This content has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text.

Download details:

IP Address: 54.39.106.173

This content was downloaded on 18/08/2021 at 15:20

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

You may also be interested in:

Research Progress in Carbon Dioxide Storage and Enhanced Oil Recovery

Keliang Wang, Gang Wang and Chunjing Lu

Towards a new archaeometry

J W Mayer and M Menu

EPS Euroconference XIX Nuclear Physics Divisional Conference: New Trends in Nuclear Physics

Applications and Technology

The Local Organizing Committee

An approximate solution of the DKP equation under the Hulthén vector potential

S. Zarrinkamar, A. A. Rajabi, B. H. Yazarloo et al.

A method for measuring small permanent magnetic moments of irregularly shaped bodies

A G L M Weijts, J A Poulis and J A Brongers

Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming

John Cook, Naomi Oreskes, Peter T Doran et al.

New insights into the role of Mn and Fe in coloring origin of blue decorations of blue-and-white

porcelains by XANES spectroscopy

Jian Zhu, Wugan Luo, Dongliang Chen et al.

Some examples of GPR prospecting for monitoring of the monumental heritage

Nicola Masini, Raffaele Persico and Enzo Rizzo

IOP Publishing

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural

Heritage Research

Ashutosh Kumar Shukla

Chapter 1

Spectrometry as a non-destructive technique inidentifying cultural archaeological heritage

Eman Osman

When performing research in analytical archaeometry, it is often a requirement notto damage the object as each manipulation involves a certain risk. Therefore,researchers should aim to minimize any potential damage or risk of damage to theartwork. Non-destructive analytical techniques are methods that do not consumethe sample during the analysis; after the analysis, the sample is still available forfurther investigation. Many spectroscopic methods can be considered as non-destructive, whereas other approaches, such as chromatographic techniques, shouldbe considered as destructive. In this chapter, the most used non-destructive testingtechnologies applied in the field of archaeology and in the analysis of monumentalheritage will be considered. Non-destructive testing can provide information ontechnique, age, composition, condition and structural components. Alternatively,the conservator may need information on the stability or underlying condition of theobject. This information is essential in developing the most appropriate treatmentproposal for an object.

1.1 IntroductionArchaeometry is an area of interdisciplinary research involving the developmentand use of physical and chemical methods to reveal and identify the materials andtechnologies used in the past [1]. It also could help in cultural characteristics andadditionally provides more grounded parameters for preservation and conservationof cultural heritage objects for musicologists and restorers [2].

The wide availability of modern analytical instrumentation and methods forthorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of various materials are increasinglyemployed in recent decades in archaeometry. In fact, physico-chemical character-ization of archaeological objects has essentially contributed to the progress in studies

doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-2616-2ch1 1-1 ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2020

of culture heritage. This also has broadened the knowledge of technologies used andof the materials employed in the past, and has led to significant historicalconclusions, and has provided new information about trade, human migration,and penetration of various cultures and technological trends. Some of those methodsalso give a way to date historical objects, which is an important contribution inidentification of archaeological objects [3, 4]. Various analytical methods can also beemployed for dating of material objects and identification of fake art objects [1].

Knowledge of detailed chemical composition of materials used in the past maysignificantly affect methods of restoration and conservation. Information aboutpossible routes of chemical degradation of various materials is often helpful whenidentifying materials employed in the past, and also may result in the developmentof effective methods to preserve particular objects to be protected from furtherdeterioration [5–7].

1.2 Analytical techniques in archaeometryThere is one essential difference between the analysis of ancient and modernmaterials, yet an art object or ancient artifact cannot be replaced, and theconsumption or damaging of even a small part of it for analytical purposes mustbe undertaken only where vital data cannot otherwise be obtained.

Depending on the information required, one might use a combination of truly:Non-invasive techniques: i.e. those which do not require a sample to be removed

from the object, and which leave the object in essentially the same state before andafter analysis (no sampling required) [8, 9].

Micro-destructive techniques: i.e. those which cause small damage to the sampleand often involves some subsampling on a micrometer scale, as in the case of laserablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) [10, 11].

Non-destructive techniques: i.e. a sample or complete object can be re-analyzed(with another technique) for further examination. The distinction between thesetechniques and types of analyzes is of particular importance in the conservation field.Nevertheless research scientists generally use the term ‘non-destructive’ for any of theabove-mentioned analysis methods [12]. In all cases, however, one should aim at themaximization of information and the minimization of the consumed volume [13–15].

