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28.August 2014
Position paper on the use of fish and fish
products
Position paper on the use of fish and fish products
(February 2012)
The Federal Ministry of Health recommends at least 1 to 2 times fish per week in the
Austrian food pyramid. The ecological consequences of this recommendation when fish from
unsustainable fisheries is consumed are enormous. 32 % of the world’s fisheries are
irreversibly overexploited, another 53 % of the fish stocks are depleted and show decreasing
catch results. It is therefore especially important to prefer fish types whose population is not
endangered or whose catch or aquaculture does not cause damage to the environment.
From an ecological point of view the consumption of fish can therefore only be recommended
to a limited extent.
According to EU Regulation 2065/2001 the following information shall be given on the price
label or on the packaging for both fresh fish and packed frozen fish in order to enable the
consumers to choose the respective fish: specification of the type of fish (commercial
designation), method of production (aquaculture or wild caught) and the area in which it was
caught (or farmed). Convenience products, such as processed fish, cans and salads are,
however, exempted from this regulation.
Position on the use of fish and fish products:
Recommended fish of the greenlist shall be chosen. Fish types of the yellowlist are
accepted by “ÖkoKauf Wien” in cases of urgent need. Fish on the redlist are
endangered species and shall not be used.
Recommendation: Fish of the greenlist come from sustainable fisheries or organic
aquacultures, these fish stocks are classified as stable. “ÖkoKauf Wien” recommends the
use of fish of the greenlist such as fish from organic aquacultures, fish from domestic
production and sea fish from certified fisheries. Fish types of the yellowlist can only be
recommended to a limited extent, however, in cases of urgent need they may be used. Fish
types of the redlist are either bred in aquacultures with negative impacts on the environment
or are strongly endangered in nature. Catching them causes a big amount of unwanted
bycatch and hence also endangers other species. Therefore the use of fish from the redlist is
prohibited.
The same recommendation applies to convenience products; fish and fish products from the
green and the yellowlist shall preferably be used as far as this is indicated by their labelling. If
such ready-made products do not specify the type of fish or origin and hence the criteria of
the position paper cannot be applied these products may be used in cases of urgent need.
As an eco-friendly alternative to cover the dietical need of healthy and valuable omega-3
fatty acids which are mainly found in sea fish it is recommended to use vegetable oils,
linseed, rape, walnuts and domestic soya as an additional source of omega-3 fatty acids.
The environmental organisations Greenpeace and WWF investigated the endangerment of
the different fish species and graded them as acceptable, critical or calamitous. The following
types of fish coming from the stated region of origins are generally acceptable and can be
used in the kitchen. More information on acceptable fish, their fishing zones and fishing
methods can be found in the sources specified below.
RECOMMENDED FISH ORIGIN FISHING
METHOD SOURCE
ALL fish from organic aquaculture
Worldwide
Organic aquaculture
WWF
ALL fish with MSC certification
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod - MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Trout Austria Aquaculture, wild caught
Greenpeace
Trout - organic Austria, Europe Organic aquaculture
Greenpeace, WWF
Gilt-head sea bream - organic Mediterranean Sea Organic aquaculture
WWF
Halibut Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Halibut - MSC Worldwide MSC wild
caught WWF
Herring - MSC Worldwide MSC wild
caught WWF
Hoki – MSC New Zealand Wild caught WWF
Cod Eastern Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF
Cod - MSC Worldwide MSC wild
caught WWF
Carp Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Carp - organic Austria organic aquaculture
Greenpeace
Salmon Pacific salmon
Eastern Pacific (USA) Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Salmon - organic
Worldwide Organic aquaculture
WWF
Salmon, wild Alaskan salmon - MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Mackerel North Atlantic Sea Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Mackerel - MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Iridescent shark / shark catfish - organic
Vietnam Organic aquaculture
Greenpeace, WWF
Arctic cod/Alaska pollock – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Char/ brook trout Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace
Char/ brook trout - organic Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace
Anchovy France Bay of Biscay Wild caught WWF
Sardine – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Haddock Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF
Haddock – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Plaice – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Plaice / coalfish Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF
