How to Write a Summary

Summaries are a brief explanation of a story or piece of writing. You will need to include only the main idea and supporting facts. You can include some other things, but do not re-write the story.

1. Reviewing

Skim the piece. Don't take any notes this time -- just take in the bare minimum to wrap your mind around the basic plot of the book or article. You'll be able to concentrate on the smaller things later.

Think of the focus while you're reading. Get down the most basic of questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? This bare bones thinking can help you to effectively and quickly write a pertinent summary.

Read the piece thoroughly. In order to write an accurate summary, you must understand what you're reading. Try reading with the author's purpose in mind.

Take notes and highlight as you read. Take note of the subheadings, even if there aren't any. Dividing it into sections in your mind will help you organize your summary.

Consider why you have been assigned the text. Write down the author's main point and the main points of each section. Look for the writer's thesis and underline it. This is the main idea of the work.

Outline the article. This serves as the skeleton of your summary. Write down the support points of each section, but do not go into minor detail.

It will benefit you to write it in your own words now; that will save you time translating later. If you can't get around copying from the original, put quotation marks around it. Only do this with incredibly important sentences that cannot be reworded.

2. Writing

Start with a clear identification of the work. This automatically lets your readers know your intentions and that you're covering the work of another author.

Clearly identify (in the present tense) the background information needed for your summary: the type of work, title, author, and main point. Example: In the featured article "Five Kinds of Learning," the author, Holland Oates, justifies his opinion on the hot topic of learning styles -- and adds a few himself.

Summarize the piece as a whole. Omit nothing important and strive for overall coherence through appropriate transitions. Write using "summarizing language." Your reader needs to be reminded that this is not your own work. Use phrases like the article claims, the author suggests, etc.

Present the material in a neutral fashion. Your opinions, ideas, and interpretations should be left in your brain -- don't put them into your summary. Be conscious of choosing your words. Only include what was in the original work.

Be concise. This is a summary -- it should be much shorter than the original piece. If you are working on an article, give yourself a target length of 1/4 the original article.

Conclude with a final statement. This is not a statement of your own point of view, however; it should reflect the significance of the book or article from the author's standpoint.

Without rewriting the article, summarize what the author wanted to get across. Be careful not to evaluate in the conclusion or insert any of your own assumptions or opinions.

3. Revising

Check for accuracy. A summary is slightly different than any other creative work -- you must maintain a voice that's current with the author's 100% of the time. Revisit the article as you go over your work -- are you jumping to any conclusions.

Does your summary make the same points as the article itself? Have you omitted anything important? Have you concentrated too much on the finer details?

Ask someone else to read your work. Another person may see an argument or point in a completely different light than you have, giving you a new feel for the work and yours.

Not only should they be comparing your work for accuracy, ask them to read it for flow and summation. Can that person understand the sense of the article by reading your summary? Don't hesitate to ask for criticism; then weigh those criticisms and make valid changes.

Revise your work. Now that you've monitored your work for accuracy and efficacy of tone and writing, make your small changes. Tweak the wording and transitions to make it as easy to read as possible.

Don't forget to look for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors! Your credibility will seriously be questioned if you've glossed over the most basic of mistakes.

Sample summary

In the short story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," author James Thurber humorously presents a character who fantasizes about himself as a hero enduring incredibly challenging circumstances. In his real life, Walter Mitty lives an ordinary, plain life; he is a husband under the control of an overbearing, critical wife. Thurber uses lively dialogue to give readers an understanding of Mitty's character. The story takes place over a period of about twenty minutes; during this brief time, Mitty drives his wife to the hairdresser and runs errands that his wife has given him while he waits for her. In between his worrying that he is not doing what she wants him to do, he daydreams about himself as a great surgeon, brilliant repair technician, expert marksman, and brave military captain. This story shows that fantasy is often a good alternative to reality.

Referencias: http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Summary

http://homepage.smc.edu/reading_lab/writing_a_summary.htm

The different kind of sentences

The beauty of sentences lies in clarity, the choice of words and how effectively the thought flows. If words are pearls then a great sentence can be described as a beautiful pearl necklace. Sentences convey more than meaning; they convey style. Now, when writing sentences, it must be understood that it consists of two important constituents-structure and purpose. The structure of a sentence and, the purpose in which it is used, both go a long way in forwarding its meaning. That is why it is important to know, that in how many ways a sentence can be composed. The entire written language depends on the type of its sentences. Only when one knows the various types then he/she can play with words, thoughts and ideas. In any form of writing, it is the sentences that are the building blocks of the structure of the copy. To help you know more of sentences, given below are the various types in which sentences can be constructed.

Sentences are classified in two ways-structure and purpose.

By Structure

This is a traditional form of classifying sentences wherein, the sentences are classed depending on the number and types of finite clauses.

Simple Sentence

In this type of sentence, there is only one independent clause and no dependent clause. The sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Simple sentences can also contain compound subjects and/or verbs but it doesn't contain any conjunction.

Some students (subject) like (verb) to study in the mornings. Juan (subject) plays (verb) football every afternoon. Alicia (subject) goes (verb) to the library and studies (verb) every day.

Compound Sentence

In this type of sentence, there are multiple independent clauses and no dependent clause. All the clauses are joined together by coordinating conjunctions and/or punctuations. Here, the relationship between the two independent clauses can be changed by the proper use of coordinating conjunctions.

I (subject) tried (verb) to speak Spanish, and my friend (subject) tried (verb) to speak English.