1.3 Conservation and restoration testing needsFor conservation and restoration of materials and artifacts of culture-historicalvalue, there is a well-defined need for analytical methods that are able to provideinformation on:

• The chemical nature/composition of selected parts of cultural heritageartifacts and materials in order to elucidate their provenance;

• The state of alteration (on the surface and/or internally) of objects as a resultof short-, medium- and long-term exposure to particular environmentalconditions;

• The effect/effectiveness of conservation/restoration strategies during and afterapplication.

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-2

According to Lahanier et al [16] the ideal method for analyzing objects of artistic,historic or archaeological nature should be:

(a) Non-destructive, i.e. respecting the physical integrity of the material/ object.Often valuable objects can only be investigated when the analysis does notresult in any (visible) damage to the object. Usually this completelyeliminates sampling or limits it to very small amounts;

(b) fast, so that large numbers of similar objects may be analyzed or a singleobject investigated at various positions on its surface; this property is veryvaluable since this is the only way of being able to discern between generaltrends in the data and outlying objects or data points;

(c) universal, so that by means of a single instrument, many materials andobjects of various shapes and dimensions may be analyzed with minimalsample pre-treatment;

(d) versatile, allowing with the same technique to obtain average compositionalinformation as well as local information of small areas (e.g. millimeter tomicron-sized) from heterogeneous materials;

(e) sensitive, so that object grouping and other types of provenance analysis canbe done by means of not only major elements but also trace-elementfingerprints; and

(f) multi-elemental, so that in a single measurement, information on manyelements is obtained simultaneously and, more importantly, information isalso obtained on elements which were not initially thought to be relevant tothe investigation (figure 1.1).

1.4 Non-destructive testing (NDT) classificationsNon-destructive testing (NDT) in their application in the field of preventivearchaeology and the restoration of monumental heritage can be classified into sixprincipal categories:

(i) Visual optical examination;(ii) Penetrating radiation;(iii) Magnetic-electrical;(iv) Mechanical vibration;(v) Thermal; and

Figure 1.1. A schematic diagram represent the interaction between cultural heritage materials, the use ofanalytical techniques and environmental factors [17].

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-3

(vi) Penetrating gas or liquid.

The objective of these methods is to obtain information about more physicalparameters that enable gathering evidence of the invisible anomalies related to:

(1) Discontinuities and separations (cracks, voids, inclusions, etc);(2) Archaeological features (walls, tombs, etc);(3) Structure or abandons (thickness, diameter, gap size,(4) Discontinuity estimate, etc);(5) Physical (electrical, magnetic, thermal), mechanical, and surface properties

(reflectivity, conductivity, elastic modulus, sonic velocity, etc);(6) Stress and dynamic response (residual stress, crack growth, wear, vibration,

etc); signature analysis (image content, frequency spectrum, field config-uration, etc) [18].

M A Rizzutto et al suggested a proposal for the scientific research and divides it intothree basic steps that consist of visual examinations, analysis ‘in situ’ or in laboratorywith non-destructive techniques and finally micro-analysis of some specific points (insome cases it may be micro destructive). The application of the proposed procedureof study should depend on the needed information, and can be integrally or partiallyperformed. All of the suggested steps of analysis are schematically presented infigure 1.2.

1.5 Mobile instrumentationMobile instrumentation is of growing importance to archaeometry research.Equipment is utilized in the field or at museums, thus avoiding transportation orrisk of damage to valuable artifacts [20]. Different factors determine the degree ofmobility of analytical instrumentation, including the weight and size of the instru-ments, their robustness, and their degree of independence of resources (e.g. electricalpower, cooling water, liquid nitrogen, etc). Peter Vandenabeele et al have distin-guished the different types of mobile spectroscopic instruments according to theirsize and weight as in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.2. Recommended outline portrayal for the logical examination exploration of cultural heritageobjects. M A Rizzutto/IFUSP [19].

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-4

– Transportable instrumentation: Most analytical instruments can be consideredas transportable: they can be moved from one lab to another in cars or vansand require some installation when brought in the lab.

– Mobile equipment: Instrumentation typically designed for mobility. Stabilityof the spectrometer was taken into account when designing it, and theoperator does not need to adjust internal parts (e.g. outlining) when it isbrought on site. Usually, no elaborate calibration procedure is required aftermoving the instrument.

– Portable spectrometers: Portable instruments are mobile spectrometers thatcan be carried by a single person. These instruments are often battery-operated and fit in a suitcase or backpack—typically the size of hand luggageallowance for airplanes. Usually these instruments have no moving parts,which enhance the robustness during transport.