Plaice / coalfish – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Shrimps and prawns - organic Worldwide Organic aquaculture
WWF
Shrimps and prawns - MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Sprat North Sea & Baltic Sea
Wild caught WWF
Tilapia Honduras, Indonesia, Europe and USA
Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Tilapia – organic Worldwide Organic aquaculture
WWF
Tuna Bonito/Skipjack
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Tuna, white – MSC
Worldwide MSC wild caught
WWF
Tuna, Bonito/Skipjack Maldives Wild caught WWF
Victoria perch – organic Tanzania Organic aquaculture
WWF
Sea bass – organic Mediterranean Sea Organic aquaculture
WWF
Zander – organic Europe Organic aquaculture
Greenpeace
ACCEPTABLE FISH ORIGIN FISHING
METHOD SOURCE
Alaska pollock / Arctic cod Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF
Trout Northern Europe Aquaculture, wild caught
WWF
Prawns, crabs North Sea Wild caught WWF
Halibut Northeast Arctic, Norwegian Sea
Wild caught WWF
Herring Celtic Sea, Western Baltic Sea, Northeast Arctic
Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace
Cod Iceland, Northeast Arctic, Norwegian Sea, Western Baltic Sea
Wild caught WWF
Dab Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF
Salmon Ireland, Norway, Scotland
Wild caught / aquaculture
WWF
Common mussel North Sea Wild caught / aquaculture
WWF
Iridescent shark - GAP Vietnam Aquaculture, Global Gap certified
WWF Germany
Arctic cod/Alaska pollock Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF
Anchovy Iberian waters, Eastern Central Atlantic
Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace
Sardine Mediterranean Sea, Northeast Atlantic, Eastern Central Atlantic
Wild caught WWF
Haddock North Sea, Iceland, Norwegian Sea, Northeast Atlantic
Wild caught WWF
Plaice Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF
Saithe / coalfish Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF
Tuna true Bonito = Skipjack
Pacific Ocean Wild caught WWF
Zander Western Europe Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
NOT ACCEPTABLE
FISH ORIGIN
FISHING
METHOD SOURCE
Eel Europe Wild caught / aquaculture
WWF
Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace
Atlantic blue marlin Worldwide Wild caught WWF
Trout Turkey, Chile Aquaculture WWF
Gilt-head sea bream Mediterranean Sea, excluding organic aquaculture
Aquaculture WWF
Orange roughy Worldwide Wild caught WWF
Sharks and skates Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Halibut Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Hoki, blue hake Pacific Wild caught Greenpeace
Scallop Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea
Wild caught WWF
Cod Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Salmon Chile, Northeast Atlantic, Western Pacific
Wild caught / aquaculture
Greenpeace, WWF
Ling Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF
Mackerel Eastern Central Atlantic
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Arctic cod / Alaska pollock Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace
Iridescent shark Vietnam, Thailand Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Red Snapper Worldwide Wild caught WWF
Redfish North Atlantic Wild caught WWF
St. Peters fish Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace
Anchovis Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace
Sardine Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace
Haddock Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Dogfish/Sea eel (spiny dogfish) Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Plaice Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Swordfish Worldwide Wild caught WWF
Hake Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Saithe/ coalfish Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace
Monkfish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Sole Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Spined loach/catfish/wolf fish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Shrimps and prawns Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught/ aquaculture
Greenpeace, WWF
Sprat Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace
Squid/Octopus Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace
Tilapia Worldwide, excluding see above
Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Tuna (in retail light tuna, bigeye tuna, bluefin tuna, red tuna or yellowfin, Albacore, Bonito del Norte)
Worldwide, excluding see above
Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF
Tuna true Bonito = Skipjack
Indian Ocean Wild caught WWF
Victoria perch Tanzania Wild caught WWF
Whiting Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace
Sea bass/Branzino Mediterranean Sea Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Zander Eastern Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF
Sources:
WWF guide on purchasing fish and seafood (WWF-Einkaufsratgeber Fisch und
Meeresfrüchte, only available in German) 11/2011 www.wwf.at/de/fischfuehrer
Greenpeace guide on fish (Greenpeace Fisch-Ratgeber, only available in German) 2011,
http://marktcheck.greenpeace.at/fischratgeber.html
More information was researched by "die umweltberatung" Vienna and is summarised in the
following chapter: “Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish products”.
