ernity; is crucial& because the curren

tly popular wayof un(erstan(ing the trans%ission of yoga as a unilineal traectory

fro% 3tra(itional5 'n(ia to the3%o(ern5 1est (oes not per%it the co%ple/ity of th

e pro(uction of yoga as an e/plicitlytransnational proect spanning the perio( sin

ce the "F+s& as (escribe( in this book. ,hese8arious %o(ernities& in 'n(ia as wel

l as across the 1est& ha8e e/change( 8isions of health an(free(o% with each oth

er& with the actual results in each case (epen(ent upon the particularconstellatio

n of participants an( histories for a gi8en locale o8er a speci<c perio( of ti%e.

6ealth has beco%e one of the pri%ary %arkers for (e8elop%ent i%ages of %o(ernity& a way of%easuring the progress of (e8elop%ent progra%s. 1ithin the real%

of general health in(icatorsare %ore specialie( e8aluations& such as those base(

on the epi(e%iological transition theory of$%ran 3"+"5 an( others. *o(erniatio

n theorists consi(er causes of (eath& such as infectious(isease& chronic (isease&

or lifestyle; (iseases 36uss-Ash%ore et al. "++"5& in or(er to (eter%inehow %o

(ern; a country has beco%e.

6ealth an( free(o% therefore beca%e the sy%bolic cart by %eans of which yoga

coul( bebrought to new au(iences in the Gnite( States an( urope& as well as to t

hose newlyreac7uainte( with it in 'n(ia. ?or the 1estern au(ience& the appeal lay

in the presentation of auni8ersal spiritual fra%ework that was non-e/clusi8e& scienti<c; 3testable through personalpractice5& an( see%ingly

-"-

uni8ersal. ?or 'n(ians& yoga was e%ble%atic of a re8ere( precolonial past9 it o@er

e( not onlyi(eas an( practices& but also heroes an( success stories& that coul( be

applie( to the risingnationalist proect. A((itionally& yoga o@ere( the kin( of phys

ical training that coul( pro8i(e the%eans to stan( tall. As Di8ekanan(a 3"++c5 p

ointe( out& political free(o% (epen(s on %oralfortitu(e& or the backbone; to sta

n( tall. As a subugate( population& colonial 'n(ia ha( lost bothits physical an( its

%oral strength& an( yoga - rather that British physical training was the ticketto in

(epen(ence. Yoga therefore o@ere( both a way of being in the worl( an( a syste

% ofpractices. #epro(uce( by in(i8i(ual actors& yoga has also been perpetuate(

by %eans of writtenan( photographic recor(s. 't pro8i(es one 8ery goo( %etho( f

or achie8ing the goal of self-(e8elop%ent in a global worl(. ,hrough yoga& the in(

i8i(ual atte%pts to take charge of bothbo(y an( consciousness& si%ultaneously f

ocusing the %in( an( Je/ing the bo(y.

"

3...5

?ollow the Yellow Brick #oa(



*arcus 3"++!5 points out that %ulti-site ethnography is (esigne( aroun( chains&

paths& threa(s&conunctions& or u/tapositions of locations in which the ethnograp

her establishes so%e for% oJiteral& physical presence& with an e/plicit& posite( lo

gic of association or connection a%ong sitesthat in fact (e<nes the argu%ent of t

he ethnography; 3*arcus "++!:"!5. 6e suggests se8eralpossible ways to constr

uct these chains of locations& inclu(ing following people& things&%etaphors& plotsIstories& li8es& an( conJicts. ,o this list ' woul( a(( one %ore: follow thepractice.

1hile ' (i( in(ee( follow so%e in(i8i(ual people fro% site to site& %y e@ort toun(

erstan( yoga in its transnational conte/t has largely been a process of following t

he historyan( social life of a set of practices& like the #ishikesh #eihe& con8eye( s

o%eti%es by people&so%eti%es by books& pa%phlets or other printe( te/ts& an( s

o%eti%es by %o8ing i%ages like8i(eo or tele8ision. Gn(erstan(ing how yoga pra

ctices <t into the li8es of people 3so%eti%es thesa%e an( so%eti%es (i@erent on

es5 in (isparate locales allows us& as Appa(urai 3"+FFa5suggests& to blur the boun

(aries between places an( see the fa%ily rese%blances as well as the(istincti8e f

eatures which cross-cut cultures. 'n this way& we can begin to see how %ulti-

localethnography can help anthropology a8oi( bin(ing particular cultural for%s toparticular peoplesan( places. #ather than seeing #ishikesh as the place for yoga

;&2 we see people in8ol8e( withpractices that together co%prise their li8e( e/per

ience 3$ts "++5 in particular places9 when thepeople %o8e to (i@erent places& th

eir practices %ay change& or they %ay not9 if they stay in onelocale& the sa%e %a

y be true. By highlighting the e@ects of translocally constitute( practices onpeopl

e li8ing in (isparate geographical spaces& we gain new insights on how to obser8e

an(un(erstan( peoples an( cultures as Jui( %anifestations of speci<c historical c

on<gurationswhich %ay span not only te%poral& but also spatial (i%ensions. See

n in this light& it beco%esincreasingly (iOcult to relegate people to the status of i

ncarcerate( nati8es boun( to their;places by the authenticity of local cultural fo

r%s.

San ?rancisco& California ) 0ece%ber& "++2

,he Si8anan(a Yoga De(anta 3SYD5 Center of San ?rancisco& a con8erte( apart%e

nt

buil(ing turne( ashra%& is locate( near the ca%pus of Gni8ersity of California& Sa

n

?rancisco 3GCS?5& at the e(ge of the 6aight-Ashbury (istrict that was %a(e fa%ou

s

by the Jower chil(ren of the "+s. ' was 8isiting the center on %y way back to%y

te%porary ho%e in Switerlan(& after ha8ing spent %ost of the pre8ious year in '

n(ia.

-+-

,he e8ent that was taking place on this particular (ay was an $pen 6ouse& a typi

cal

pro%otional strategy use( by all of the SYD centers worl(wi(e to attract new

custo%ers. ?ree foo(& 8i(eos& an( yoga (e%onstration classes are the %ainstays

of these progra%s. Books an( tapes %ay also be purchase(& an( pay%ent of registr



a-

tion fees for classes arrange(. ,he swa%i in charge at the San ?rancisco center is

a Dietna%ese-?rench wo%an with a 8ery aggressi8e personal style. 0uring %y <r

st

8isit to the San ?rancisco center& in "++& ' ha( seen no South Asian faces a%ong

the %any $pen 6ouse 8isitors& an( ha( in7uire( if 'n(ians& who represent a substan-

tial portion of the San ?rancisco Bay area population& e8er participate( in their

progra%s. ,he swa%i on (uty answere( that there were only rarely 'n(ian partici-

pants& an( o@ere( the e/planation 3ethnocentric& an( certainly not representati8e

of

the tolerance put forwar( in the 0>S literature5 that they ust weren4t intereste(

in

this kin( of har( workQ; A few years later& at the ti%e of %y secon( 8isit& the cent

er

was still a(8ertising their progra%s in the Yoga an( 6ealth; section of 'n(ia Curr

ents&the local %againe of the Bay area South Asian co%%unity& an( there were still 8

ery

few 'n(ians in8ol8e( in the SYD center progra%s.

/porting Yoga: 'n(ian an( 1estern Au(iences

A (i@erent perspecti8e on why 6in(u 'n(ians in San ?rancisco %ight be less inter

este( in takinghatha yoga classes than 1esterners& o@ere( by a nu%ber of %y (i

scussants in #ishikesh butechoing the senti%ents of Di8ekanan(a " years befo

re& is base( on te%pera%ent. Se8eralco%%ents %a(e by 'n(ians (uring inter8iews& as well as a nu%ber of others that croppe( up incasual con8ersations& relate(

to the type of yoga that woul( attract (i@erent kin(s of people.People sai( that

uropeans an( A%ericans were %ore attracte( to hatha yoga than 'n(iansbecause

they ha( %ore raasic te%per%ents& while they 8iewe( 'n(ians as ha8ing %ore ta

%asicnatures. ,his co%%ent refers to the theory of the gunas& or 7ualities of %at

ter& which co%priseall substances inclu(ing hu%ans. ,he three gunas are ta%as 3

hea8iness& inertia& obstruction5&raas 3energy& intenseness& %o8e%ent5& an( satt8

a 3intelligence& luci(ity& cal%ness5. All %atteris co%prise( of the gunas in 8aryin

g (egrees& an( health is in part a function of balancing out thethree gunas throug

h appropriate foo( consu%ption. ,his is the rationale gi8en by %any people&fro%

0r. Halwar& to the %anager of the hotel where ' li8e( in #ishikesh& to the swa%i incharge ofthe (ining hall at the 0>S& for the %ini%al use of spices in %uch #ishike

sh restaurant an(ashra% cooking& because spices& as well as certain foo(s like on

ion& are not consi(ere( satt8ic&that is& not con(uci8e to beco%ing a balance(& spi

ritually pure in(i8i(ual.

,he theory of the gunas <gures pro%inently in i(eas about appropriate yoga prac

tice. ,herationale assu%e( by the in(i8i(uals ' spoke with concerning 1est-

-+-

erners4 attraction to hatha yoga practice was that they were too hyperacti8e an(

ner8ous& an(nee(e( the physical cal%ing e@ects of hatha yoga to use up their e/cess energy an( allow their%in(s to beco%e still& a reference to the secon( apho



ris% of Patanali4s Yoga Sutras: Yoga is thecessation of the turnings of thought.;

,he people who sai( that this was the reason that so %any1esterners were attra

cte( to the practice of hatha yoga use( the sa%e reasoning to suggest whyit see

%e( to the% that fewer 'n(ians were intereste( in the practice of hatha yoga: be

cause theywere alrea(y slow-%o8ing an( (i(n4t nee( that kin( of cal%ing& but rat

her they nee(e( to rallyan( beco%e %ore acti8e. A parallel here can be foun( inDi8ekanan(a4s %oti8ational speeches in'n(ia& upon his return fro% the 1est. Spe

aking to young au(iences& he aske(&

1hat (i( ' learn in the 1estR = ,here& ' saw that insi(e the national hearts of bot

h

urope an( A%erica& resi(es the tre%en(ous power of %en4s faith in the%sel8es.

An

nglish boy will tell you - ' a% an nglish%an& an( ' can (o anything.; ,he A%eri

can

boy will tell you the sa%e thing& an( so will any uropean boy. Can our boys say t

hesa%e thing here= No& nor e8en the boys4 fathers. 1e ha8e lost faith in oursel8es

R it

is necessary to rouse up the hearts of %en& to show the% the glory of their souls.

3Di8ekanan(a "++c:"5

As %ore an( %ore e/patriate 'n(ians ha8e beco%e aware of the a8ailability of or

ganiations likethe 0>S an( the Si8anan(a Yoga De(anta centers in the 1est& how

e8er& an( %ore an( %ore'n(ian citiens tra8el abroa(& the %i/ing between nati8

e; an( foreign; 8isitors has increase(.$ne of the 8isitors ' spent ti%e with in #ish

ikesh was a uni8ersity stu(ent na%e( #a%esh& whoha( grown up in Lene8a& Swit

erlan(& an( only in the past few years starte( to rea( about yogaan( try to (e8e

lop his own practice. 6e ca%e to 'n(ia looking for what he ter%e( authentic;yog

a an( felt strongly that the 0>S ashra% pro8i(e( this co%%o(ity.