Alejandro (subject) played (verb) football, so Maria (subject) went (verb) shopping. Alejandro (subject) played (verb) football, for Maria (subject) went (verb) shopping.

Complex Sentence

This type of sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. One characteristic of complex sentence is that it has a relative pronoun like 'that', 'who' or 'which' or a subordinator like 'because', 'since', 'when', 'although' or 'after'. If the complex sentence begins with a subordinator then a comma is placed after the dependent clause.

When the sentence begins with an independent clause and the subordinators are in the middle, then there is no need to place a comma after the dependent clause.

When (subordinator) he (subject) handed (verb) in his homework, he (subject) forgot (verb) to give the teacher the last page.

The teacher (subject) returned (verb) the homework after (subordinator) she (subject) noticed (verb) the error.

The students (subject) are studying (verb) because (subordinator) they (subject) have (verb) a test tomorrow.

After (subordinator) they (subject) finished (verb) studying, Juan (subject) and Maria (subject) went (verb) to the movies.

Juan (subject) and Maria (subject) went (verb) to the movies after (subordinator), they (subject) finished (verb) studying.

Compound-Complex Sentence

This type of sentence consists of multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The clauses are connected by both conjunctions and subordinators.

The woman (subject), who (subordinate) my mom (subject) talked to, sells (verb) cosmetics.

The book (subject) that (subordinate) Jonathan (subject) read is (verb) on the shelf. The house (subject) which (subordinate) Abraham Lincoln (subject) was born in is

(verb) still standing. The town (subject) where (subordinate) I (subject) grew up is (verb) in the United

States.

By Purpose

Sentences are also classified based on their purpose.

Declarative Sentence

This type of sentence, also known as a declaration, is generally used to make a statement. This sentence "declares" a fact or opinion and can be either positive or negative. Declarative sentences always end with a period.

I am happy. That bird is flying. I deposited my money in the bank.

Interrogative Sentence

This type of sentence asks a question or request information. However, rhetorical questions do not fall into the category of interrogative sentences. Interrogative sentence always ends with a question mark.

When did you turn the lights off? Do you know how to ride a bike? Please tell me the real reason why you came here?

Exclamatory Sentence

This type of sentence expresses an exclamation; it is a form of statement expressing emotion or excitement. Exclamatory sentences always end with an exclamation mark to emphasize a statement.

“Good night!” she said. Wow! What a dream. What a beautiful sunrise!

Imperative Sentence

This type of sentence is in the form of a command. This is a sentence which tells someone to do something. Imperative sentence, when framed strongly enough, can also be exclamatory. Imperative sentence can also be used to make a request and end with a period.

Please give me that book. Finish all your chores before you go out. I want to eat pizza tonight.

Conditional Sentence

In this type of sentence, a condition is implied and what one would do if the conditions were met. It generally depends on the use of 'if'.

If I had 100 bucks, I would go for an ice cream. I could have done this for you only if I had the time.

Referencia: http://fos.iloveindia.com/types-of-sentences.html

Correct use of Punctuation

Proper Capitalization

Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Unless you're an avant-garde poet or you're starting a sentence with a brand name like "wikiHow" or "iPod," you will need to capitalize the first letter of every sentence.

Here is an example of proper capitalization at the beginning of a sentence:

She invited her friend over after school.

Use capital letters to start proper nouns and titles. In addition to starting sentences, capital letters should also occur at the start of proper nouns and titles. Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, and things. Titles, which are a type of proper noun, are the names of works of art (books, movies, plays, etc.), institutions, geographical areas, and much more. Titles can also be honorifics (Her Majesty, Mr. President, etc.).

Titles and proper nouns consisting of more than one word should have every word capitalized, except for small words and articles like "the," "an," "and," etc. The first word of a title should always be capitalized (with the above "brand name" exception).

Here are a few examples of capital letters being used for proper nouns and titles:

Genghis Khan quickly became the most powerful man in Asia, if not the world.

In her opinion, Queen Roberta's favorite museum in the world is the Smithsonian, which she visited during her trip to Washington, D.C., last year.

Use capital letters for acronyms. An acronym is a word (or a "coined" word) formed from the first letter of every word in a long proper noun or title. Acronyms are frequently used to shorten long proper nouns that would be awkward to reprint in their entirety every time they are mentioned. Sometimes the letters of an acronym are separated by periods.

Here is an example of acronyms made from capital letters:

The CIA and the NSA are just two of the USA's many intelligence agencies.

Using End-of-Sentence Punctuation Marks

Use a period (full stop) to end declarative sentences and statements. Every sentence contains at least one punctuation mark -- the one at its end. The most common of these sentence-ending punctuation marks is the period (".", also called a "full stop"). This simple dot is used to mark the end of a sentence that is declarative. Most sentences are declarative. Any sentence that states a fact or describes or explains an idea is declarative.

Here is an example of a period (full stop) being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

The accessibility of the computer has increased tremendously over the past several years.

Use a question mark to end questions. The question mark ( "?" ) used at the end of a sentence denotes an interrogative sentence -- basically, a question. Use this punctuation mark at the end of any question, query, or inquiry.

Here is an example of a question mark being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

What has humanity done about the growing concern regarding global warming?

Use an exclamation point to end exclamatory sentences. The exclamation point ("!", also called an "exclamation mark" or "shout mark") suggests excitement or strong emphasis. The exclamation point is used to end exclamations -- short expressions of intense emotion that are often only one word long.

Here are two examples of an exclamation point being used correctly at the end of a sentence:

I can't believe how difficult the exam was!

Eek! You scared me!