8
Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish
products
On behalf of “ÖkoKauf Wien”
Working Group “Food“
Gabriele Wittner, dietitian
"die umweltberatung" Vienna
Vienna, February 2012
9
Contents
1. Dietical benefits of fish 11
2. Ecological impact of fish consumption 12
2.1. Issue “overfishing” ............................................................................. 12
2.2. Issue “fish industry” ........................................................................... 12
2.3. Issue “aquaculture” ............................................................................ 13
2.4. Issue “fishing methods” .................................................................... 14
2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing” .................................................................... 16
3. Alternatives from sustainable fisheries 17
3.1. Domestic fish ...................................................................................... 17
3.2. Organic fish ......................................................................................... 18
3.3. Marine Stewardship Council .............................................................. 19
3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council ..................................................... 20
3.5. Vegetable alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids .................................. 20
4. Literature 23
10
List of illustrations
Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010] ............... 13
Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004] ........................................................... 15
Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004] ..................... 15
Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006] ......................................................... 16
Figure 5: Development of total Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010] ....................... 17
Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch ..................................................................... 18
Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council ................................................. 19
Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates ................. 21
11
1. Dietical benefits of fish
Nutrition Societies, such as the German Nutrition Society DGE recommend to eat fish once or
twice a week [DGE, 2007]. The Austrian Federal Ministry of Health also recommends – based on
the food pyramid - to eat oily sea or domestic cold-water fish once or twice a week [Federal
Ministry of Health, BMfG, 2011]. The dietical benefits for our body provided by this healthy food
group is undisputable.
It is a natural source of supply of iodine and vitamins (A, D, E, K, niacin, pyridoxine and
cobalamin), it provides us with easily digestible protein and above all it has a unique range of fatty
acids all of which need to be emphasised inter alia.
Beside iodised table salt there is no other food containing so much iodine than sea fish. At the
moment 12 % of the daily iodine need is covered by fish dishes [KARL and MÜNKNER, 1999].
Supply with iodine could be improved in Austria, however since iodine has been added to table salt
the situation has significantly improved in the last years. Severe iodine deficiencies occur very
seldom.
Special benefits of eating fish are omega-3 fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid,
eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. They are needed for a variety of metabolic
functions in our body and also for forming cell membranes. Furthermore they are the original
substances for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which play an important role both in blood clotting and
in the immune system [ELMADFA, 2000].
Moreover, omega-3 fatty acids regularly consumed by eating oily sea fish significantly reduce the
risk of fatal heart attacks in primary prevention of coronary diseases [DAVIGLUS et al., 1997] and
in secondary prevention they inter alia significantly reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death [LEAF,
2002].
12
2. Ecological impact of fish consumption
Despite all the positive properties of fish, important ecological aspects need to be considered when
fish is recommended due to its health benefits:
2.1. Issue “overfishing”
145.1 million tonnes of fish, including aquacultures, were officially caught and farmed in 2009. 90
million tonnes thereof were wild capture and 55.1 million tonnes originated in aquacultures [FAO,
2010]. Regarding the development of the stock of the 200 worldwide most important fisheries, the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 32 % are
overexploited, 53 % are overfished and show decreasing catch and only 15 % show more potential
[FAO, 2010].
Unwanted bycatch is one of the biggest unsolved problems in fishery. Bycatch is this share of a
catch which is either thrown back into the sea or is not scientifically managed. All kinds of fish,
ground animals, sea mammals, turtles and sea birds are affected. Cautious estimates say that
about 40 percent of worldwide catch is unwanted bycatch, which is thrown back into the sea, in
most cases dead [DAVIES, 2009].