*o8ing $ut fro% the Center

As we ha8e seen& #ishikesh (raws an international clientele that (e<es (escriptio

n as oneparticular boun(e( cultural tra(ition. ?irst a pilgri%age center an( now al

so a hub for6i%alayan a(8enture tra8el& #ishikesh (e<nes itself in ter%s of both i

ts %ythology - as anessential 6in(u locale - as well as its econo%y. #ishikesh is a

%arket town that (raws in localbuyers for househol( goo(s an( cos%opolitans fro

% elsewhere in 'n(ia an( aroun( the globewho want to share in its proclai%e( na

tural an( spiritual splen(or. Although %any people 8isitthis town& %ost e8entually

return ho%e. $ne e@ect that the 0>S has ha( on the (yna%ics of'n(ia4s interactio

ns with the rest of the worl( (eri8es fro% its near-%issionary eal in sen(ingyoun

g yoga teachers out fro% #ishikesh to colonie the 1est. ,his

-+!-

globaliing process is i%portant for un(erstan(ing the e8er-increasing %arket for

yoga in both'n(ia an( elsewhere. ,he 0>S (isciples who tra8ele( out of 'n(ia an(

set up yoga schools inurope an( North A%erica 3as well as Africa& Australia& an(

other parts of Asia& though these arebeyon( the scope of this research5 were bringing what %ight be calle( authentic; 3local&situate(& non-%echanically repro(uci



ble5 yoga to new au(iences. But this authentic pro(uct was&as we ha8e seen in C

hapter 2& itself (e8elope( out of the transnational Jows of people an( i(easthat b

egan with Di8ekanan(a in the late nineteenth century. 'n keeping with 6anner4s 3

"++25notion of cultural creoliation& ' see yoga4s transfor%ation as a process of %

utual interacti8epractice: we can take a snapshot of the trans%ission of yoga pra

ctices at any ti%e& but the %otionne8er ceases. *ore i%portantly& the perceptionof that process (i@ers (epen(ing on the obser8er.,his %ight be ol( hat in ter%s o

f theory& but it is i%portant to re%e%ber when trying to e/plainthe concrete fact

that a speci<c set of i(eas an( practices calle( yoga has been constructe( anewi

n a transnational conte/t& beco%ing pre8alent in parts of the worl( 7uite far fro%

where itstarte(& as well as e/periencing a renaissance in 'n(ia.

'n its global %anifestations& we can 8iew yoga in a 8ariety of ways: as i(eology& p

ractice& lifestyle&%etaphor& co%%o(ity& an( generator of a ,urnerian e%oti8e co

%%unitas which has co%e tosubstitute for the sort of physically groun(e( co%%

unal co-presence now a8ailable onlyspora(ically& <lling in the interstices of %o(er

n cos%opolitan li8es. ,he 7uest for co%%unitas& asense of oneness without regar( for socially i%pose( structural (i@erence 3D. ,urner"+FM"++5& while certainly

a uni8ersal spiritual i(eal that is in %any cases contra(icte( byeasily obser8able

e%pirical facts; 38an (er Deer "+F+b:5& can be 8iewe( at a nu%ber of(i@erent l

e8els in relation to other kin(s of %ore %aterial globaliing processes %easure( b

yconsu%ption patterns an( the like.

*ost of the non-'n(ian 8isitors to #ishikesh with who% ' spoke ha( learne( about

this particularplace 3an( about yoga %ore generally5& through both the written wo

r(& in tra8el gui(es an(through the writings of Si8anan(a an( others& as well as b

y wor( of %outh. ?or %ost of the'n(ian 8isitors& #ishikesh4s fa%e as a pilgri%age

(estination (eri8e( e/plicitly fro% its culturally8ali(ate( status as a place of grea

t spiritual power& an( therefore an i(eal place to learn yoga.0espite the anti7uity

of its %ythical referents& howe8er& touris% an( settle%ent in #ishikesh areboth 7

uite recent pheno%ena& as was (iscusse( in Chapter 2.

3...5

!

Yoga: A Llobal Positioning Syste%

Eurich& Switerlan( ) Kune& "++

,he $H$ 3ecological5 ?air is a kin( of *ecca for en8iron%entally conscious Swiss

.

,he annual tra(e show for ecological li8ing (raws huge crow(s not only of profes-

sionals& but consu%ers fro% all walks of life. *any of the booths pro8i(e infor%ati

on

on speci<c buil(ing %aterials or techni7ues& while others o@er sa%ples of organic

foo( or cos%etics& or show 8i(eos relating to solar energy or a(8enture sports. Bu

t

there are also a 8ariety of (i@erent kin(s of pro(ucts sol( which are thought to be

of



interest to the eco-consu%ers: gar(ening tools& out(oor sport specialties& an(

books. 1hen ' in7uire( about the rationale for (e8oting at least half of the in8ent

ory

to books on yoga& Een& Nati8e A%erican religion& an( a host of other spiritual

tra(itions& the proprietor of a specialie( ecology bookstore who ha( brought nea

rlythe entire store contents to $H$ tol( %e that they si%ply go together.; She ga

8e

%e a look which clearly sai( that she thought ' was cray& stupi(& or both. ,he

%ission state%ent for the store presents the co%bine( o@ering of en8iron%ental

an(

spiritual infor%ation als Ausweg (er globalen Hrise&; the way out of the global cr

isis&

the path to free(o%. ,heir book catalog gi8es a list of the topics they co8er:

consciousness& e8olution& wo%en& ho%eopathy& A%erican 'n(ians& %ysticis%&

nature& ecology& per%aculture& solar energy& en8iron%ent& yoga& an( Een. ast a

n(1est& %aterial an( spiritual& all pro8i(e a piece of the answer. ,he %essage& thou

gh

absolutely New Age an( characteristically late %o(ern& is one with which Di8ekan

-

an(a woul( ha8e been co%pletely co%fortable.

Yoga an( 6ealth: ?ro% the Personal to the Planetary

'n this chapter& ' consi(er how the propagation of yoga in 'n(ia& urope& an( Nort

h A%erica o8erthe past century represents one e/a%ple of a broa(er e@ort& pri%arily by e(ucate(& %i((le-classpeople& to pro%ote an alternati8e 8ision of %o(ern

ity. ,his alternati8e can be characterie( by itse@orts to transcen( a nu%ber of (i

choto%ies that ha8e persiste( since the nlighten%ent. 't(eri8es fro% a percei8e

( nee( for a correcti8e to the course of %o(ernity& rather than anaban(oning of

%o(ernity altogether. Yoga as rein8ente( through the (iscourses of the 'n(iansDi8

ekanan(a an( Si8anan(a& their (isciples& an( their critics both at ho%e

-""!-

an( abroa(& pro8i(es a %etho(ology for re%aking the worl( accor(ing to a progr

essi8e utopian8ision that gi8es pri%acy to %aintaining health an( free(o% within

a global co%%unity.

$8er the past century& %ass-(istribute( print %e(ia& an( %ore recently electronic

%e(ia& ha8eincreasingly pro%ote( a 8ariety of techni7ues for i%pro8ing or %aint

aining health in the face ofthe highly stressful (e%an(s of %o(ern li8ing. $ne of

%o(ernity4s %ost 8aluable co%%o(ities ishealth& but as '48e note(& the concept o

f health itself has been changing& e8en as its i%portancehas re%aine( constant 3

6. Lreen "+F5. 6ealth has increasingly co%e to be seen as a culturalproble% wh

ich can only be sol8e( by an appeal to nature. ,his is not to say that nature cure

s;were una8ailable in the nineteenth century - Ascona&" an alternati8e colony in s

outhernSwiterlan(& was only one of %any places to pro%ote such treat%ents - b

ut they were generallysupporte( only by that sector of the e(ucate( %i((le classes who felt %ost keenly that urbanci8iliation was to bla%e for their ills.



,he %aority of people in North A%erica an( urope& as well as the rest of the wo

rl(& worrie(about the rapi( sprea( of infectious (isease& not the slow %alaise of n

eurasthenia. But gra(ually&as the age of infectious (isease was seen to pass in th

e 1est& attention focuse( on chronic illnessan( its origins in the (iet an( lifestyle

of %o(ern urban co%%unities 3$%ran "+"5. Aroun( theworl(& the nineteenth ce

ntury brought i%pro8e%ents in sanitary con(itions& followe( 1orl( 1ar'' by the a8ailability of antibiotics an( 8accinations& yiel(ing a stea(y (ecrease in infectious

(isease at least a%ong the %ore auent sectors of society. 0uring the sa%e ti%e

perio(&howe8er& an increase in chronic& often (iet an( stress-relate(& con(itions o

ccurre( in those sa%esectors.

1hile e8eryone is concerne( with re(ucing stress& the e/planations for why yoga

is useful as astress-re(ucing& <tness-increasing strategy (i@er in 'n(ia an( the 1e

st. ,he A%erican an(Ler%an %againes e%phasie the uni<cation of bo(y an(

%in( as a way to gain control o8erstress& an( to rela/9 for 1esterners& belief in th

e nee( to integrate the self is essential for relie8ingthe an/iety an( tension (e%a

n(e( by %ultifacte( %o(ern life. 'n 'n(ian presentations& howe8er&the focus ten(s to be on the scienti<c proof that yoga4s bo(ily techni7ues will %aintain physical

health an( eli%inate the physiological stress response.2

' want to e/plore two angles in or(er to un(erstan( the i%portance of yoga in rel

ation to the8alues of health an( free(o%. ,he <rst is to a((ress the ways that %a

ss %e(ia constitute yoga asa (esirable health %aintenance practice by capitaliin

g on the pro%otion of such classic&essentialiing (ichoto%ies as bo(yI%in( an( t

he spiritual astI%aterial 1est. ,he bene<tsascribe( to yoga are pri%arily stress

relief& as a strategy for coping with %o(ern life; byconnecting; bo(y an( %in(

to create a uni<e( 3thus stronger5 person. 'n the 1est& yoga is oftenpresente( as

a natural; way to i%pro8e health an( <tness& while in 'n(ia& its link with ancient

-""-

6in(u culture ten(s to be the pri%ary focus. ,he secon( angle of approach %o8e

s fro% thepersonal to the planetary le8el in an e@ort to un(erstan( how the pract

ice of yoga by in(i8i(ualshas been pro%ote( as a tool for i%pro8ing not only their

own health& but also the status of theentire arth.Such a clai% of i(enti<cation be

tween the spiritual practices of the in(i8i(ual an(the en8iron%ental health of the

worl( was %a(e 7uite e/plicitly by the wo%an at the $H$ ?air&7uote( at the beg

inning of this chapter9 it is supporte( by the use of %ass %e(ia to pro8i(einfor%a

tion& rally action& an( foster co%%unity. $ne rationale for this linkage between th

ein(i8i(ual person an( the planet can be foun( in ,urner4s assertion of the signi<cance of thehu%an bo(y as the arena of social conJicts an( repressi8e controls&

as well as so%e of the %ostliberating aspects of conte%porary culture an( social

life; 3B.S. ,urner "++:25. ,urner suggeststhat the e%phasis on the %o(ern in(i8

i(ual4s ability to pro(uce hi%Iherself as a particular kin(of bo(y an( self has& ironi

cally& unleashe( a new collecti8e politics of i(entity& an( an e7uallycollecti8e pro

ection of in(i8i(ual bo(ily concerns in the for% of en8iron%entalist an( 4green4%

o8e%ents; 3ibi(.5. >ikewise& the use of health-relate( %etaphors& an( particularly

the notion oe/ibility& was stresse( by Lregory Bateson as early as the "+s 3B

ateson 2 M"+25.Yogaappeals to (i@erent national au(iences for (i@erent rea

sons. 1hile nearly all of the printpresentations ' e8aluate(& whether fro% 'n(ian&

Ler%an& or A%erican sources& pro%ote yoga asan anti(ote to the stress of %o(ern li8ing& other selling points; (escribe yoga as a techni7ue forstrengthening nati



onal i(entity9 authenticating 3an( %o(erniing5 tra(itional knowle(ge throughscie

nti<cally 8ali(ate( health research an( practice9 creating co%%unity9 enhancing

personal(e8elop%ent through control of the bo(y an( %in(9 or reco8ering %ythic

al ro%anticie( naturalorigins& thereby un(oing the (a%ages (one to person an(

planet by centuries of following thewrong path&; that is& the path of urban ci8ili

ation.Yoga is one of those techni7ues (u corps3*auss "+M"+5 that can be use( to (e8elop the self. Yoga practice begins with the%anage%ent of the in(i8i(ua

l bo(y& while the ecology %o8e%ent takes as its focus the%anage%ent of the pla

net. Popular representations of both yoga an( the ecology %o8e%ent usethe lang

uage of health an( illness& in both literal an( %etaphorical %o(es& to (escribe the

con(ition of their respecti8e subects& whether person or planet. Both the popular

representationof yoga an( the ecology %o8e%ent profess a holistic approach whi

ch refuses to accept(ichoto%ous eitherIor structures - at least in theory. ,he pri%

ary features the proects of ecologyan( yoga ha8e in co%%on are the following:

"

.