Using Commas

Use a comma to indicate a break or pause within a sentence. The comma (",") is a very versatile punctuation mark. There are dozens of situations that might require the use of a comma. One frequent case is the appositive -- a break within a sentence that supplements and adds information to the subject.

Here is an example of commas being used to create a break in a sentence:

Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the developer of the operating system known as Windows.

Use a comma when listing three or more items in a series. A common use of commas is to separate items that are being listed in a sequence. Usually commas are written between each of the items and between the second-to-last item and a subsequent conjunction.

However, many writers omit the comma before the conjunction (called a serial comma or "Oxford comma"), as conjunctions like "and" will signal the end of the list even without the final comma.

Here are two examples of commas used in listed series -- one with an Oxford Comma and one without.

The fruit basket contained apples, bananas, and oranges.

The computer store was filled with video games, computer hardware and other electronic paraphernalia.

Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives describing a noun. Sometimes consecutive adjectives are used to describe a single subject with multiple qualities. This use of commas is similar to using them to separate items in a series, with one exception: it is incorrect to place a comma after the final adjective.

Here are examples of correct and incorrect comma usage when it comes to separating adjectives:

CORRECT: The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.

INCORRECT: The powerful, resonating, sound caught our attention.

Use a comma to separate a larger geographical area from a smaller one located within it . Specific geographical places or areas are usually named by starting with the smallest location's name and then proceeding to the larger area. For instance, you might refer to a specific city by naming the city itself, followed by the state or province it is in, followed by the surrounding country. Each geographic name (except the last) is followed by a comma. Note that a comma is used after the last (largest) geographical area if the sentence continues.

Here are two examples of correct comma usage when it comes to naming geographical areas:

I am originally from Hola, Tana River County, Kenya.

Los Angeles, California, is one of the largest cities in the United States.

Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase (which is usually one or more prepositional phrases) briefly introduces the sentence and provides context but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate. Therefore, it should be separated from the main clause by a comma.

Here are two examples of sentences with introductory phrases separated from the rest of the sentence by commas:

After the show, John and I went out to dinner.

On the back of my couch, my cat's claws have slowly been carving a large hole.

Use a comma to separate two independent clauses. Having two independent clauses in a sentence simply means that you could split the sentence into two shorter sentences while preserving the original meaning. If your sentence contains two independent clauses that are separated by a conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor, so, or yet), place a comma before the conjunction.

Here are two examples of sentences containing independent clauses:

Ryan went to the beach yesterday, but he forgot his sunscreen.

Water bills usually rise during the summer, as people are thirstier during hot and humid days.

Use a comma when making a direct address. When calling one's attention by saying his/her name at the start of a sentence, separate the person's name from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Note that this comma is somewhat rare in writing, because this is something normally done while speaking. It's more common for a writer to employ other methods to indicate who is speaking to whom.

Here is an example of a direct address:

Amber, could you come here for a moment?

Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the sentence introducing it. A comma should occur after the word immediately preceding a quotation that is being introduced with context or a description. On the other hand, it is not necessary to use a comma before an indirect quote (where you are paraphrasing someone's words without quoting them exactly). Additionally, a comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting an entire statement, but only a few words from it.

Here is an example of a direct quotation that requires a comma:

While I was at his house, John asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"

Here is an example of an indirect quotation that does not require a comma:

While I was at his house, John asked me if I wanted anything to eat.

Here is an example of a partial direct quotation, which, due to its brevity and its use within the sentence, does not require a comma:

According to the client, the lawyer was "lazy and incompetent."

Using Colons and Semicolons

Use a semicolon to separate two related but independent clauses. The proper use of a semicolon is similar, but not identical, to that of a comma. The semicolon marks the end of one independent clause and the start of another within a single sentence. Note that, if the two clauses are very wordy or complex, it is better to use a period (full stop) and form two sentences instead.

Here's an example of a semicolon being used correctly:

People continue to worry about the future; our failure to conserve resources has put the world at risk.

Use a semicolon to separate a complex series of items . Usually, the items in a series are separated by commas, but for cases in which one or more items require comment or explanation, semicolons can be used in conjunction with commas to keep the reader from becoming confused. Use semicolons to separate items and their explanations from one another. To separate an item from its own explanation, use a comma.

Here's an example of semicolons being used correctly in a list whose meaning might otherwise be ambiguous:

I went to the show with Jake, my close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend, Jenna.

Use a colon to introduce a list. Be careful, however, not to use a colon when stating an idea that requires naming a series of items. The two are similar, but distinct. Often the sentence-ending words "the following" or "as follows" will call for the use of a colon when they are followed by new, explanatory information.

Here's an example of a colon being used correctly in this fashion:

The professor has given me three options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit assignment, or to fail the class.

Here, on the other hand, is an incorrect example:

The Easter basket contained: Easter eggs, chocolate rabbits, and other candy. In this case you would simply omit the colon.

Use a colon to introduce a new concept or example. Colons can also be used after a descriptive phrase or explanation to imply that the next piece of information will be the thing

being described or explained. It can help to think of this as introducing a list containing only one item.

Here's an example of a colon being used properly in this way:

There's only one person old enough to remember that wedding: grandma.

Use a colon to separate parts of a title. Some works of art, particularly books and movies, can have long, subdivided titles. In these cases, what follows the main title is called a subtitle. Use colons to separate them.

Here's an example of colons being used in this way to subdivide lengthy titles:

Fred's favorite movie was The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, though Stacy preferred its sequel, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers.