On a short-term basis it is possible to minimise overfishing of the sea by the introduction of
maximum permissible fishing quota (Total Allowable Catch - TAC) and annual fishing quota. On a
long-term basis thorough protection zones for young fish need to be created for sustainable fishing.
An increase of the minimum mesh size of the nets should also guarantee stock recovery, where
not yet sexually mature young fish are able to develop. Furthermore, the use of selective gear shall
help to prevent unwanted catch [Fischerei in Europa, 2004].
In 2002 at the European reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) the European Union has
therefore in principle adopted recovery plans of the most threatened types of fish. However, these
plans are inconsistent and their execution is not sufficiently controlled. The current fishing quota
are hence clearly beyond the scientific recommendations of the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea as in the years before. The consequence is that too many fish are taken out
of the sea and sustainable fishery is hardly possible. [GREENPEACE, 2007].
2.2. Issue “fish industry”
13
Social consequences of fish industry are inter alia a high rate of unemployment of fishers caused
by “industrial” ships. Only 1 % of the fleet, about 35 000 units, are big industrial trawlers over 24 m
length. On these vessels work 10 % of the fishers and they catch about 50 % of the landings
[NEWTON and FITZPATRICK, 1998]. Their catching methods are basically oriented towards
maximum profit and do not consider ecological consequences such as destruction of coral reefs
and sea grounds, unwanted bycatch of seabirds, ground animals, sea mammals and fish. The lack
of legal regulation and control support this behaviour.
The differences in catch per fisher are also extreme: An EU-fisher in Denmark catches 293 t, a
German fisher 60 t and a fisher in Greece 4 t fish/year [SALZ, 1991]. In India a fisher catches 0.8 t
fish /year on average [ANON, 1998d].
2.3. Issue “aquaculture”
Since 1970 worldwide fish production in aquaculture has steadily increased. In 2009 55.1 million
tonnes of fish were already farmed in aquaculture. This is about more than a third of the overall
catch of 145.1 million tonnes. Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of
the sea has become one of the strongest growing economic sectors. In China the number of
aquacultures has especially been growing.
Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010]
Fish are differentiated into freshwater and seawater (maricultures) aquaculture depending on the
water the animals live in. A little bit more than half of worldwide aquaculture produce freshwater
fish.
14
The fish farmed in seawater are usually kept in cages or crates made of nets, metal or wood in
coastal areas. Fresh saltwater permanently flows through the cages or crates. Waster water,
excrements and drug residues leak uncontrolled into the surrounding waters. Escaped farmed fish
breed and become an unnatural competition to wild fish.
Furthermore, farmed fish may transmit diseases and parasites to wild fish. In Canada, for instance,
the stocks of wild salmon are heavily endangered through parasites [Krkosek et al., 2007]. Also the
salmon farms in Chile partially have devastating effects on the overall ecosystem – due also to the
fact that Atlantic salmon is a stranger in Chile, introduces diseases and hence puts even more
pressure on the endangered domestic species. Additionally the use of drugs and accumulated
waste are a hazard to the eco system.
Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of the sea has become one of the
strongest growing economic sectors. Conventional aquaculture brings about ecological problems
which are quite similar to intensive livestock farming onshore: The animals do not have enough
space and are hence prone to illness. Therefore drugs are used in big amounts, very often
precautionary. Energy feed and growth promoters replace natural diets. Chemicals are used to
protect the marine organisms against algae and unwanted creatures. [aid Infodienst, 2005].
Carnivorous fish are a special problem in aquaculture which only can survive with fish as fodder,
mostly in the form of fish meal or fish oil. Since these industrial fish are also taken from the sea, as
a consequence the sea dwellers miss out on fodder and the ecological balance is seriously
disrupted.
Ponds for e.g. prawns need enormous amounts of fresh water rich in oxygen. Hence fresh water
needs to be pumped into the pools. About 25 million litre water are necessary for the production of
1 tonne of prawns. The enormous need of freshwater heavily strains the ground water reserves of
the surrounding land. This damages the landscape and the population. [ÖKO-FAIR, 2006].