Gni8ersality& (e<ne( as inclusi8ity rather than insistence on a single uni8ersal (

og%a& the%aking of a category large enough to enco%pass any opposition )-""-

as Ashis Nan(y 3"+FF:++5 has sai(& synthesis is a greater ene%y of thesis than

antithesis& as itsubsu%es rather than %erely (enying.

2

.

An e%phasis on spirituality rather than religion& %eaning that senti%ent which

un(erlies allreligious acti8ity& but is not content or conte/t boun(.

.

An e/plicit link between the le8el of the person an( that of whole planet or e8en

the cos%os.

.

A pra/is orientation re7uiring people to practice what they preach& or at least what they rea(.

Notably& both ten( to gi8e %ore attention to the pro%otion of agen(as which (o

not necessarilyrespect the bor(ers of nation-states& but rather e%phasie the nee

(s of local co%%unities& largertransnational regions 3the rainforest;5& or the worl

( as a whole 3global cli%ate change& worl(peace5. By in8oking such %etaphorical

i(eals as har%ony& health& an( balance& proponents ofsuch personal practiceorien

te( i(eologies as yoga an( ecology work to reconceptualie the publicsphere& cre

ating continuity fro% personal to global spheres of action. ?ollowing the a(8icepr

escribe( by econo%ist .?. Schu%acher 3"++5 in his Bu((hist-inspire( ecology %

anifestoS%all 's Beautiful - Let your own house in or(er an( the rest will follow;- both see the actionsof in(i8i(uals as ha8ing a signi<cant potential to a@ect the

globalen Hrise; which so worrie( theecology bookstore proprietor in Switerlan( (

escribe( at the beginning of this chapter.

$ne way to concei8e the relationship between yoga an( the ecology %o8e%ent i

s to subsu%ethe% both un(er the hea(ing of the New Age&; a ter% ' prefer to a

8oi( because it (eJectsattention fro% the %ore speci<c historical an( geographic

al argu%ent. 't is appropriate to bringit up here& howe8er& in or(er to show how th

e practice of yoga has been locate( within the 8ariousregionalInational tra(itions&

an( why these particular places were so recepti8e. ,he New Age& as%any ha8e a

bly shown 3Albanese "+9 Bra%well "+F+9 *. Lreen "++29 6eelas "++5& has ahistory stretching back to the late eighteenth century with regar( to continuity of k



ey principlesof self-actualiation& healing& connection with self an( nature& free(o

%& an( a %etho(ology forachie8ing all of the abo8e. At 8arious ti%es an( places&

but %ost intensi8ely at the en(s of%illennia 3*. Lreen "++25& in(i8i(uals ha8e pic

ke( up an( wo8en together threa(s of i(eologyan( practice fro% a8ailable te/ts

an( tra(itions to support these principles. ,he (e8elop%ent ofyoga represents on

e such threa(& itself spun of %any (i@erent stran(s. ,he lines of Di8ekanan(aan(Si8anan(a represent only a s%all portion of the yoga tra(ition& but they are goo

( to thinkwith; nonetheless& pro8i(ing an e/ten(e( e/a%ple which is both histori

cally an( transnationallysigni<cant because of the uses to which it has been put b

y people fro% 'n(ia& Ler%any& theGnite( States& an( elsewhere o8er the past cen

tury.

-""F-

Central to all of these New Age i(eologies& whene8er they ha8e occurre(& has bee

n the creation ofco%%unity in one for% or another& whether a re%ote co%%une l

ike Ascona& or a scattere(network of associations like that of Si8anan(a& or a web

site like the Llobal co-8illage Networksupporte( by the Laia ,rust 3http:I Igen.eco8illage.orgI59 each of these intentional co%%unities&where8er it falls on the scal

e of per%anence to ephe%eral associations& can be stu(ie( as a%atri/& a place w

here the traectories of %ultiple 8ectors intersect for a ti%e. ,he power of %ass%

e(ia to create connections has been 8ital to the sustaine( e/istence of these co%

%unities./ten(ing An(erson4s 3"+F5 argu%ent for the 8alue of print capitalis% i

n creating national an(other supra-local i%agine( co%%unities& we can see that

new types of %e(ia representationsallow for both the repro(uction of core 8alues

or practices& as well as the tailoring of these coresto the histories an( (esires of p

articular au(iences. ,he increase( spee(& 8olu%e& an(%ulti%e(ia capacities of n

ew co%%unications technologies like co%puter networks an( 8i(eocassettes allo

w for an in<nite 8ariety of such representations& all co%peting for %arket share a

n(thus atte%pting to balance uni8ersally acceptable %essages with speci<c an(

uni7ue sellingpoints.

$ne factor that facilitate( the propagation of yoga throughout the worl( was the

e/istence of anincreasingly literate& nglish-speaking %i((le class in North A%eri

ca& Britain& an( the colonies&inclu(ing 'n(ia& (uring the latter part of the nineteent

h century. As we saw in Chapter 2& thepress co8erage of the Parlia%ent of the 1o

rl(4s #eligions in Chicago in "F+ was instru%ental in%aking Di8ekanan(a4s na%

e an( %ission known& not only in the 1est& but also in 'n(ia. ,he useof nglish as

a lingua franca per%itte( a transnational au(ience which coul( ser8e as a 8angu

ar(for interest in their respecti8e regional speech co%%unities& an( therefore catalye the process oftranslation an( wi(er (istribution of the 8arious %aterials. As

literacy e/pan(e(& the %arket forine/pensi8e pa%phlets on subects of health& pr

osperity an( general self-(e8elop%ent alsoincrease(& an( it was a%ong the targ

et au(ience; for these booklets that Di8ekanan(a an( hisyoga practices beca%e

known 3see Burke "+F& "+F5.

Yoga #e-$riente(

,he 'n(ian colonial e/perience create( languages an( con(itions for the interacti

on of the 'n(ianpublic with the 1est& an( the trans%ission an( reception of yogastrongly reJects this conte/t of(o%ination. Di8ekanan(a4s transnational pro(uctio



n of an all-enco%passing& uni8ersalist yogasyste% that coul( see%ingly e/pan( t

o inclu(e e8ery religious an( spiritual tra(ition in theworl(& ha( the a((e( bonus

of (ual rati<cation by the nor%s of science an( the authority ofhistory. As such& t

his syste% of yoga pro8i(e( both 1esterners an( 'n(ians with a tool forreclai%in

g

-""+-

personal control against otherwise relentless force of social an(Ior political (o%in

ation. 'n thecase of the 1esterners& yoga pro8i(e( an anti(ote to the stresses of

%o(ern& urban& in(ustriallife9 for elite 'n(ians& yoga o@ere( an in(igenous strateg

y for resisting colonial institutions an(practices.

' use the plural& languages&; to in(icate the use not only of nglish& but also that

ofnlighten%ent science& a speech co%%unity unto itself. Di8ekanan(a presente(

yoga as ascience& co%parable to the sciences of the %o(ern 1est& such as astron

o%y an( che%istry. ,hescience of #aa-Yoga proposes to put before hu%anity a

practical an( scienti<cally worke( out%etho(&; which he clai%e( woul( lea( thepractitioner to the uni8ersal truth of uni8ersal unity&not by relying on belief or %e

re knowle(ge& but rather on practical knowle(ge& that is&obser8ation an( e/perie

nce 3Di8ekanan(a "++b:!)5. Di8ekanan(a began this tren( of usingscience; to

8ali(ate yoga as philosophy an( practice. Presentations of yoga in 'n(ian %e(iato

(ay also ten( towar( use of 1estern i(eas of science; to e/plain the 8alue of yo

ga& as well as toin(icate the fact that the 1estern scienti<c rationale post(ates th

e original 'n(ian syste%. ,hethe%e of scienti<c 8ali(ation can be (irecte( towar(

'n(ian au(iences& as a way of establishingcre(ibility by showing that yoga is not s

i%ply tra(itional; an( therefore irrational& but has theforce of both ti%e an( rati

onality behin( it. 'n this way& science can be use( to present yoga to1estern au(i

ences& showing that the 1estern scientists ha8e a great (eal to learn fro% 'n(ia4stra(itions.

'n a colu%n for 'n(ia Perspecti8es& publishe( by the *inistry of /ternal A@airs& N

ew 0elhi& an((istribute( at 'n(ian e%bassies an( consulates worl(wi(e& Yash Pal

co%%ents that Mlongbefore the %o(ern scientists (isco8ere( the en(ocrine syst

e%& the yogis knew about the e/istenceof certain secretions which were responsi

ble for the regulation of 8arious %ental an( physicalfunctions of the %an. ,he sec

retions ha8e been re(isco8ere( by %o(ern scientists an( are ter%e(as 6or%ones

; 3'n(ia Perspecti8es& August "++25. Yoga pro8i(es conte%porary 'n(ians with aw

ay of integrating the %o(ern goals of health an( <tness geare( towar( physical

%anifestationof %oral an( econo%ic success& for%ulate( largely un(er the con(ition of colonialis% asprotestant ethics& capitalist spirits& an( upright bo(ies& with t

he tra(itional; 6in(u pursuit of%oksha or free(o% in the sense of release fro%

worl(ly bon(s9 in the spirit of the Bhaga8a(Lita& an( as part of (har%a 3(uty5 on

e can act without in8ol8e%ent& thereby e@ecting change inthe worl( without bein

g a@ecte( by it.

As the Yash Pal 7uotation suggests& not only has science; re(isco8ere( the basic

truths known byyogis& but also 'n(ia has reclai%e( yoga. 'n the nglishlanguage

%againe $ur 6ealth: Nutritionan( n8iron%ent 3publishe( in 0elhi5& a regular co

lu%n entitle( Yoga an( *o(ern >ife; by 0r.Ait *istry proclai%s that Mscience h

as pro8e( that unless we i%pro8e our %in(s& we cannoti%pro8e our bo(ies& as the %in( is the seat of a nu%ber of (iseases. 6ence a co%%it%ent



-"2-

to a better life beco%es essential in %o(ern ti%es. 't is essential that we ha8e co

ntrol o8erunpleasant e%otions& which buil( up stress. ,his can be achie8e( by co

%%itting to the Yoga wayof life R; 3$ur 6ealth& Septe%ber-$ctober "++2: "55. '

n this approach& references to %ystical orspiritual un(erstan(ings& that is& un(ers

tan(ings which are non-rational in the Cartesian sense&are (is%isse( out of han(.