Using Hyphens and Dashes

Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make the word easier to read. For instance, if you were to leave the hyphen out of the word re-examine, it would be reexamine, where the double "e" could be confusing. Many words do not require a hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo. Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.

Here's an example of good hyphen usage:

Cara is his ex-girlfriend.

Use hyphens when creating compound words from several smaller words. If you've ever written about anything that's gold-plated, radar-equipped, or one-size-fits-all, you've used a hyphen in this way. To build a long, descriptive word out of two or more component words, use hyphens to separate the "pieces" from each other.

Here's an example of a hyphen used to build a compound word:

The up-to-date newspaper reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.

Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen. Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred — if the number is used as an adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated. (This is the one-hundredth episode). Otherwise, a hyphen should occur only if a number lower than 100 is embedded within a larger number, e.g., He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.

Don't use "and" when writing numbers, as in "The amount is one hundred and eighty." This is a common error in the US and Canada, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" can be included.

Here are two examples of hyphens being used in numbers below and above one hundred, respectively:

There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck.

The packaging advertised one thousand two hundred twenty-four firecrackers, but it contained only one thousand.

Use a dash when making a brief interruption within a statement . The dash ("--" or "—") is slightly longer than the hyphen and is used to convey a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification within a sentence. It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement for further clarification, but this should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally as if the dashed material were not there.

To judge whether a dash is appropriate, try to remove the words between the dashes. If the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, you may need to revise it instead of using the dashes.

There should be spaces before and after a dash in British English. Here are two examples of proper dash usage:

An introductory clause is a brief phrase that comes — yes, you guessed it — at the beginning of a sentence.

This is the end of our sentence — or so we thought.

Use a hyphen to split a word between two lines. Though this use is not as common today, the hyphen ("-") was once a common punctuation mark on typewriters, used when a long word had to be split between two lines. This system is still seen in some books, but the justification capacity of computer word processing programs has made this rarer.

Here's an example of a hyphen being used to split a word that's cut into two pieces by a line break:

No matter what he tried, he just couldn't get the novel's elec-trifying surprise ending out of his head.

Using Apostrophes

Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. The apostrophe (" ' ") has a variety of uses for conveying the concept of possession. Be aware of the difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use the apostrophe before the "s" ('s), whereas the plural version of that noun will use the apostrophe after the "s" (s'). This use comes with several stipulations discussed below.

Be mindful of nouns that are always considered to be plural, such as children and people. Here you should use 's even though the nouns are plural.

Also be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as hers and its. (It's means it is or it has). Their is possessive without apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomes theirs.

Here is an example of an apostrophe used to show possession with a singular noun:

The hamster's water tube needs to be refilled.

Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun:

In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be changed.

Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun that doesn't end with "s":

These children's test scores are the highest in the nation.

Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction . Contractions are shortened combinations of two words. For example, cannot becomes can't, "it is" becomes "it's", you are becomes you're, and "they have" becomes they've. In every contraction, the apostrophe replaces the letters that are omitted from one or both words.

Be sure to use the possessive pronoun your and the contraction you're appropriately. It is a common mistake to interchange them.

Here is an example of apostrophes used for a contraction of it is and a singular noun with possession, while correctly being omitted for possessive pronouns (hers, theirs, its):

Friends of hers explained that it's her idea, not theirs, to refill the hamster's water tube and change its bedding.

Use a single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a quotation. Single quotation marks, which look almost identical to apostrophes, are used to separate quotations from other quotations which surround them. Use these carefully: always make sure every quotation mark used to start a quote is paired with a corresponding one at the end of the quote.

Here is an example of a quote-within-a-quote:

Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"

Don't use an apostrophe with an s to make a singular noun into a plural noun. This is a very common mistake. Remember that apostrophes are not used to show the simple pluralization of a noun.

Here are examples of correct and incorrect apostrophe usage:

CORRECT - apple → apples

INCORRECT - apple → apple's

Using Slashes

Use the slash to separate and from or, when appropriate. Slashes ( " / " ) in phrases like and/or suggest that the options described are not mutually exclusive.

Here is an example of good "and/or" usage:

To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate.

Use the slash when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Slashes are especially useful when it is impractical to recreate the original formatting of a poem or song. When using slashes in this way, be sure to include spaces before and after the slashes.

Here is an example of slashes used to mark line breaks in a song:

Row, row, row your boat / Gently down the stream. / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / Life is but a dream.

Also use the slash to replace the word and when joining two nouns. By replacing and with a slash, you suggest that there is equal importance in both options listed. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis where and may not do so, as well as to avoid confusing the reader. You can also do the same for or, as in his/her. However, you should not use the slash to separate independent clauses.

Here are examples of how to use and how not to use a slash in this way:

CORRECT:

"The student and part-time employee has very little free time." →

"The student/part-time employee has very little free time."

INCORRECT:

"Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" →

"Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall?"

Using Miscellaneous Punctuation Marks

Use the double quotation mark ( " ) to enclose a direct quotation derived from either a spoken or written source. Generally speaking, quotation marks are used to denote that the information is a quote. In other words, whether you're recreating someone's verbal speech or simply re-writing something that they wrote elsewhere, you'll use quotation marks.

Below are two examples of quotation mark usage:

"I can't wait to see him perform!" John exclaimed.

According to the article, the value of the dollar in developing nations is "strongly influenced by its aesthetic value, rather than its face value."