Since permanently new aquacultures are built in the sensitive coastal regions, mangrove forests
are deforested which brings about uncontrolled flooding of the coastal regions. Mangroves, tropical
coastal forests take up less than 0.1 % of the global land area, however, they are one of the most
productive eco-systems and most efficient CO2 stores of our planet. In the last decades more than
a third of the mangrove areas have been disturbed, mainly through urban development, agricultural
activities and prawn farming. [DITTMAR et al, 2006].
2.4. Issue “fishing methods”
There are enormous differences regarding fishing methods. Plaices and soles are caught by e.g.
beam trawls. Heavy iron chains are dragged across the sea bed, digging and ploughing up the
15
ground in order to catch bottom-dwelling fish. This fishing method destroys plants and animals of
the sea bed. Catching fish with beam trawls produces a very high amount of bycatch: for 1 kg sole
about 10 kg bycatch are caught!
Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004]
Another fishing method are drag nets whose openings are 23,000 square metres wide and
therefore as big as five football pitches, they are dragged by one or two trawlers. Such fleets have
a significant impact, especially on species swimming in shoals.
Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004]
For fishing demersal species (cod, hake, etc.) and
bottom dwellers (prawns, deep-sea lobster, flat fish)
bottom trawlers and bottom otter trawlers are used.
The net which has a length of up to 200 m can be
used in the deep sea (80m to 1500m). The otter or
trawl board made of timber or steel stir up the sea
bed to scare up the fish. The sea bed is ploughed
up, the plants and animals living in the sediments
are exposed, others are covered, destroying entire eco systems. The otter boards leave grooves
up to 30 cm deep depending on the nature of the sea floor, and destroy habitats such as deep sea
coral reefs. [GREENPEACE, 2010].
Sustainable fishery requires fishing methods which raise selectivity, keep bycatch as low as
possible and maintain the ecological balance stable. Large mesh, escape opportunities for
unwanted animals or special hooks on longlines are positive examples for sustainable and above
all selective fishing methods.
16
2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing”
Due to the reduction of classic, offshore fishing and the growing pressure on the stock of fish in the
sea, fishers looked for alternatives. The ideal solution seemed to be to exploit the grounds of the
deep sea down to 2000 m where up to then no fishing had taken place. Best known deep sea
species are orange roughy, blue ling, redfish and halibut. Deep sea sharks are also caught.
Since the water is very cold in the deep sea and there is not much food, animals living in the deep
sea have a clearly slower vital rhythm and reproduce only sporadically. However, many species
verifiably become very old – the orange roughy is an extreme example with its 150 years – sexual
maturity starts only with 30. When big fleets catch adult fish, it can take decades until the stock
recovers, if at all possible.
Furthermore, bottom trawls are mainly used, stirring up the seabed and destroying many sedentary
organisms such as coral and sponges.
In 2000 a report of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stated that most
of the deep sea species are caught beyond their safe biological limit. The ICES recommended an
immediate reduction of catch to an immediate stop of deep sea fishing. However, deep sea fish are
still very popular, even on Austrian plates.
Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006]
= overfished stock of deep sea fish
17
3. Alternatives are sustainable fisheries
Which fish can be recommended considering the ecological aspect? Alternatives are domestic fish
such as carps and trout. Furthermore, certified fish like organic fish, “Alpenlachs arctic char” and
MSC fish are recommendable.
3.1. Domestic fish
There are three different fishing methods used in Austria. In former times, lake fishing was
economically significant, today it is only profitable for a few. Full-time professional fishers exist only
at Lake Constance and the biggest customer of fish caught in lakes is gastronomy. Pole-and-line
fishing is the fishing method for flowing waters. The fish caught this way are usually not sold on a
market but are eaten by the families and friends of the fishers. [STAUDIGL, 2005]. The third
method has a long tradition in Austria: pond fish culture. The species farmed most are carps, trout,
chars, perches, catfish, etc.