A kin( of cogniti8e (issonance is create( in the e@orts to %aintainboth 1estern 3

Cartesian5 an( 6in(u un(erstan(ings of yoga: the i(ea of e%bo(ie( knowle(ge&k

nowle(ge obtaine( through bo(ily e/perience& is in so%e way contrary to& or une

/plaine( by&rational; %o(els base( on separation of subect an( obect - yet the

%aterial or concretee/perience of yoga practice see%s to o@er a way aroun( un(

erstan(ings of yoga as belief in the%ysterious astern religious syste% known as

6in(uis%. ?or this reason& 0r. *istry goes on tosay that

't is high ti%e an in(i8i(ual realies what is a8ailable through %o(ern science an(

what

is lacking. 1hat is urgently nee(e( at present is a re-thinking an( re-orientation ofYoga

as an integral process of e(ucation an( a way of life. 't is wrong to suppose that h

ealth

is only physical& as prescribe( by physicians& or only %ental& to be seen to only b

y

psychiatrists& or only spiritual as thought by the sages. 't is wi(ely known that tot

al

health is the only real health& which is not only physical& but also %ental an( spiri

tual.

3$ur 6ealth& Septe%ber-$ctober "++2: ")"!5

0r. *istry is neither anti-science nor anti-%o(ern& but he (oes subscribe to the us

e of yoga as aholistic strategy for o8erco%ing the (iOculties create( by %o(ern li

fe. Such an orientation callsto %in( the A%erican interest in %e(ical syste%s ba

se( on a har%onial Msic interpretation ofthe relationship between the physical an

( %etaphysical spheres of life; 3?uller "+F+:F5&characteristic of the late nineteent

h century as well as the conte%porary New Age philosophy.

Another 'n(ian health %againe& ?itnesse: A Co%plete Lui(e for a 6ealthy >ifesty

le& begins anarticle on yoga with the following (iatribe:

Yoga. Lo(& ust say the wor( an( see what i%ages co%e Jashing through the %in

(.

Contortions. ?asting. Ca8es. Austerity. 0iscipline. Purity. Serpents. nlighten%ent.

0etach%ent. *antras. $bser8ances. No won(er not %any <n( the ti%eQ Li8en th

e

8alues of the %o(ern age& yoga (oes not see% to <t. *isconception. Li8en the 8a

lues

of the %o(ern age& yoga is right on ti%e 3?itnesse Annual "++2: p. 25

,he article goes on to suggest that yoga is a goo( way to ease the stress of %o(e

rn li8ing. A fewpages later& an /ecuti8e >ifestyle; pro<le appears& showing a yo

ung %anufacturing e/ecuti8e ina 8ariety of yoga poses 3ibi(.: 5& who attests th

at yoga helps hi% concentrate& keeps hi%physically <t& an( eli%inates stress fro



% his business an( personal life. ,his young e/ecuti8e isthe picture of capitalist s

uccess& yet he is portraye( not in a business suit but in a %e(itati8epose. 6e is

-"2"-

presente( as a %o(el for e/actly the kin( of synthesis suggeste( by Di8ekanan(a

one hun(re(years before - the %aterial; wealth of the 1est co%bine( with the spiritual; wealth of 'n(ia.

,hese i%ages& then an( now& appeal to a particular seg%ent of 'n(ian society: th

e e(ucate(& butso%ewhat conser8ati8e& %i((le classes who are looking for a %i(

(le way %arke( by success inboth tra(itional; an( %o(ern; ter%s. ?or this au(i

ence& yoga pro8i(es a set of i(eas an(practices which supports a nationalist 3tho

ugh certainly 6in(u5 rather than a coloniallyi%porte(& syste% of physical <tness&

but is also supporte( by the <n(ings of science.; #atherthan forcing in(i8i(uals t

o choose between tra(itional; an( %o(ern&; this re-orientation ofyoga allows th

e% to go between the horns; of the (ile%%a. Ancient truths; can be use( to so

l8e%o(ern proble%s& with success %easure( in e/ternal ter%s9 in this way& in(igenous 8alues arenot co%pletely sub8erte(& but %aterial goo(s %ay be enoye(.

Su%an Seth& the host of an 'n(ian ,D progra% fro% the early "+Fs calle( Yoga a

n( 6ealth3Yoga aur Swasthya5& pro(uce( a newsstan( pocket book calle( Practica

l Yoga& in which shea((resses both beginning an( a(8ance( yoga stu(ents. Gsing

a nearly 8erbati% 7uote& shefollows Di8ekanan(a4s reorientation of yoga in saying

that

yoga is not a religion. 't is a pure science& like %athe%atics or physics or che%istr

y R

All religions are base( on a syste% of beliefs but Yoga (oes not tell you to belie8e

inanything. Kust perfor% it as a scienti<c e/peri%entR An( yoga is not 6in(u becau

se

the 6in(us (isco8ere( it. Kust as the laws of any science are uni8ersal& so also Yog

a is

uni8ersal an( its laws are e7ually applicable to all people an( at all ti%es. 3Seth "

+F:

/8i5

She goes on to say that the stress an( ano%ie of the %o(ern worl( is una8oi(abl

e& but that yogao@ers a way of respon(ing (i@erently to those con(itions& therefo

re negating the conse7uences of%o(ern stress& e8en though the stress itself continues.

,he chaos of the outsi(e worl( is a reJection of that within each one of us. Yoga c

reates

an or(er within the chaos that we are. ,hrough Yoga& we are able to relate better

to

oursel8es& to other hu%an beings& an( to our en8iron%ent. ,he feeling of alienat

ion;

(isappears an( an inner har%ony or integration occurs. 3Seth "+F /8ii5

Press co8erage of yoga in recent years has appeare( in tan(e% with articles on

stress; as thescourge of %o(ernity. 'n(ians ten( to see stress as a %o(ern 1este

rn epi(e%ic which hol(sthe% back an( i%pinges on their free(o% to li8e a goo( l



ife& a position also hel( by %ostA%ericans an( uropeans. Yoga& while presente(

on one han( as co%patible with 3an( 8eri<e(by5 %o(ern science& is also 8iewe( a

s the anti(ote to speci<c ill e@ects of %o(ernity& particularlystress.; 'n(ia ,o(ay&

-"22-

the %aor bi-weekly news %againe& ran a %aor article entitle( ,he Silent Scourge; 3'n(ia,o(ay& April & "++2: ")"5& in which the health e@ects of a %o(er

n; lifestyle were (etaile(.,he article relies on a nu%ber of bio%e(ical stu(ies to c

on<r% the epi(e%ic an( focuses on thelifestyles of e/ecuti8es& though it acknowl

e(ges the e/tent of the proble% in other socioecono%icgroups. $nce thought of

as alien to the 'n(ian lifestyle& stress is now a wi(esprea( an(potentially lethal %

enace cutting across all socio-econo%ic groups; 3ibi(.: "5. ,hey co%%entthat

%e(ication is the %ost fre7uently use( treat%ent& but they also 7uote a Bo%bay

physiotherapist on other solutions in use:

People un(er stress now realie the i%portance of rela/ing by breathing e/ercise

s an(auto suggestion. A few years ago people woul( ha8e laughe( at the i(ea; R Cro

%pton

Lrea8es Mcorporation o@ers yoga classes all roun( the year - al%ost all e/ecuti8e

s

atten( R $thers& such as ,elco& ha8e starte( a(8enture clubs where e/ecuti8es a

re put

through a %ini-boot ca%p routine of rockcli%bing an( trekking R As the pace of

%o(ern li8ing turns e8en %ore frenetic& those who are able to co%bat that feelin

g intheir

%in(s are the ones who will win the battle for a healthier an( happier life. 3ibi(.5

,his association of yoga with other health-pro%oting& back-to-nature acti8ities su

ch as trekkingappears in #ishikesh town as well. ,here& yoga has been package(

with other a(8entures; asco%ing un(er the pur8iew of those tra8el agencies spe

cialiing in e/periential out(oor acti8itieslike whitewater rafting on the Langa an(

elephant safaris& rather than being pro%ote( by thereligious tour an( pilgri%age

operators. ,hese a(8enture acti8ities are partly oriente( towar(foreign tourists& b

ut there is also a growing (o%estic %arket& pri%arily a%ong the e(ucate(urban e

lites& both uni8ersity youth 3e.g.& St. Stephen4s College of 0elhi Gni8ersity5 an( co

rporatetypes. As in the 1est& such a(8entures are often package( as both stress-

relie8ing an(con<(ence-buil(ing acti8ities 3. *artin "++5.

'n 'n(ia& yoga is certainly not e/otic.; 'n(ee(& its strength there lies in its fa%iliar

ity& at least atthe %ythological le8el& e8en if often not in actual practice. 'n a((iti

on to ubi7uitous te/tualreferences in popular oral tra(ition an( literature& au(ienc

es in 'n(ia see yoga as it continues tobe represente( in the Jesh; by its practitio

ners. 'n %ost 6in(u fa%ilies& accor(ing to se8eral of%y (iscussants& the practice

of at least so%e basic yoga postures an( breathing techni7uescontinues. But ther

e are still %any 'n(ians& like the Bo%bay business%en on the train who% '(escrib

e( on the <rst page of this book& who %aintain an i(ea of yoga that places it as a

culturalbirthright about which they actually know nothing.

Yoga& because it is also appealing to 1estern practitioners& has an appeal to 'n(ia

ns that goesbeyon( the co%fort of tra(ition. ,he conte%porary practice of yoga i



n 'n(ia& unlike its original3pre-Di8ekanan(a5 i(entity as a %ale-(o%inate( techni7

ue for achie8ing strictly religious en(s&now has the co%bine( 8alue of

-"2-

countering the stresses of %o(ern urban life 3as in the 1est5& i(entifying with an i

n(igenousspiritual heritage& an( also pro8i(ing the possibility of tru%ping the 1estern scienti<c (iscourseon health at its own ga%e& by presenting an opportunity

for testing ancient practices using%o(ern technologies.

,he 'n(o-uropean >ink: Yoga an( Ler%an *e(iaAu(iences

,he reception of yoga in the 1est& howe8er& has been base( on 7uite (i@erent att

ractions. Part ofthe (i@erence in how yoga was un(erstoo( in Ler%any relate( to

the lack of personalrepresentation. 'n his (ocu%entation of the reception of yoga

in Ler%any& ?uchs 3"++:!!5suggests that until at least the interwar perio(& instr

uctional books playe( a %aor role in thetrans%ission of infor%ation about yoga to the Ler%an public9 they ha( no e/e%plars likeDi8ekanan(a in North A%erica a

n( Britain& or the countless yogis in 'n(ia. ,he literary genre of%oral an( %e(ical

self-help literature for the i%pro8e%ent of in(i8i(uals in the %i((le classes&e/e%

pli<e( in Britain by 0r. S%iles4s Self-6elp& with 'llustrations of Character& Con(uct

an(Perse8erance 3"F!+5 an( *rs. Beeton4s Book of 6ousehol( *anage%ent 3"F

"5& also e/iste( inLer%any 3?ell%an an( ?ell%an "+F"9 6. Lreen "+F5. By %akin

g (epersonalie( self-stu(y;books a8ailable to a wi(e au(ience& the transnation

al (isse%ination of printe( i(eas of yogapractice helpe( to transfor% the way yog

a was percei8e(.

'n the late nineteenth century& the Ler%an public was caught up in a nationalist f er8or which&through the #o%antic i(eas of *a/ *ueller an( others& still looke( no

stalgically back to 'n(ia asthe point of Aryan origin 3#other%un( "+F5. ,he i(eol

ogy an( practice of yoga& as presente( byDi8ekanan(a an( later Si8anan(a& o@er

e( a techni7ue for achie8ing wholeness an( integration.As Bra%well re%arks& in t

he early (eca(es of the twentieth century 'n(ia was a place ofro%ance in the Le

r%an popular i%agination; 3Bra%well "+F+:"+9 but see also >eifer "+"9#other

%un( "+F5. 6albfass 3"+FF: F5 suggests that the #o%antic interest in 'n(ia wa

sinseparable fro% a ra(ical criti7ue of the uropean present. ,he preoccupation

with the %erelyuseful& the calculable& rationalR were seen as sy%pto%atic (e<ci

encies of this present.; 1e cansee the application of this interest particularly well

in the arena of %e(icine& where #o%antic8isions of natural& holistic& har%onious li8es were attache( to a 8ariety of alternati8e healingstrategies 3Proctor "+FF5.