Use parentheses to clarify. Parentheses are often used to explain something that can't be deduced from the rest of the sentence. When using parentheses ( " ( ) " ), be sure to include the sentence's period after the closing parenthesis, except in the case that an entire sentence is within parentheses. Note that sometimes parentheses and commas can be used interchangeably.

Here is an example of parentheses used for clarification:

Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.

Use parentheses to denote an afterthought. Parentheses can also be used to contain information that is supplementary to the sentence they are part of. In this case, the line between using parentheses and starting a new sentence instead can be somewhat murky. A good general rule is to use parentheses for short additions and quips, not complex ideas.

Here is an example of parentheses used for an afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parenthesis — not before the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable here, while a period or a semicolon may work:

You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).

Use parentheses for personal comments. One additional usage of parentheses is to contain the writer's direct comments to the reader. Usually, the comments contained in parentheses refer to the preceding sentence. As above, the shorter and simpler the better. If you have to expound at great length or reference several disparate pieces of your writing, it's usually best to start a new sentence.

Here is an example of parentheses used for a personal comment:

Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always interchangeable (I disagree).

Use parentheses for personal comments. One additional usage of parentheses is to contain the writer's direct comments to the reader. Usually, the comments contained in parentheses refer to the preceding sentence. As above, the shorter and simpler the better. If you have to expound at great length or reference several disparate pieces of your writing, it's usually best to start a new sentence.

Here is an example of parentheses used for a personal comment:

Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always interchangeable (I disagree).

Use braces to denote a numeric set in mathematics. Less commonly, braces ( " { } " ) can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal, independent choices.

Here are two examples of brace usage. Note that the second is exceedingly rare:

The set of numbers in this problem is: { 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }

Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.

Referencia: http://www.wikihow.com/Use-English-Punctuation-Correctly

How to write a conclusion

The function of the essay's Conclusion is to restate the main argument. It reminds the reader of the strengths of the argument: that is, it reiterates the most important evidence supporting the argument. Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary as this reduces the impact of the argument you have developed in your essay. The conclusion provides a forum for you to persuasively and succinctly restate your thesis given the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic. Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may also contain a reflection on the evidence presented, or on the essay's thesis. The nature of the reflection will depend on your topic (Woodward-Kron, 1997) but questions such as these may be considered:

What is the significance of your findings? What are the implications of your conclusions for this topic and for the broader field? Are their any limitations to your approach? Are there any other factors of relevance that impact upon the topic but fell outside the

scope of the essay? Are their any suggestions you can make in terms of future research?

The conclusion should match the introduction in terms of the ideas presented and the argument put forward. Sometimes you will find that the process of writing has changed what you have argued and so it will be necessary to go back and reword the introduction. Finally, the conclusion is not the place in your essay to introduce new information or new ideas: these should be in the body of your essay.

Example of an essay conclusion

Essay Question: Italy on the eve of 1860 has often been described as an unlikely nation. Why?

Before 1860, only a tiny minority of the population believed that Italy could ever become a unified nation under one Italian ruler. Yet, despite this belief and the many obstacles blocking the path to unificationsuch as differences and suspicion between the many regions of the peninsula, the lack of planning and common goals that saw many uprisings fail and the divergent views and politics amongst the men who fought for unity, the Piedmont region emerged "... as the nucleus around which the rest of Italy could gather" (Mack Smith, 1959: 17). On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed. Italy was no longer a geographical expression, it was a nation.

reference to essay questionreiteration of thesis pointoverview of main arguments explaining the obstacles to Italy's unificationconcluding comment and reference to essay question

Referencia: http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/essay/4biv.html

How to write a successful Thesis Statement

Whether you are writing a short essay or a doctoral dissertation, your thesis statement will arguably be the most difficult sentence to formulate. An effective thesis statement states the purpose of the paper and therefore functions to control, assert and structure your entire. argument. Without a sound thesis, your argument may sound weak, lacking in direction and uninteresting to the reader.

Getting it Right

State your thesis statement correctly. A thesis statement conveys to the reader the points and/or arguments you wish to make in a paper. It serves as a road map by telling the reader the direction of your argument or analysis and how you will interpret the importance of the subject. In the most simple of terms, a thesis statement answers the question, "What is this paper about?" Additionally, a thesis statement,

It is an assertion, not a fact or observation. Facts are used within the paper to support your thesis.

Takes a stand, meaning it announces your position towards a particular topic. Is the main idea and explains what you intend to discuss. Answers a specific question and explains how you plan to support your argument. Is debatable. Someone should be able to argue an alternate position, or conversely,

support your claims.

Get the sound right. You want your thesis statement to be identifiable as a thesis statement. You do this by taking a very particular tone and using specific kinds of phrasing and words. Use words like "because" and language which is firm and definitive.

Example thesis statements with good statement language include:o "Because of William the Conqueror's campaign into England, that nation

developed the strength and culture it would need to eventually build the British Empire."

o "Hemingway significantly changed literature by normalizing simplistic writing and frank tone."

Know where to place a thesis statement. Because of the role thesis statements play, they appear at the beginning of the paper, usually at the end of the first paragraph or somewhere in the introduction. Although most people look for the thesis at the end of the first paragraph, its location can depend on a number of factors such as how lengthy of an introduction you need before you can introduce your thesis or the length of your paper.

Limit a thesis statement to one or two sentences in length. Thesis statements are clear and to-the-point, which helps the reader identify the topic and direction of the paper, as well as your position towards the subject.

Finding the Perfect Thesis

Pick a topic that interests you. This must be the first step in writing your paper and your thesis statement because all direction of the paper will depend on what topic you are writing about. Unfortunately, you must ignore this step if the topic is decided for you.