Figure 5: Development of overall Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010]
Carp and trout are in particular the most important freshwater fish regarding quantity. Carp ponds
are characterised by large areas with low water intake. Near-natural farming provides plankton and
insects as fodder for the fish, grain (e.g. barley, ray, etc.) or oilcake can additionally be added
[REIMOSER, 2005]. These conditions are also beneficial for other fish such as tench, zanders,
pikes or catfish, therefore they are very often farmed together with carps in extensive carp ponds
[STAUDIGL, 2005].
Trout are salmonids (salmon-like) living in cold water (about 14°C). Contrary to carps they need a
lot of oxygen which gets into the water via the water supply [REIMOSER, 2005]. Trout are
18
predators and live mainly on water insects, crabs and small fish. Hence fish farming depends on
fish meal.
The demand for salmonids such as trout and chars has strongly increased whereby only 25 % of
the demand can be produced in Austria.
Supply sources: e.g.: www.alpenlachs.at, www.biofisch.at, www.wildfang-naturfisch.at,
www.genuss-region.at/article/archive/25801 (fish of the Lake Neusiedl region)
3.2. Organic fish
The aim of organic aquacultures is environmentally friendly and species appropriate fish farming.
Since 2009 farming of organic fish is regulated in a uniform way by the EU regulation on organic
farming. The new regulations for organic aquacultures comprise the production of fish, crustaceans
and seaweed/algae in fresh and salt water. Organic fish kept and certified according to the criteria
of organic associations such as Arge Biofisch, Naturland or Demeter are subject to even stricter
criteria than the EU regulation.
Stocking density is in general significantly lower in organic aquacultures and domestic species
should be farmed, if possible. Austria accepts only near-natural earth ponds as surroundings for
breeding, however, in other countries plastic ponds or plastic basins are used.
Preventional measures such as more space for the fish and clean water avoid the break out of
diseases in advance. The fodder for the herbivorous fish shall originate from certified organic
farming. Feeding carnivorous fish such as trout or char is more complicated: The share of animal
components in the fodder shall be reduced to a minimum or replaced by plant-based components.
The feedstuff must not be from conventionally produced land animals (mammals, birds). Organic
fish products from certified enterprises, made of residues of processing of fish for human
consumption and of bycatch of fish for human consumption are permissible [NATURLAND, 2007].
ARGE Biofisch is an initiative of Austrian pond farmers breeding fish according to the regulations of
Bio-Austria (Richtlinien von Bio-Austria) and providing carps, trout, chars, roaches and tench. At
the moment there are 16 organic carp farms and 10 organic trout farms which use 550 hectare of
ponds, i.e. 20 % of the total pond area, for breeding organic fish. Organic fish products from
Austria bear the the trademark [www.biofisch.at]. Moreover organic fish bred according to
regulations of other European associations (Naturland, Soil-Association, AB-Agriculture Biologique
France, etc.) are also available in Austria, e.g. salmon and gilt-head sea bream (sea bass).
Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch
19
Supply sources for organic fish: www.biofisch.at, www.naturland.de
3.3. Marine Stewardship Council
It is very difficult for consumers in the supermarket to find out which fish filet comes from well-
regulated, environmentally safe and sustainable fisheries. This was the reason why the
environmental organisation WWF and the food producer Unilever founded the global organisation
“Marine Stewardship Council” (MSC) in 1997, which became totally independent from both
founders already in 1999. At the beginning stakeholders of fishers, retailers, fish processors, non-
governmental organisations, consumers and scientists together worked out regulations according
to which environmentally friendly fisheries can be assessed [HUBOLD, 2004].
About 12 % of worldwide catch and 64 fish species are already MSC certified. Almost 5,000
different products worldwide have the MSC blue label. By now 15 different and certified types of
fish are available in Austrian supermarkets and gastronomical wholesale [MSC Annual Report,
2010].
Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council
Every fishery, independent of size and fishing zone can apply to an assessment according to MSC
standards and consequently for the blue MSC label. They need to undergo a strict assessment
procedure and continuous controls. All fisheries of a sea region fishing a certain fish type are
certified, not individual fishers or vessels.
MSC does not do the assessments themselves, they take on the role of the “accreditor” assessing
certification companies and approving them. The objectives are the “principles” according to which
the fishing shall be conducted, and the “criteria” are the ways how they should be achieved.
The 3 principles of the Marine Stewardship Council
Principle 1: Protection of stocks
Fishery shall not lead to overfishing or exploitation of the respective fish stock. Fishery of exploited
fish population shall be designed in such a way that the stocks verifiably recover.
20
Principle 2: Minimum impact on the eco-system
Fishery shall not have a negative impact on the structure, diversity and productivity of the
respective eco-system and all species involved (including sea birds and sea mammals).
Principle 3: Effective and responsible management of fishery
Fishery shall be subject to an effective management system respecting the local, national and
international laws and standards, and whose institutional and operational provisions require
sustainable and responsible use of resources [HUBOLD, 2004].
Supply sources of MSC certified fish – the following link provides you with current brands and
retailers:
www.msc.org/where-to-buy/msc-labelled-seafood-in-shops-and-restaurants/austria
3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council
Similar to the MSC blue label for wild capture there will be a new quality label for farmed fishes in
the future: the ASC label (Aquaculture Stewardship Council). The certification programme was
initiated by WWF and labels only fish originating from sustainable aquacultures, i.e. from farms.
The programme still is in development, the first fish will be available in 2012. (Anm.: wenn Satz
angepasst werden soll, nämlich insofern, dass die ersten Fische 2012 bereits verkauft wurden,
würde der Satz so lauten: The first fish were sold in 2012.
12 types of fish are already planned for the certification: inter alia different types of mussels,
salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011]. (Anm: Auch hier gilt:
wenn der Satz angepasst werden soll, dann müsste er so lauten, vorausgesetzt die Zahl 12 und
die Fischarten stimmen: 12 types of fish are already certified: inter alia different types of mussels,
salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011].
3.5. Plant-based alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids
Despite eating ecologically sound fish, the need of omega-3 fatty acids which are important for the
human body can partially be covered by plant-based food. Linseed, rape, walnuts and soya contain
high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Lower levels can also be found in green vegetables such as
savoy cabbage, spinach and sprouts [DITTRICH, 2000]. The most important dietically sources for
the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) are vegetable oils, especially linseed oil, nut and
rape oil and dairy products of organic origin.
21
Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates in g/100g [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]
18:1 (n-9) 18:2 (n-6) 18:3 (n-3) 20:5 (n-3) 22:6 (n-3)
Olive oil 70 10 - - -
Sunflower oil 15 75 1 - -
Corn oil 30 60 1 - -
Soybean oil 21 54 9 - -
Rapeseed oil 58 22 9 - -
Walnut oil 15 59 13 - -
Perilla oil 10 15 64 - -
Linseed oil 20 20 60 - -
Codliver oil 25 2 1 12 8
Fish oil concentrate 15 2 1 18 12
Highly concentrated fish oil - - - 46 38
Both omega-3 acids, Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are especially dietically
valuable, but as a natural source they are only contained in fish and fish products. The human
body, however, is able to produce them by conversion of alpha-linolenic acid.
22
It generally is assumed that only 10 % of alpha-linolenic acid can be converted into
eicosapentaenoic acid. This factor 10 varies and is defined by an enzyme which depends on
different variables, e.g. concurrent share of carbohydrates, saturated acids, linolenic acid, age,
hunger or diabetes mellitus [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]. This conversion factor can be increased
up to 40 %, if at the same time only a low level of omega-6 fatty acids (e.g. in sunflower or
safflower oil) is taken in. The reason is the fact that both groups of fatty acids need the same
enzymes for conversion in the body.
It can definitely be concluded that there are good, plant-based alternatives to fish. Especially
linseed oil and rape oil are excellent additions to sustainable fish consumption.
23
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