– Handheld instruments: These spectrometers can be operated while being heldin the hand by the operator in the appropriate position during themeasurement.

– Palm instrumentation: A palm instrument is a very small instrument that isvery lightweight and has very small dimensions—it fits more or less in thepalm of one’s hand. Due to the very small dimensions, usually spectralresolution is low and these instruments can be used for fast discriminationbetween products with clearly different spectral prop.

Figure 1.3. Examples of the different categories of spectroscopic instrumentation, according to the degree ofmobility [21, 22].

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-5

1.6 Non-destructive spectroscopic analytical methods inarchaeometry

Many spectroscopic techniques are non-destructive and micro-destructive in nature,which preserves the cultural heritage objects themselves. Among the truly non-destructive methods are the spectroscopies based on ultraviolet, visual and infrared(IR) radiations, as well as the x-ray-based methods [12, 23–27]. For this reason,portable and non-destructive spectroscopic techniques have become powerful toolsto analyze the structure and properties of materials of cultural and historical value[28]. On the other hand, most of the spectroscopic analysis methods may beconsidered as micro-destructive techniques. Spectroscopic techniques, such asFourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman, x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and colormeasurements have been applied in situ to study lithic archaeological artifacts [29].These techniques are complementary to each other and they provide information atan atomic level (XRF), while others give insight into the molecular structure(Raman and FTIR). They can be applied to study a diverse range of objects,including polychrome works, ceramics, inks, stamps, alloys or stone artifacts, andother valuable materials [30].

1.6.1 FTIR (Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy)

This technique permits the identification of characteristic vibrations associated withfunctional groups in a given molecule [31, 32]. Typical applications include analysisof paint pigments and binders, lacquers and finishes. FTIR can analyze the degree ofoxidation of protective coatings used to protect objects, and the efficacy of thosecoatings. Non-destructive portable total reflection FTIR also has been applied tocharacterize binders and verify the use of an egg-based medium by the artist on atriptych [33]. Measurement of chemical changes that result from aging is also asignificant area of use for FTIR in support of art conservation efforts [34]. Thecomplexity of FTIR characterization comes mainly from the high degree of infraredabsorption bands overlapping, that are difficult to be accurately ascribed, despite ofthe fact that up to date computer-searchable databases of spectra are currentlyavailable. Regardless all these difficulties, FTIR analysis became the main usedtechnique when specific analytical topics have to be addressed, mainly when non-destructive analysis is needed provides specific information about chemical bondingand molecular structure [35].

1.6.2 Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy can provide fundamental knowledge at molecular level andrequires no special preparation of the sample [36]. Raman spectroscopy, being non-destructive, fast, sensitive, reproducible and less expensive than other techniques isbeing increasingly used for artwork analyzes [37], in particular for pigmentidentification [38]. Raman spectroscopy in fact complements the FTIR analysis[39allowing material identification from particles down to 1 μm. This method has

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-6

already been used for the investigation of different artifacts, including panelpaintings, glass, wall paintings, manuscripts and historical biomaterials [40, 41].

Many of the earliest studies of manuscripts involving Raman spectroscopyfocused upon the analysis of colored mineral pigments in historical manuscriptsfrom which much novel information could be obtained about their composition andpreparation technologies to detect amorphous and graphitic carbon and has beenapplied to the analysis of ancient carbons and carbon-based inks [42, 43].

1.6.3 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a safe, effective and non-destructive (NDT)technique that uses electromagnetic waves to provide high-resolution images of thesubsurface, or to assess the inner status of a structure [44, 45]. It can be successfullyemployed to discover and map buried archaeological artifacts, to inspect ancientbuildings, bridges, columns and statues, to investigate frescoes, mosaics anddecorations; and to study the internal conditions of several other objects of historicalvalue. GPR archaeological surveys started as small-scale approaches to detectburied features and identify their main geometric and physical properties. In the last10 years, thanks to technological advancements of GPR, the sensitivity andresolution of this method has increased and data can be acquired at a much fasterspeed. Therefore, instead of mapping the remains of individual constructions, it isnow possible to explore entire ancient towns and landscapes, covering several squarekilometers rather than hectares [46]. This implies that a higher number of formerlyunknown and otherwise invisible structures can be discovered; more completeinformation about a region of historical interest can be collected; it is possible tofill the gap between different buildings or ruins and study their relations; and thesignificance of a monument can be appreciated much better, because a deepunderstanding of the landscape around it can be achieved [47].