Explore your topic. The goal of this step is to find a particular narrow subject in your topic which you can make an argument about. For example, take the topic of computers. There are many aspects of computers that can be expanded on such as hardware, software, and programming. However, vague topics like these do not make good theses. But something more narrow, such as the effects of Steve Jobs on the modern computer industry, allows for a much clearer focus.

Know the type, purpose, and audience of the paper. These are usually assigned by the instructor, but even if you get to choose them, you must understand that these will affect your thesis statement considerably. If you are writing a persuasive paper, your purpose will be to prove something to a specific group. If you are writing a descriptive paper, your purpose will be to describe something to a specific group. Each of these must be expressed in your thesis somehow.

Writing it Well

Keep your thesis statement narrow in scope. You should address a single issue in great detail so that your points can be fully supported in the body of the paper. Consider the following examples:

While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.

The primary problem of the American steel industry is the lack of funds to renovate outdated plants and equipment.

Hemingway's stories helped create a new prose style by employing extensive dialogue, shorter sentences, and strong Anglo-Saxon words.

Start with a question. Regardless of how complicated the subject is, almost any thesis can be constructed by answering a question. For example, pretend you are given the task of writing a report to the school board explaining why computers would be beneficial in fourth grade classrooms. Simply turn the assignment into a question, such as "What are the benefits of using computers in a fourth grade classroom?" and formulate a sentence that will serve as your thesis: "The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth grade classroom are...."

Follow a rigid structure. Knowing the basic formulas will not only keep your thesis within the acceptable length but it will also help you see how your entire argument should be organized. Your thesis should contain two parts:

A clear topic or subject matter A brief summary of what you will say Another way of looking at a thesis is as a formula, or a pattern, that comfortably holds

your ideas:o [Something] [does something] because [reason(s)].o Because [reason(s)], [something] [does something].o Although [opposing evidence], [reasons] show [Something] [does something].

The last example includes a counter-argument, which complicates the thesis but strengthens the argument. In fact, you should always be aware of all counter-arguments against your thesis.[8] Doing so will refine your thesis, and also force you to consider arguments you have to refute in your paper.

Write down your thesis. Writing down a preliminary thesis will get you on the right track and force you to think about it, develop your ideas further, and clarify the content of the paper. You will be able to think about your thesis logically, clearly, and concisely.

There are two schools of thought on thesis timing. Some people say you should not write the paper without a thesis in mind and written down, even if you have to alter it slightly by the end. The other school of thought says that you probably won't know where you're going until you get there, so don't write the thesis until you know what it should be. Do whatever seems best to you.

Enhancing a Thesis

Analyze your thesis statement once you think you have a final, or working, version. The point is to make sure you avoid making any mistakes that can weaken your thesis. To get a better idea of what to do and what to avoid, consider the following pointers:

Never frame your thesis as a question. The job of a thesis is to answer a question, not ask one.

A thesis is not a list. If you're trying to answer a specific question, too many variables will send your paper off-focus. Keep it concise and brief.

Never mention a new topic that you do not intend to discuss in the paper. Do not write in the first person. Using sentences such as, "I will show...," is

generally frowned upon by scholars. Do not be combative. The point of your paper is to convince someone of your

position, not turn them off, and the best way to achieve that is to make them want to listen to you. Express an open-minded tone, finding common ground between different views.

Realize that your thesis does not have to be absolute. Consider it a "working thesis" that's subject to change. As you write your paper you may find that your opinion changes or that your direction has veered slightly. So make sure to continuously re-read your thesis, comparing it to your paper and making the appropriate changes so the two match. Once your paper is finished, go back to your thesis and determine if it needs another revision.

Referencia: http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Thesis-Statement

How to Write a Persuasive Essay

A persuasive essay is an essay used to convince a reader about a particular idea or focus, usually one that you believe in. Your persuasive essay could be based on anything about which you have an opinion. The big difference between a persuasive essay and an argumentative essay is that an argumentative essay relies more heavily on evidence, while a persuasive essay can argue from opinion or emotion.[1] Whether you're arguing against junk food at school or petitioning for a raise from your boss, the persuasive essay is a skill that everyone should know.

Laying the Groundwork

Read the prompt carefully. In most cases, you will be given a specific assignment for your persuasive essay. It’s important to read the prompt carefully and thoroughly.

Look for language that gives you a clue as to whether you are writing a purely persuasive or an argumentative essay. For example, if the prompt uses words like “personal experience” or “personal observations,” you know that these things can be used to support your argument.

On the other hand, words like “defend” or “argue” suggest that you should be writing an argumentative essay, which may require more formal, less personal evidence.

If you aren’t sure about what you’re supposed to write, ask your instructor.

Give yourself time. If you can, make the time to craft an argument you'll enjoy writing. A rushed essay isn’t likely to persuade anyone. Allow yourself enough time to brainstorm, write, and edit.

Whenever possible, start early. This way, even if you have emergencies like a computer meltdown, you’ve given yourself enough time to complete your essay.

Examine the rhetorical situation. All writing has a rhetorical situation, which has five basic elements: the text (here, your essay), the author (you), the audience, the purpose of the communication, and the setting.

The text should be clear and well-supported with evidence (and considered opinion, if it’s allowed).

You, as the author, need to retain credibility by doing necessary research, stating your claims clearly, and providing a fair argument that doesn’t misrepresent facts or situations.

The purpose of the communication here is to convince your readers that your view on your topic is the most correct one.