'n the early years of the ,hir( #eich& i(eas relating to anthroposophy& ecology& an

( 'n(o-Aryani(entity were popular& largely (ue to their pro%otion by 6itler4s assis

tant& #u(olf 6ess 3Proctor"+FF9 1ein(ling "+F+5. ,he initial au(ience for yoga in

Ler%any therefore inclu(e( both anaca(e%ic sector whose interest was groun(e

( in a linguistic 3genealogical5 link to the 'n(iansubcontinent& an( a

-"2-

popular sector whose attention focuse( on a ro%antic yearning for the %ystical h

olis% of theast: ,he 8ery i(ea of 'n(ia assu%e( %ythical proportions Mwithin the Ler%an #o%antic%o8e%ent9 the turn towar(s 'n(ia beca%e the 7uest for the



true (epths of our own being& asearch for the original& infant state of the hu%an r

ace& for the lost para(ise of all religions an(philosophies; 36albfass "+FF:25.

,hrough the <rst half of the twentieth century& an( largely (ue to the Aryan prop

agan(a of theNai era& the Ler%an %i((le classes 3though not the %ost e(ucate

( sectors5 %aintaine( aninterest in things 'n(ian. ,hey also supporte( nonbio%e(

ical types of health %aintenancebecause of associations with the lan( an( %ore

natural; re%e(ies untainte( by %o(ern ways. Acentral issue for the National Soci

alist 3Nai5 re8olution was to replace the %echanistic thinkingof recent %e(icine

by a new an( %ore organic 3biologische5& holistic 8iew of the worl(;9 theywante(

a %e(icine that woul( be 4%ore Loethe an( less Newton4 R linke( with a 8ision

ofsociety suppose(ly %ore in tune with nature; 3Proctor "+FF:229 see also *oss

e "+F!5. BothLer%an an( A%erican representations of yoga ai%e( at 1estern au

(iences ten( to e%phasiethe ancient wis(o%; of the 'n(ian yogis& rather than t

he scienti<c 8ali(ation of yoga by 1esternscientists.

'n the popular %onthly %againe Dital: 0as *again fuer *o(ernes >eben& an arti

cle onHTrper Hunst; 3Bo(y Art;& subtitle( #ela/ation& *o8e%entI?le/ibility& Loo( ?igure;: Dital&*ay "++: 2+5 e/horts rea(ers to go to the source; an( not follo

w the e/ercise fashions: 1hocon7uers yoga& nee(s no other e/ercises. ?irst& you

can (o nothing better for your bo(y& %in(&an( soul. Secon(& %any of the centurie

s-ol( practices are a regular part of %o(ern stretching an(rela/ation progra%s. Y

oga is& so to speak& the source.; ,he article en(s with a re%in(er to%e%bers of t

he au(ience seeking training in yoga: 't4s a 4hot nu%ber4 at the A(ult 0e8elop%e

ntSchoolsQ; As we ha8e seen& these a(ult schools 3Dolkshochschule5 are a %aor

part of the Ler%ane(ucational syste%& an( yoga is taught at %ost of the%. Yoga

has also beco%e a %etony% forhealth in the international language of a(8ertisin

g& as shown in one Ler%an %againea(8ertise%ent. 1e see a %an wearing a bu

siness suit stan(ing on his hea( with his tie hanging(own aroun( his nose& eating

yogurt. ,he copy rea(s Di-thai ist Yoga u% ssen; 3Di-thai Mthebran( na%e is y

oga for eating.5 ,he %ost apparent rea(ing is that hea(stan(s U yoga U health&a

n( eating the right bran( of yogurt gi8es the sa%e bene<ts.

Another popular newsstan( %againe& 0er Naturartt& ran a piece on yoga which

(istinguishe(between the western people who un(erstan( things %ostly in their

hea(s& with their intellects&but <n( a si%ple feeling 7uite (iOcult to (eal with; an

( the eastern people& for who% the e/actre8erse is true& their ability to %ake us

e of 8isual i%ages an( feelings is %ore (e8elope( thantheir intellects; 3Yoga aus

(er #einheit (er Seele;& 0er Naturart& August "++: "F)25. 'nA%a(ea 3Kune "++

: 25& a yoga article focuses on rela/ation& an( the nee( for the in(i8i(ual tofreeherself fro% the webs of social obligations that hol( her prisoner.

-"2!-

Yet in se8eral inter8iews with 'n(ians in #ishikesh& ' was tol( that yoga is the best

%etho( forboth getting <t an( controlling the intellectual processes& an( that it is

a co%pletely rationalsyste% which woul( help people to cope with the (e%an(s

of social life. 6ere again we %eet upwith the notion of i8an%ukhti& li8ing liberatio

n. 1hile 1esterners %ay be searching for a way toescape the bon(s of %o(ern lif

e& few of the% are actually willing to go as far as renouncing theworka(ay worl(.

#ather& %ost - like %ost 'n(ians who practice yoga - seek an oasis regi%e& an( a



way of opting out of (aily life for brief perio(s& %easure( in %inutes& hours& or - a

t the %ost -(ays.

,his article fro% A%a(ea (e%onstrates how the Ler%an popular %againes& (ire

cte( towar( a(i@erent sector of the %i((le classes& see a nee( for learning the

astern; ways of feeling inor(er to counteract the o8ere%phasis on reason; in the

1est. As with other practices connecte(with the New Age& an anti-rational threa(

links this i(eology with the 8arious #o%antic%o8e%ents across urope an( North

A%erica.

Cincinnati& $hio& an( >ara%ie& 1yo%ing - ?ebruary&2

>ilias ?olan an( ' ha8e been playing phone tag for %onths9 between the ti%e on

e

(i@erence& the holi(ays& an( our co%ple/ work an( ho%e sche(ules& it was 8ery

har( for us to <n( a few %o%ents for an inter8iew. At last we connecte(. As she

%a(e clear in both our con8ersation inter8iew an( in other recor(s of her start in

yoga 3?olan "+F"9 Schnei(er 25& she was an A%erican housewife li8ing an al%

ost

stereotypical post-1orl( 1ar '' suburban (rea%& possessing e8ery %aterial status

sy%bol that constitute( the A%erican i(eal& an( then so%e. But she was neither

happy nor healthy in her see%ingly perfect worl(& an( went to her fa%ily (octor f

or

suggestions. 6is i(ea of an e/ercise progra% coinci(e( with her happening across

a popular book on yoga& so she (eci(e( to gi8e it a try. Yoga %a(e her feel goo(9

it was as si%ple as that.

>i8ing in Connecticut ga8e >ilias access to the nascent New York yoga co%%unity&

an( Swa%i Kayanan(a was one of her <rst teachers. As a househol(er& a person

li8ing in the e8ery(ay worl( of work an( chil(rearing& >ilias <t the para%eters tha

t

Si8anan(a ha( in %in( in 'n(ia in the "+2s an( "+s& e/cept that she was fe%

ale

instea( of %ale. Ki8an%ukhti was the goal9 one coul( practice yoga& li8e the (i8i

nelife;

- yet not renounce worl(ly life& still re%ain part of the pro(ucti8e %i((le class soc

iety.

Connecting: Yoga in A%erican *e(ia #epresentations

>ilias foun( that yoga o@ere( her a kin( of physical groun(ing that allowe( her to

feel connecte(to the %aterial worl( through breathing& stretching of %uscles& the

-"2-

feeling of herself in space. But it also pro8i(e( the option to (istance oneself fro%

the worl(aroun( - stilling& as Patanali ha( sai(& the processes of the %in(. Yoga p

ractice was an oasisregi%e; that o@ere( the (iscipline to structure choices& a way to %ake the path si%ple. Byengaging in yoga practice& one coul( for a ti%e a8o

i( the escalation of stress& take ti%e out of thebusy (ay without ha8ing to renoun



ce e8erything. 1ith the ecu%enical philosophy an( practicesset out by Si8anan(

a& a 1estern yoga practitioner ha( the choice to be Christian an( (o yoga& tobe a

househol(er an( also be spiritually separate fro% the 7uoti(ian worl(. ?olan says

thatlearning about this option was a huge relief& know that she (i( not ha8e to gi

8e up who she was tolearn an( practice this new path. After se8eral years of lear

ning yoga fro% Swa%i Kayanan(a an(others& an( beginning to teach local classesherself& >ilias was o@ere( the opportunity to broa(enher au(ience to through tele

8ision.! >ilias& with her frien(ly an( engaging %anner& brought yogaon public tele

8ision to new heights. 'n "+2& as the counterculture reache( unprece(ente(heig

hts& this housewife an( %other of two fro% Cincinnati ca%e into the li8ing roo%s

of %i((le-class North A%erica to tell her stu(ents that it was all right to breathe&

that they coul( feel goo(without feeling like they ha( betraye( their upbringing&

an( that what looke( i%possible coul( beachie8e( by those who worke( slowly& c

arefully& an( with faith in their own bo(ies an( %in(s.

An article fro% the 6in(ustan ,i%es& shouts the hea(line 0esperate A%ericans t

urn to Yoga.;,his piece (ocu%ents the use of yoga by se8eral %ainstrea% A%erican %e(ical institutions&inclu(ing the prestigious 6ar8ar( *e(ical School&; an( pr

oclai%s that

Yoga an( %e(itation are no longer for astern %ystics or eccentric& 8egetarian yo

ung

%en or wo%en: it Msic has arri8e( in the A%erican %ainstrea% as alternati8e%e

(icine;

along with acupuncture an( ho%eopathy R ,he reason why yoga an( %e(itation

ha8e

entere( the %ainstrea% an( are no longer (istruste( as anti-1estern; or anti-

Christian;

is that though a person %e(itating or (oing yoga still looks a little o(( to %any A

%eri-

cans& too %any patients are gi8ing testi%ony to frien(s to the e@ecti8eness of th

ese

techni7ues. 36in(ustan ,i%es& $ctober & "++2: 25

,he 'n(ian %i((le classes& like those in the 1est& see health; an( <tness; as pr

ere7uisites for%o(ern li8ing an( success& looking to the 0arwinian i(eal that <tn

ess; lea(s to success. ,he%arket-(ri8en A%erican an( uropean societies ha8e p

ro%ote( this 0arwinian i(eal pri%arilythrough the use of the popular press 3Helly

"+F"9 1ein(ling "+F+5. ,he concept of <tness iscrucial because it pro8i(es both a

%etaphor an( a physical goal to engage the public. 1hilehealth is perhaps too broa( an( utopian a goal to achie8e& <tness speaks to the concrete. ,hepublication

of 0arwin4s i(eas about natural selection only intensi<e( the nineteenth-

century7uest for progress at e8ery le8el& fro% physical strength to national securi

ty. 6ar8ey Lreen 3"+F:225 says that in the Gnite( States at least&

-"2-

people were constantly looking for an 4e(ge4on the co%petition& while recogniin

g that they werealways being pursue(R 6ealth increasingly beca%e one of the a

(8antages one %ight ha8e& likeelocution& Mor e(ucation;.

'n North A%erica& popular stereotypes of yoga practitioners still associate the% with left-wingpolitics& higher e(ucation 3though perhaps as (ropouts fro% the con8



entional aca(e%icpursuits5& en8iron%entalis%& an( alternati8e lifestyles 36eelas

"++5. ,he na%es %erson an(,horeau co%e to %in( as role %o(els& an( in(ee

( the inJuence of 'n(ia on the,ranscen(entalists& an( of the ,ranscen(entalists o

n the A%erican reception of yoga an( otherholistic health practices 3?uller "+F+5&

are signi<cant. >ike the 6in(us& who highlighte( thei%plicit unity of %icrocos% a

n( %acrocos% in an eternal (i8inity& %erson an( the othersthought of the (ualis% of the %anifest an( un%anifest worl(s as only pro8isional. At its core& theworl(

was one whole; 3Albanese "+:""5. As ' (iscuss later in this chapter& the appeal

towholeness is essential for those& fro% Si8anan(a to sociologist Glrich Beck& who

ha8e %a(e theleap fro% the personal to the planetary.