The setting varies. In many cases, the setting will be a classroom assignment that you turn in for a grade.

Understand the conventions of a persuasive essay. Unless your prompt or assignment states otherwise, you’ll need to follow some basic conventions when writing your persuasive essay.

Persuasive essays, like argumentative essays, use rhetorical devices to persuade their readers. In persuasive essays, you generally have more freedom to make appeals to emotion (pathos), in addition to logic and data (logos) and credibility (ethos).

You should use multiple types of evidence carefully when writing a persuasive essay. Logical appeals such as presenting data, facts, and other types of “hard” evidence are often very convincing to readers.

Persuasive essays generally have very clear thesis statements that make your opinion or chosen “side” known upfront. This helps your reader know exactly what you are arguing.

Consider your audience. What’s persuasive to one person may not be persuasive to another. For this reason, it’s crucial to consider to whom you are targeting your essay. Obviously, your instructor is your primary audience, but consider who else might find your argument convincing.

For example, if you are arguing against unhealthy school lunches, you might take very different approaches depending on whom you want to convince. You might target the school administrators, in which case you could make a case about student productivity and healthy food. If you targeted students’ parents, you might make a case about their children’s health and the potential costs of healthcare to treat conditions caused by unhealthy food. And if you were to consider a “grassroots” movement among your fellow students, you’d probably make appeals based on personal preferences.

Consider your topic. You may have a topic assigned to you. However, if you have to choose your own, there are a few things to consider:

Pick something that appeals to you. Because a persuasive essay often relies heavily on emotional appeals, you should choose to write on something about which you have a real opinion. Pick a subject about which you feel strongly and can argue convincingly.

Look for a topic that has a lot of depth or complexity. You may feel incredibly passionate about pizza, but it may be difficult to write an interesting essay on it. A subject that you're interested in but which has a lot of depth — like animal cruelty or government earmarking — will make for better subject material.

Begin to consider opposing viewpoints when thinking about your essay. If you think it will be hard to come up with arguments against your topic, your opinion might not be controversial enough to make it into a persuasive essay. On the other hand, if there are too many arguments against your opinion that will be hard to debunk, you might choose a topic that is easier to refute.

Make sure you can remain balanced. A good persuasive essay will consider the counterarguments and find ways to convince readers that the opinion presented in your essay is the preferable one. Make sure you choose a topic about which you’re prepared to thoroughly, fairly consider counterarguments. (For this reason, topics such as religion usually aren’t a good idea for persuasive essays, because you’re incredibly unlikely to persuade someone away from their own religious beliefs.)

Keep your focus manageable. Your essay is likely to be fairly short; it may be 5 paragraphs or several pages, but you need to keep a narrow focus so that you can adequately explore your topic. For example, an essay that attempts to persuade your readers that war is wrong is unlikely to be successful, because that topic is huge. Choosing a smaller bit of that topic -- for example, that drone strikes are wrong -- will give you more time to delve deeply into your evidence.

Come up with a thesis statement. Your thesis statement presents your opinion or argument in clear language. It is usually placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. For a persuasive

essay, it’s especially important that you present your argument in clear language that lets your readers know exactly what to expect.[10]

It also should present the organization of your essay. Don’t list your points in one order and then discuss them in a different order.

For example, a thesis statement could look like this: “Although pre-prepared and highly processed foods are cheap, they aren’t good for students. It is important for schools to provide fresh, healthy meals to students, even when they cost more. Healthy school lunches can make a huge difference in students’ lives, and not offering healthy lunches fails students.”

Note that this thesis statement isn’t a three-prong thesis. You don’t have to state every subpoint you will make in your thesis (unless your prompt or assignment says to). You do need to convey exactly what you will argue.

Brainstorm your evidence. Once you have chosen your topic, do as much preparation as you can before you write your essay. This means you need to examine why you have your opinion and what evidence you find most compelling. Here’s also where you look for counterarguments that could refute your point.[11]

A mind map could be helpful. Start with your central topic and draw a box around it. Then, arrange other ideas you think of in smaller bubbles around it. Connect the bubbles to reveal patterns and identify how ideas relate.[12]

Don’t worry about having fully fleshed-out ideas at this stage. Generating ideas is the most important step here.

Research, if necessary. Once you have your ideas together, you may discover that some of them need research to support them. Doing your research before you begin “writing” your essay will make the writing process go smoothly.

For example, if you’re arguing for healthier school lunches, you could make a point that fresh, natural food tastes better. This is personal opinion and doesn’t need research to support it. However, if you wanted to argue that fresh food has more vitamins and nutrients than processed food, you’d need a reliable source to support that claim.

If you have a librarian available, consult with him or her! Librarians are an excellent resource to help guide you to credible research.

Drafting Your Essay

Outline your essay. Persuasive essays generally have a very clear format, which helps you present your argument in a clear and compelling way. Here are the elements of persuasive essays:

An introduction. You should present a “hook” here that grabs your audience’s attention. You should also provide your thesis statement, which is a clear statement of what you will argue or attempt to convince the reader of.

Body paragraphs. In 5-paragraph essays, you’ll have 3 body paragraphs. In other essays, you can have as many paragraphs as you need to make your argument. Regardless of their number, each body paragraph needs to focus on one main idea and

provide evidence to support it. These paragraphs are also where you refute any counterpoints that you’ve discovered.

Conclusion. Your conclusion is where you tie it all together. It can include an appeal to emotions, reiterate the most compelling evidence, or expand the relevance of your initial idea to a broader context. Because your purpose is to persuade your readers to do/think something, end with a call to action.