,he A%erican wo%en who% Di8ekanan(a %et (uring his <rst trip o8erseas& fro%

"F+ to "F+&i%presse( hi% with their social ser8ice proects. ,hey inJuence( hi

s presentation of yoga as notonly a %eans for self-i%pro8e%ent an( personal sal

8ation& but also a techni7ue base( on selJessser8ice to the wi(er co%%unity& a w

ay of e%ancipating the whole worl(. >ikewise& Di8ekanan(a4scontact with anarchi

stIsocialist refor%ers like Hropotkin 36albfass "+FF:22)25& along withhis own e/periences a%ong the poor of 'n(ia& showe( hi% that spirituality %ust be acco%p

anie(by social an( political refor% if it is to assuage the woun(s torn open in the

frenie( rush to%o(ernity. You will <n( at last that the easiest way to %ake ours

el8es healthy is to see thatothers are healthy& an( the easiest way to %ake oursel

8es happy is to see that others are happy;3Di8ekanan(a "++b:25.

1hile %ost of the Ler%an publications ten( to assu%e that yoga is known to thei

r au(iences as agoo( thing& e8en if it is unclear what (oing yoga; actually entail

s& the A%erican publications(irect their attention towar( (ispelling yoga %yths&;

with titles like ,he New Yoga: No longerthe preser8e of e/-hippies& this once-

%ystical (iscipline is now a total bo(y workout; 3A%erican6ealth& KulyAugust "++

: !F)5. ,he article uses pastel colors an( photos of a wo%an (oingasanas on a

beautiful beach& ocean wa8es rolling in the backgroun(. 1hile (ebunking %yths i

sthe <rst priority& another the%e in the A%erican representations is connection.;

Althoughbio%e(ical research results supporting its reco%%en(ations are present

e(& this article goes on tosuggest that

Perhaps the ulti%ate attraction is that yoga& which in Sanskrit %eans union& bring

speople

together. Gnlike in aerobics classes& where stu(ents ostle for choice spots near th

e

%irror& there4s a sense of ca%ara(erie in %ost yoga stu(ios R Mit %ay be ancient

-"2F-


n(igenousspiritual heritage& an( also pro8i(ing the possibility of tru%ping the 1e

stern scienti<c (iscourseon health at its own ga%e& by presenting an opportunity









uctional books playe( a %aor role in thetrans%ission of infor%ation about yoga t

o the Ler%an public9 they ha( no e/e%plars likeDi8ekanan(a in North A%erica a



pli<e( in Britain by 0r. S%iles4s Self-6elp& with 'llustrations of Character& Con(uctan(Perse8erance 3"F!+5 an( *rs. Beeton4s Book of 6ousehol( *anage%ent 3"F




a was percei8e(.

'n the late nineteenth century& the Ler%an public was caught up in a nationalist f

er8or which&through the #o%antic i(eas of *a/ *ueller an( others& still looke( no



e( a techni7ue for achie8ing wholeness an( integration.As Bra%well re%arks& in the early (eca(es of the twentieth century 'n(ia was a place ofro%ance in the Le






in the arena of %e(icine& where #o%antic8isions of natural& holistic& har%onious li

8es were attache( to a 8ariety of alternati8e healingstrategies 3Proctor "+FF5.






-"2-

people were constantly looking for an 4e(ge4on the co%petition& while recogniin

g that they werealways being pursue(R 6ealth increasingly beca%e one of the a

(8antages one %ight ha8e& likeelocution& Mor e(ucation;.

'n North A%erica& popular stereotypes of yoga practitioners still associate the% w

ith left-wingpolitics& higher e(ucation 3though perhaps as (ropouts fro% the con8

entional aca(e%icpursuits5& en8iron%entalis%& an( alternati8e lifestyles 36eelas

"++5. ,he na%es %erson an(,horeau co%e to %in( as role %o(els& an( in(ee

( the inJuence of 'n(ia on the,ranscen(entalists& an( of the ,ranscen(entalists o

n the A%erican reception of yoga an( otherholistic health practices 3?uller "+F+5&

are signi<cant. >ike the 6in(us& who highlighte( thei%plicit unity of %icrocos% a

n( %acrocos% in an eternal (i8inity& %erson an( the othersthought of the (ualis

% of the %anifest an( un%anifest worl(s as only pro8isional. At its core& theworl(

was one whole; 3Albanese "+:""5. As ' (iscuss later in this chapter& the appeal

towholeness is essential for those& fro% Si8anan(a to sociologist Glrich Beck& who

ha8e %a(e theleap fro% the personal to the planetary.

,he A%erican wo%en who% Di8ekanan(a %et (uring his <rst trip o8erseas& fro%"F+ to "F+&i%presse( hi% with their social ser8ice proects. ,hey inJuence( hi



s presentation of yoga as notonly a %eans for self-i%pro8e%ent an( personal sal

8ation& but also a techni7ue base( on selJessser8ice to the wi(er co%%unity& a w

ay of e%ancipating the whole worl(. >ikewise& Di8ekanan(a4scontact with anarchi

stIsocialist refor%ers like Hropotkin 36albfass "+FF:22)25& along withhis own e

/periences a%ong the poor of 'n(ia& showe( hi% that spirituality %ust be acco%p

anie(by social an( political refor% if it is to assuage the woun(s torn open in thefrenie( rush to%o(ernity. You will <n( at last that the easiest way to %ake ours

el8es healthy is to see thatothers are healthy& an( the easiest way to %ake oursel

8es happy is to see that others are happy;3Di8ekanan(a "++b:25.

1hile %ost of the Ler%an publications ten( to assu%e that yoga is known to thei

r au(iences as agoo( thing& e8en if it is unclear what (oing yoga; actually entail

s& the A%erican publications(irect their attention towar( (ispelling yoga %yths&;

with titles like ,he New Yoga: No longerthe preser8e of e/-hippies& this once-

%ystical (iscipline is now a total bo(y workout; 3A%erican6ealth& KulyAugust "++

: !F)5. ,he article uses pastel colors an( photos of a wo%an (oingasanas on a

beautiful beach& ocean wa8es rolling in the backgroun(. 1hile (ebunking %yths isthe <rst priority& another the%e in the A%erican representations is connection.;

Althoughbio%e(ical research results supporting its reco%%en(ations are present

e(& this article goes on tosuggest that

Perhaps the ulti%ate attraction is that yoga& which in Sanskrit %eans union& bring

speople

together. Gnlike in aerobics classes& where stu(ents ostle for choice spots near th

e

%irror& there4s a sense of ca%ara(erie in %ost yoga stu(ios R Mit %ay be ancient

-"2F-

wis(o%& but in the +4s& the i(ea of stri8ing to connect with others see%s thoroug

hlyup-

to-(ate. 3ibi(.: 5

,his notion of connecting&; is of course part conte%porary ecological (iscourse&

on one han( -an e/tension of the uni8ersalist all %en are brothers; concept to th

e le8el of global unity& aboutwhich %ore later in this chapter. But it also appears a

s a central feature of popular psychologicalthought: in or(er to realie our potenti

al& we %ust connect; with& for e/a%ple& our inner chil(&;our ur-self as oppose(

to the insular in(i8i(ual which western capitalist society is sai( to foster.,hus by

(escribing yoga as a way to connect; rather than to co%pete& we see another e

/a%ple ofyoga as an anti(ote to the ba(; aspects of %o(ernity& un(erstoo( as g

roun(e( in westernin(ustrial progress. Such an appeal to %utual support an( the

generation of co%%unity can beseen in such corporate slogans as A,V,4s #each

$ut an( ,ouch So%eone; a(8ertisingca%paign& as well as the increasing corporat

e reliance on spiritualIa(8enture training progra%sthat pro%ote tea%work an( J

e/ibility 3. *artin "++5.

'n striking contrast with the pre8ious e/a%ple is an article in the %againe *en4s

?itness3Septe%ber "++: !)& ""!)""5& catering to the %en who fall so%ewhe

re in between the new%en4s %o8e%ent an( tra(itional bo(ybuil(ers. ,he piece is

title( Grban #enewal: Yoga o@ersthe sort of pretel logic that %akes perfect sens

e to stresse(-out %en.; ,he author& a wo%an&(raws her au(ience in with the lureof celebrity na%es 3Haree% Ab(ul-Kabbar& Kerry Seinfel(&*a(onna& an( Sting all (



o yoga& to na%e but a few5& an( illustrates its points with a hea8ilytatooe( %an& s

itting on the pa8e%ent in an urban back alley. ,he article cites a nu%ber of%e(ic

al authorities who now use yoga& an( e8aluates the co%patibility between yoga a

n( weight-training. ,he author& who has trie( out a few yoga classes& reports on t

he (i@erences. Sheconclu(es with a 7uote fro% Kerry Seinfel(: 1hy (o ' (o yoga

= ,ry li%itless energy. 6ey& with%y work sche(ule& '4% ust trying to stay ali8e. '4%going non-stop "2)" hours a (ay& an( there4sno way ' coul( sustain this cray sc

he(ule without the yoga. 't %akes %y life better& an(& to %e&that4s what e/ercise

is all about; 3ibi(.: ""5. ,he %acho A%erican 8ersion of yoga focuses onwhat yo

ga can (o for your bo(y& keeping it healthy an( %ini%iing stress. ,he subte/t is

thatyoga is a rational pursuit& not 3ust5 a fe%inie( or spiritual one& an( that real

%en ha8e nothingto fear fro% the practice of yoga - it will e8en help their weight

training. A book highlighting thissenti%ent hit the GS bestseller charts in 2: #

eal *en 0o Yoga: 2" Star Athletes #e8eal theirSecrets for Strength& ?le/ibility an(

Peak Perfor%ance 3Capouya 25. ,his focus on%asculine rationality is si%ilar t

o the 'n(ian response& an( brings to %in( (iscussions by ,anya>uhr%ann 3"++5

an( Ashis Nan(y 3"+FF5 regar(ing the fe%iniation of 'n(ian %en by theirBritish coloniers an( the subse7uent struggles after in(epen(ence to regain a sense of%

asculinity in their own ter%s.

-"2+-


n(igenousspiritual heritage& an( also pro8i(ing the possibility of tru%ping the 1e

stern scienti<c (iscourseon health at its own ga%e& by presenting an opportunity







uctional books playe( a %aor role in thetrans%ission of infor%ation about yoga t

o the Ler%an public9 they ha( no e/e%plars likeDi8ekanan(a in North A%erica a








a was percei8e(.

'n the late nineteenth century& the Ler%an public was caught up in a nationalist f

er8or which&through the #o%antic i(eas of *a/ *ueller an( others& still looke( no




he early (eca(es of the twentieth century 'n(ia was a place ofro%ance in the Ler%an popular i%agination; 3Bra%well "+F+:"+9 but see also >eifer "+"9#other







in the arena of %e(icine& where #o%antic8isions of natural& holistic& har%onious li

8es were attache( to a 8ariety of alternati8e healingstrategies 3Proctor "+FF5.