Come up with your hook. Your hook is a first sentence that draws the reader in. Your hook can be a question or a quotation, a fact or an anecdote, a definition or a humorous sketch. As long as it makes the reader want to continue reading, or sets the stage, you've done your job.

For example, you could start an essay on the necessity of pursuing alternative energy sources like this: “Imagine a world without polar bears.” This is a vivid statement that draws on something that many readers are familiar with and enjoy (polar bears). It also encourages the reader to continue reading to learn why they should imagine this world.

You may find that you don’t immediately have a hook. Don’t get stuck on this step! You can always press on and come back to it after you’ve drafted your essay.

Write an introduction. Many people believe that your introduction is the most important part of the essay, because it either grabs or loses the reader's attention. A good introduction will tell the reader just enough about your essay to draw them in and make them want to continue reading.

Put your hook first. Then, proceed to move from general ideas to specific ideas until you have built up to your thesis statement.

Don't slack on your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is a short summary of what you're arguing for. It's usually one sentence, and it's near the end of your introductory paragraph. Make your thesis a combination of your most persuasive arguments, or a single powerful argument, for the best effect.

Structure your body paragraphs. At a minimum, write three paragraphs for the body of the essay. Each paragraph should cover a single main point that relates back to a part of your argument. These body paragraphs are where you justify your opinions and lay out your evidence. Remember that if you don't provide evidence, your argument might not be as persuasive.

Start with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main point of your paragraph. Make your evidence clear and precise. For example, don't just say: "Dolphins are very

smart animals. They are widely recognized as being incredibly smart." Instead, say: "Dolphins are very smart animals. Multiple studies found that dolphins worked in tandem with humans to catch prey. Very few, if any, species, have developed mutually symbiotic relationships with humans."

When you can, use facts as your evidence. Agreed-upon facts from reliable sources give people something to hold onto. If possible, use facts from different angles to support one argument. For example:

o "The South, which accounts for 80% of all executions in the United States, still has the country's highest murder rate. This makes a case against the death penalty working as a deterrent."

o "Additionally, states without the death penalty have fewer murders. If the death penalty were indeed a deterrent, why wouldn't we see an increase in murders in states without the death penalty?"

Consider how your body paragraphs flow together. You want to make sure that your argument feels like it's building, one point upon another, rather than feeling scattered.

Use the last sentence of each body paragraph to transition to the next paragraph . In order to establish flow in your essay, you want there to be a natural transition from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the next. Here is one example:

End of the first paragraph: "If the death penalty consistently fails to deter crime, and crime is at an all-time high, what happens when someone is wrongfully convicted?"

Beginning of the second paragraph: "Over 100 wrongfully convicted death row inmates have been acquitted of their crimes, some just minutes before their would-be death."

Add a rebuttal or counterargument. You might not be required to do this, but it makes your essay stronger. Imagine you have an opponent who's arguing the exact opposite of what you're arguing. Think of one or two of their strongest arguments and come up with a counterargument to rebut it.

Example: "Critics of a policy allowing students to bring snacks into the classroom say that it would create too much distraction, reducing students’ ability to learn. However, consider the fact that middle schoolers are growing at an incredible rate. Their bodies need energy, and their minds may become fatigued if they go for long periods without eating. Allowing snacks in the classroom will actually increase students’ ability to focus by taking away the distraction of hunger.”

You may even find it effective to begin your paragraph with the counterargument, then follow by refuting it and offering your own argument.

Write your conclusion at the very end of your essay. As a general rule, it's a good idea to restate each of your main points and end the whole paper with a probing thought. If it's something your reader won't easily forget, your essay will have a more lasting impression. Don’t just restate the thesis; think about how you will leave your reader. Here are some things to consider:

How could this argument be applied to a broader context? Why does this argument or opinion mean something to me? What further questions has my argument raised? What action could readers take after reading my essay?

Polishing Your Essay

Give yourself a day or two without looking at the essay. If you've planned ahead, this won't be hard. Then, come back to the essay after a day or two and look it over. The rest will give you a fresh set of eyes and help you spot errors. Any tricky language or ideas that needed time might be revisited then.

Read through your draft. A common error with many student writers is not spending enough time revisiting a first draft. Read through your essay from start to finish. Consider the following:

Does the essay state its position clearly? Is this position supported throughout with evidence and examples? Are paragraphs bogged down by extraneous information? Do paragraphs focus on one

main idea? Are any counterarguments presented fairly, without misrepresentation? Are they

convincingly dismissed? Are the paragraphs in an order that flows logically and builds an argument step-by-

step? Does the conclusion convey the importance of the position and urge the reader to

do/think something?

Revise where necessary. Revision is more than simple proofreading. You may need to touch up your transitions, move paragraphs around for better flow, or even draft new paragraphs with new, more compelling evidence. Be willing to make even major changes to improve your essay.

You may find it helpful to ask a trusted friend or classmate to look at your essay. If s/he has trouble understanding your argument or finds things unclear, focus your revision on those spots.

Proofread carefully. Use the spell checker on your computer to check the spellings of the words (if applicable). Read through your essay aloud, reading exactly what is on the page. This will help you catch proofreading errors.

You may find it helpful to print out your draft and mark it up with a pen or pencil. When you write on the computer, your eyes may become so used to reading what you think you’ve written that they skip over errors. Working with a physical copy forces you to pay attention in a new way.

Make sure to also format your essay correctly. For example, many instructors stipulate the margin width and font type you should use.

Referencia: http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Persuasive-Essay