-"2-

wis(o%& but in the +4s& the i(ea of stri8ing to connect with others see%s thoroug

hlyup-

to-(ate. 3ibi(.: 5

,his notion of connecting&; is of course part conte%porary ecological (iscourse&

on one han( -an e/tension of the uni8ersalist all %en are brothers; concept to th

e le8el of global unity& aboutwhich %ore later in this chapter. But it also appears a

s a central feature of popular psychologicalthought: in or(er to realie our potenti

al& we %ust connect; with& for e/a%ple& our inner chil(&;our ur-self as oppose(

to the insular in(i8i(ual which western capitalist society is sai( to foster.,hus by

(escribing yoga as a way to connect; rather than to co%pete& we see another e

/a%ple ofyoga as an anti(ote to the ba(; aspects of %o(ernity& un(erstoo( as g

roun(e( in westernin(ustrial progress. Such an appeal to %utual support an( the

generation of co%%unity can beseen in such corporate slogans as A,V,4s #each$ut an( ,ouch So%eone; a(8ertisingca%paign& as well as the increasing corporat

e reliance on spiritualIa(8enture training progra%sthat pro%ote tea%work an( J

e/ibility 3. *artin "++5.

'n striking contrast with the pre8ious e/a%ple is an article in the %againe *en4s

?itness3Septe%ber "++: !)& ""!)""5& catering to the %en who fall so%ewhe

re in between the new%en4s %o8e%ent an( tra(itional bo(ybuil(ers. ,he piece is

title( Grban #enewal: Yoga o@ersthe sort of pretel logic that %akes perfect sens

e to stresse(-out %en.; ,he author& a wo%an&(raws her au(ience in with the lure

of celebrity na%es 3Haree% Ab(ul-Kabbar& Kerry Seinfel(&*a(onna& an( Sting all (

o yoga& to na%e but a few5& an( illustrates its points with a hea8ilytatooe( %an& s

itting on the pa8e%ent in an urban back alley. ,he article cites a nu%ber of%e(ic

al authorities who now use yoga& an( e8aluates the co%patibility between yoga a

n( weight-training. ,he author& who has trie( out a few yoga classes& reports on t

he (i@erences. Sheconclu(es with a 7uote fro% Kerry Seinfel(: 1hy (o ' (o yoga

= ,ry li%itless energy. 6ey& with%y work sche(ule& '4% ust trying to stay ali8e. '4%

going non-stop "2)" hours a (ay& an( there4sno way ' coul( sustain this cray sc

he(ule without the yoga. 't %akes %y life better& an(& to %e&that4s what e/ercise

is all about; 3ibi(.: ""5. ,he %acho A%erican 8ersion of yoga focuses onwhat yo

ga can (o for your bo(y& keeping it healthy an( %ini%iing stress. ,he subte/t is

thatyoga is a rational pursuit& not 3ust5 a fe%inie( or spiritual one& an( that real

%en ha8e nothingto fear fro% the practice of yoga - it will e8en help their weighttraining. A book highlighting thissenti%ent hit the GS bestseller charts in 2: #



eal *en 0o Yoga: 2" Star Athletes #e8eal theirSecrets for Strength& ?le/ibility an(

Peak Perfor%ance 3Capouya 25. ,his focus on%asculine rationality is si%ilar t

o the 'n(ian response& an( brings to %in( (iscussions by ,anya>uhr%ann 3"++5

an( Ashis Nan(y 3"+FF5 regar(ing the fe%iniation of 'n(ian %en by theirBritish c

oloniers an( the subse7uent struggles after in(epen(ence to regain a sense of%

asculinity in their own ter%s.

-"2+-

,he 8arious %e(ia representations of yoga (iscusse( earlier& co%ing fro% 'n(ia&

Ler%any& an(the Gnite( States& (e%onstrate that neither yoga& nor health& nor e

8en %i((le-class %o(ernityare %onoliths. ,he particular histories of these locales

ha8e shape( the ways that au(ienceswithin the% ha8e (e8elope(& an( the %e(ia

representations that ha8e e%erge( both reJect an(create these au(iences.

#ishikesh ) *ay& "++2

Chipko has often been in the news lately. ,he local Gttarakhan( en8iron%ental

%o8e%ent& Chipko An(olan has been working har( for se8eral years to stop work

on the propose( ,ehri 0a%. Sun(erlal Bahuguna& the lea(er of Chipko& was en-

gage( in a hunger strike that was ha8ing little e@ect. Perio(ically& s%all articles a

bout

his health an( the ,ehri situation appeare( in the %aor newspapers. ,he ,i%es o

f

'n(ia reporte( that Bahuguna ha( recei8e( the ,agore Awar(& an( woul( use the

%oney to organie yatras 3pilgri%ages5 to Langotri in protest of the (a%. ,he lat

est

news fro% %y frien(s at the 0>S was that Bahuguna& el(erly an( now 7uite frail f ro%

his fast& was now resting at the 0>S ashra%& an( woul( ha8e pri8ate (arsan of

Chi(anan(a in the %orning.

Sha(es of Lreen: cology an( n8iron%entalis% in'n(ia an( the

1est

,he notion of balance or e7uilibriu% has been use( e/tensi8ely to forge a link bet

ween ecologyan( yoga: Yoga is intrinsically ecological. All yoga is what ' call 4eco

-yoga4 R As the Bhaga8a(Lita 3''.F5& the ol(est yoga scripture& puts it& yoga is balance R when we are inwar(ly balance(&we are also balance( in relationship to

our en8iron%ent; 3?euerstein an( Bo(ian "++:225. ,heactual wor( use( in the

Bhaga8a( Lita 8erse cite( abo8e& sa%at8a& is often translate( ase7uilibriu%&; b

ut in the sense of (ispassion& neither one thing nor another& of (isinterest rathert

han balance. As with the translation of %oksha as free(o%& the glossing of sa%

at8a as balancespeaks %ore to the concerns of the stresse(-out& %o(ern %i((le-

class in(i8i(ual than to thephilosophical goals of Patanali an( others of the yoga

tra(ition4s original scribes. 6ere& then& isanother way in which particular nglish tr

anslations ha8e create( an opportunity for recastingyoga in a %o(ern light.

Stereotypical i%ages of A%erican an( Swiss yoga practitioners often u/tapose yogaIasternspiritual philosophy an( practice with en8iron%ental concern& as we s



aw in the cartoon of theinter8iew session (escribe( in Chapter . As 6eelas 3"++

5 points out in his %assi8e sur8ey of theNew Age& these associations (o ha8e

-"-


n(igenousspiritual heritage& an( also pro8i(ing the possibility of tru%ping the 1estern scienti<c (iscourseon health at its own ga%e& by presenting an opportunity







uctional books playe( a %aor role in thetrans%ission of infor%ation about yoga to the Ler%an public9 they ha( no e/e%plars likeDi8ekanan(a in North A%erica a








a was percei8e(.

'n the late nineteenth century& the Ler%an public was caught up in a nationalist f er8or which&through the #o%antic i(eas of *a/ *ueller an( others& still looke( no




he early (eca(es of the twentieth century 'n(ia was a place ofro%ance in the Le






in the arena of %e(icine& where #o%antic8isions of natural& holistic& har%onious li8es were attache( to a 8ariety of alternati8e healingstrategies 3Proctor "+FF5.






-"2-

,he 8arious %e(ia representations of yoga (iscusse( earlier& co%ing fro% 'n(ia&

Ler%any& an(the Gnite( States& (e%onstrate that neither yoga& nor health& nor e8en %i((le-class %o(ernityare %onoliths. ,he particular histories of these locales



ha8e shape( the ways that au(ienceswithin the% ha8e (e8elope(& an( the %e(ia

representations that ha8e e%erge( both reJect an(create these au(iences.

#ishikesh ) *ay& "++2

Chipko has often been in the news lately. ,he local Gttarakhan( en8iron%ental

%o8e%ent& Chipko An(olan has been working har( for se8eral years to stop work

on the propose( ,ehri 0a%. Sun(erlal Bahuguna& the lea(er of Chipko& was en-

gage( in a hunger strike that was ha8ing little e@ect. Perio(ically& s%all articles a

bout

his health an( the ,ehri situation appeare( in the %aor newspapers. ,he ,i%es o

f

'n(ia reporte( that Bahuguna ha( recei8e( the ,agore Awar(& an( woul( use the

%oney to organie yatras 3pilgri%ages5 to Langotri in protest of the (a%. ,he lat

est

news fro% %y frien(s at the 0>S was that Bahuguna& el(erly an( now 7uite frail f ro%

his fast& was now resting at the 0>S ashra%& an( woul( ha8e pri8ate (arsan of

Chi(anan(a in the %orning.

Sha(es of Lreen: cology an( n8iron%entalis% in'n(ia an( the

1est

,he notion of balance or e7uilibriu% has been use( e/tensi8ely to forge a link bet

ween ecologyan( yoga: Yoga is intrinsically ecological. All yoga is what ' call 4eco

-yoga4 R As the Bhaga8a(Lita 3''.F5& the ol(est yoga scripture& puts it& yoga is balance R when we are inwar(ly balance(&we are also balance( in relationship to

our en8iron%ent; 3?euerstein an( Bo(ian "++:225. ,heactual wor( use( in the

Bhaga8a( Lita 8erse cite( abo8e& sa%at8a& is often translate( ase7uilibriu%&; b

ut in the sense of (ispassion& neither one thing nor another& of (isinterest rathert

han balance. As with the translation of %oksha as free(o%& the glossing of sa%

at8a as balancespeaks %ore to the concerns of the stresse(-out& %o(ern %i((le-

class in(i8i(ual than to thephilosophical goals of Patanali an( others of the yoga

tra(ition4s original scribes. 6ere& then& isanother way in which particular nglish tr

anslations ha8e create( an opportunity for recastingyoga in a %o(ern light.

Stereotypical i%ages of A%erican an( Swiss yoga practitioners often u/tapose yogaIasternspiritual philosophy an( practice with en8iron%ental concern& as we s

aw in the cartoon of theinter8iew session (escribe( in Chapter . As 6eelas 3"++

5 points out in his %assi8e sur8ey of theNew Age& these associations (o ha8e

-"-

a basis in fact& as is often the case with stereotypes. 6owe8er& although ' e/pecte

( Ler%anstereotypes to follow the sa%e pattern as the Swiss an( A%ericans& ' fo

un(& a%ong %y Ler%an(iscussants& other yoga practitioners& an( Lreens&; 7uit

e a strong resistance to the suggestionthat %e%bers of the Ler%an Lreen party

woul( be incline( towar( the practice of yoga or otherAsian spiritual practices. Su

ch acti8ities& ' was tol(& were gegen Dernuenft - against reason; -an( therefore a



nathe%a to the Lreens. ,his <n(ing is also supporte( by #an(eria an( ?uchs3pers

onal co%%unication& "++5.

' foun( this puling& an( further research pro(uce( con<r%ation that in Ler%any

& one %ustrecognie the strong (i8ision that e/ists between politically acti8e Lree

ns an( their lea(ership&on the one han(& an( the a8erage ecologically conscious

8oter& on the other. ,he currentgeneration of Lreen lea(ers lean %ore towar( soc

ialistIco%%unist i(eology - the so-calle( #e(Lreens&; while the younger generati

on of en8iron%entally conscious Ler%an citiens are %orelikely to support the ki

n( of (eep ecology; philosophy pro%ote( by Norwegian philosopherArne Naess

an( others& whether e/plicitly or si%ply in spirit. $ne e/planation for the si%ilarit

ybetween A%erican an( Swiss 8iews 3that en8iron%ental awareness an( eastern

spirituality ustgo together;5 coul( be that the national %ythologies of Switerla

n( an( the Gnite( States (epen(%ore hea8ily on in(i8i(ualis% than (oes that of

the Ler%ans 3Ben(i/ "++29 0u%ont "++25.

#a% Luha& chronicler of peasant resistance an( the ecological history of the 6i%

alaya& suggeststhat en8iron%ental acti8ist Sun(erlal Bahuguna4s charis%a has %a(e hi% a %o(ern-(ay Lan(hiin the eyes of %any north 'n(ians. 6e 7uotes Bahu

guna as locating the (eterioration of the6i%alayan ecosyste% in the M%o(ern

%aterialistic ci8iliation& which %akes %an the butcherof the earth; 3Luha "+F+:

"+9 brackets in original5& a position supporte( by the work ofecofe%inist an( phy

sicist Dan(ana Shi8a. Shi8a seeks to (e%onstrate the continuity between theear

th bo(y; an( the hu%an bo(y that she conten(s was lost in the patriarchal (ualis

tic shueof post-nlighten%ent science. 'n an e(ite( 8olu%e& Shi8a co%%ents th

at there are subtle an(co%ple/ connections between (iseases of the hu%an bo(

y& the (ecay of ecosyste%s& an( thebreak(own of ci8il society& ust as there are c

onnections in the search for health at all of thesele8els; 3Shi8a "++:5. Although

Bahuguna is not publicly presente( as a yoga practitioner& he(oes 8isit the Si8an

an(a ashra% fre7uently an( appears to support the basic tenets of the 0>S.6in(u

a(8aita philosophy& as pro%ote( by the 0>S an( e/presse( through its practical y

ogainstruction& has been use( by both 'n(ians an( 1esterners not only as a strat

egy for personalhealth an( stress-relief& but also as a rationale for a return to an

ecological worl(8iew which gi8eweight to the intrinsic 8alue of nature rather than

consi(ering only its use-8alue as an econo%icresource.

1estern attitu(es towar( the natural en8iron%ent ha8e ten(e( to fall into two br

oa( categoriesroughly correspon(ing with the se8enteenth-century philosophies

-""-

of Spinoa an( 0escartes& that is& %onistic an( (ualistic %o(els. *onistic %o(els

8iew reality asa singularity& one syste%& of which hu%ans& like all other aspects o

f nature& are a part. 0ualistic%o(els posit separate thinking hu%an subects an(

obecti8ely knowable %aterialen8iron%entsIobects& opening the way for analyin

g the e/ternal worl( without ha8ing toinclu(e the knowing subect as part of the

proble%. 1e can trace the history of en8iron%entalthinking along these parallel t

racks to two (i@erent conte%porary Lreen 8isions of %o(ernity&represente( by 0

eep cologists on one si(e an( scienti<c conser8ationists on the other. AnnaBra%

well 3"+F+5 labels this (istinction as one of ecologists 8ersus en8iron%entalists9

1arwick?o/ 3"++: 5 concurs with this (istinction& a((s the (i%ension of anthropocentricity 8ersusecocentricity& an( presents an e/tensi8e analysis of the 8arious



typologies of ecological an(en8iron%ental thought.; #o(erick Nash 3"+F25 contr

asts Cartesian (ualis% an( theobecti<cation of nature; with Spinoa4s 8iew of th

e interrelate(ness of all things& which %a(eit possible for hi% to place ulti%ate e

thical 8alue on the whole& the syste%& rather than on anysingle an( transitory par

t; 3Nash "+F2:25.

/a%ples of the (ualistic perspecti8e aboun(9 basically& what we consi(er nor%

al science;reJects the Cartesian %echanistic approach& assu%ing (i@erentiation

between spirit an( %atter&an( thus between thinking %en an( their en8iron%ent.

,he (ualistic %o(el appears in theconser8ationist an( en8iron%entalist %o8e%e

nts of the Gnite( States National Parks %o8e%entat the en( of the nineteenth ce

ntury9 the (ebate between Li@or( Pinchot an( Kohn *uir o8er therational& econo

%ically self-intereste( %anage%ent of natural resources 8ersus the intrinsic 8alu

eof nature is often cite(. As Li((ens puts it&

't has beco%e a co%%onplace to assert that the core outlooks of %o(ernity treat

nature

as instru%ental& the %eans to realie hu%an purposes R 1hat is at issue is not ustthat&

with the co%ing of %o(ernity& hu%an beings treat nature as an inert set of forces

to be

harnesse( to hu%an en(s& since this still carries the i%plication that nature is ase

parate

(o%ain fro% that of hu%an society R the (e8elop%ent of the create( en8iron%e

nt -

or& another phrase for the sa%e thing& the socialiation of nature - cuts %uch %or

e(eeply

than this. Nature begins to co%e to an en(; in the sense that the natural worl( i

s

increasingly or(ere( accor(ing to the internally reJe/i8e syste%s of %o(ernity.

3Li((ens

"++":"!5

't is precisely this fear that nature is co%ing to an en(; 3*cHibben "+F+5 that ha

s all along(ri8en the 7uest for an alternati8e way of being in the worl(& a way whi

ch (isallows theseparation of hu%ans fro% nature. Spinoa4s %onis% was one str

an( which pro8i(e( this optionwithin a 1estern conte/t9 the 8arious ro%antic an(

other anti-%o(ern; %o8e%ents& %any ofwhich sought answers in the ast& were

concerne( with the sa%e issues. Yet the ast also ha(tra(itions of (ualis%& as the

1est has its own %onist tra(ition. ,he essentialiation of ast an(1est into <rst

-"2-

spiritual an( %aterial& an( then %onistI(ualist reJecte( what people on both si(e

s of the self-proclai%e( (i8i(e were able to <n( in that greener pasture.

'n a((ition to Spinoa& there were a nu%ber of other 1estern holistic thinkers. ?or

e/a%ple&Ale/an(er 8on 6u%bol(t 3early nineteenth century5 was a naturalist but

also rea( non-(ualistic6in(u philosophy as e/tensi8ely as the ti%es per%itte(9 hi

s brother was an 'n(ologist. 'n hisarticle on the relation between colonialis% an( t

he conser8ation of nature& #ichar( Lro8e pointsout that& with respect to the colon

ial a(%inistration& Mthe roots of en8iron%entalis% in 'n(iawere strongly reinforce( by the writings of Ale/an(er 8on 6u%bol(t& Mwho pro%ulgate( a newecologic



al concept of the relation between people an( the natural worl(: that of the fun(a

%entalinterrelation of hu%ankin( an( other forces in the cos%os; 3Lro8e "++2: "

2!5.

,he biologist rnst 6aeckel& who <rst coine( the ter% oekologie; in "F& took L

oethe& Spinoa&an( others as his inspiration for %onistic ecological theory9 he wa

s also intereste( in Bu((his%.Bra%well 3"+F+: !5 co%%ents that 6aeckel4s %o

st i%portant legacy was his worship of Nature&the belief that %an an( nature wer

e one& an( that to (a%age one was to (a%age the other;.6aeckel an( other nine

teenth-century ecologists& though not subscribing to the %ore (o%inant(ualistic

para(ig%s& were not& howe8er& oppose( to other characteristically %o(ern concer

ns.,hey belie8e( in progress 3a belief that began to (ecline in the twentieth cent

ury5& an( in thepower of %an4s will to change hi%self& so long as his will was use(

as a 4goo(4 will& that is& inaccor(ance with nature4s laws; 3Bra%well "+F+: F5. 6a

eckel4s application of 0arwiniane8olutionary theory to the social worl( of late-

nineteenth-century Ler%any& along with hisfun(a%ental %onis%& also helpe( su

pport the cause of holisticInatural %e(icine 31ein(ling"+F+5& an( thereby pro8i(e( fertile groun( for the pro%otion of yoga along with other bo(ilytechni7ues for h

ealth& <tness& an( the relief of stress through the connection of %in( an( bo(y&se

lf an( worl(.

?in(ing the Balance: co-Yoga

1hen we talk about the New Age& it is easy to slip into the eitherIor (ichoto%ies

which so oftencharacterie its internal (iscourse. Chief a%ong the (ichoto%ies is

that of the pro- or anti-%o(ern. 6eelas %akes the astute obser8ation that& rhetori

c asi(e& the New Age is a thoroughly%o(ern en(ea8or: ,he New Age belongs to %o(ernity in that it is progressi8istic 3looking to the futur

e5an(

constructi8istic 3things R can be change(5. *ore speci<cally& the i(ea that one ca

n go

Mto workshops or se%inars& to change for the better& has beco%e so wi(ely acce

pte(that

it %ight be sai( that our culture a%ounts to the age of training.; ,he New Age t

husalso

belongs to %o(ernity in that great faith is place( in the eOcacy of speci<e( pract

ices.

36eelas "++:"+5

-"-

*y own assess%ent of the rise of yoga as <tting well with the basic orientation of

%o(ernityreinforces his analysis. Glrich Beck an( Anthony Li((ens ha8e both writ

ten e/tensi8ely about thenature of %o(ernity an( conclu(e( that we ha8e not ye

t& as so%e suggest& gone beyon(%o(ernity an( into the post%o(ern perio(. 'nste

a(& the worl( has reache( a new le8el of late%o(ernity in which reJe/i8ity& our a

bility to consciously reJect on an( respon( to con(itions ofour own %aking& has b

eco%e the pri%e %o(e of operation. ,he other two features of late%o(ernity that

both Beck an( Li((ens (raw our attention to are <rst& the increasingin(i8i(ualiation of pri%arily 1estern in(ustrial nations 3Beck "++25 or e%phasis on self-



actualiation 3Li((ens "++"5& an( secon(& the inescapability of global inter(epen

(ence an(translocal e@ects.

,hese three characteristic aspects of late %o(ernity are acco%panie( by an incre

asing sense ofrisk& the conse7uence of li8ing in a science-(o%inate( society whic

h 8alories the control of selfan( en8iron%ent& an( is force( to reJe/i8ely incorpo

rate knowle(ge about the e@ects of these8arious control e@orts on future outco%

es. Both Beck an( Li((ens use the e/a%ple of globalen8iron%ental threats to %a

ke their points about the uses an( conse7uences of scienti<cknowle(ge in late %

o(ernity. By focusing on the relationship between hu%anity an( nature& theyboth

(e%onstrate the uni8ersality of the proble%s we face. ,hey also suggest that by

shifting ourbasic approach to interacting with the worl( aroun( us fro% a (ualist t

o a %onist perspecti8e& wecan %ake progress towar( a new an( %ore stable kin(

of society. Li((ens is a bit %ore opti%isticthan Beck that this kin( of utopian rea

lis%; 3Li((ens "++5 can be achie8e(. ,he con8ergencesan( (i8ergences of the

ir i(eas& along with those of Scott >ash& are presente( in a ointly pro(uce(8olu%

e entitle( #eJe/i8e *o(erniation 3Beck et al. "++5.Both Beck an( Li((ens are careful to allow for an( acknowle(ge the (i8ersity of

both scienti<can( popular un(erstan(ings of the facts; 3i.e. e%pirically 8eri<abl

e an( repro(ucible (ata5about the worl( aroun( us9 the wi(ely (i8ergent opinions

regar(ing the global cli%ate changewoul( be one e/a%ple of this. 'n(ee(& this lac

k of absolute truth; is crucial to both of theirargu%ents - neither really allows for

the e/istence of an alternati8e approach to the un(erlyingrelationship between h

u%anity an( the rest of the cos%os. ,hey %ake Science& in the sense of the(o%i

nant %echanistic 3Cartesian& Newtonian5 para(ig%& stan( as the source an( sa8io

r of%o(ernity4s proble%s an( bring up the i(ea of alternati8es only as part of thei

r theories of theshift fro% in(ustrial to reJe/i8e %o(ernity. Both Li((ens an( Bec

k conJate the histories ofen8iron%entalis% an( ecology in such a way that ecolo

gical 3holistic5 thinking appears only as arecent shift in en8iron%ental thinking& o

ne which correspon(s with their propose( shift in thestages of %o(ernity. 'n fact&

alternati8e tra(itions ha8e coe/iste( with the (ualis% of the(o%inant scienti<c p

ara(ig%& e8en in the 1est an( certainly in other cultures& for hun(re(s ofyears.

-"-

Documents

Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts across Cultures