1.6.4 Electromagnetic radiation in the visible region

Digital cameras and high-resolution digital scans have progressively replaced moreconventional photographic equipment as new documentation and recording techni-ques. Photogrammetric techniques are based on obtaining ortho photographicimages and clouds of 2D or 3D scanned points (matrix-oriented or scattered) bymeans of digital cameras or laser scanners, which use different digitizing strategies[48]. Moreover, spectrophotometers in the visible region can be used to measurethe color parameters of the ancient samples to assess the change in color due toageing [13].

1.6.5 Ultraviolet light and fluorescence

This is a common diagnostic tool for the examination of painted surfaces and formonitoring cleaning processes. This method provides information on the composi-tion and specific characteristics of the paint surface, such as retouching andoverpainting. Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) provides images of the

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-7

fluorescence induced by two lasers emitting in the visible and UV ranges andrecovered by a nanosecond time-gated intensified charge coupled device (CCD)camera [48].

1.6.6 Electron spin resonance (ESR)

Electron spin resonance (ESR) which is also known as electron paramagneticresonance (EPR) is a spectroscopic technique that uses the spin magnetic momentof the electron as a probe of its local environment by subjecting them to high-frequency radiation in a strong magnetic field. ESR examination has as of latebecome an alternative of C14 and thermo-radiance dating technique which can beapplied to an assortment of issues in geology, archaeology and palaeoanthropology.ESR spectroscopy is the main strategy for distinguishing, recognizing and evaluatingfree radicals [49]. Changes in the spin of unpaired electrons cause radiation to beingested at specific frequencies [50]. Just unpaired electrons can take part in ESR. Inmost insulating materials for all intents and purposes, all electrons are paired, andtheir magnetic moments canceled. Be that as it may, a couple of unpaired electronsmight be available as electrons or gaps caught at point absconds or situated inincompletely filled d or f shells of transition group ions. These incorporate organicfree radicals, compounds of transition metal ions and defects in solids. ESR issufficiently sensitive to detect unpaired electrons in concentrations sometimes as lowas a few parts per billion [51].

Dating is one of its most significant applications. Numerous materials containingquartz or carbonates could be dated, additionally teeth, speleothems, shells, corals,and even mortars or mortars. Archaeological relics can likewise be examined,prompting the information on antiquated colors and procedures utilized in glasses,oil paintings, or inks [52]. Thoughts of maturing status or procedures can beacquired for organic materials, for example, paper, wood, or leather. The hypo-thetical age scope of ESR dating accuracy lies between two or three thousand and inexcess of a million years [53].

1.7 ConclusionsThis review does not aim to be an exhaustive summary of all non-destructivetechniques which can be applied in the field of cultural heritage research. The use ofanalytical techniques for cultural heritage applications is receiving an increasingamount of attention, both by analytical scientists as well as by people more directlyinvolved with the preservation of our cultural heritage (e.g. art historians, curators,archaeologists, conservators, etc). Apart from the unquestionable need to usevarious analytical techniques in order to maximize the information from minimalsample handling and consumption. In other words a synergistic combination oftechniques which is matched to the problem at hand is required to advance theknowledge required to convert a decaying museum artifact into a protected andinformative public display.

Advanced analytical methods and techniques are an essential prerequisite in thisfield as they provide the means to understand the objects under investigation.

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-8

Through the identification of materials and processes, we can reach back throughtime and develop a deeper understanding of the craftsmanship and technology thatwas used. Advanced analytical methods also allow us to perform authenticity studiesor contribute to the development of simple diagnostic techniques necessary forpractical applied conservation.

References[1] Osman E, Zidan Y and Kamal N 2014 Using the microscopic and spectroscopic techniques

to identify and characteriza archaeological artifacts Int. J. Conserv. Sci. 5 459–68[2] Lahanier C H, Preusser F D and Van Zelst L 1986 Study and conservation of museum

objects: use of classical analytical techniques Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B 14 1–9[3] Adriaens A 2004 European actions to promote and coordinate the use ofanalytical

techniques for cultural heritage studies Trends Anal. Chem. 23 583–6[4] Adriaens A and Demortier G 2004 COST Actions G1 and G8: EU programs onthe use of

radiation in art and archaeometry Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 226 3–9[5] Dumitriu I, Fierascu R C and Ion R M 2009 Analytical methods helping the archaeologists:

archaeometry The analysis of ‘Dunarea de Jos’ University of Galati. FASCICLE IX.Metallurgy and Materials Science No. 1 pp 115–9

[6] Adriaens A 2005 Non-destructive analysis and testing of museum objects: An overview of 5years of research Spectrochim. Acta Part B 60 1503–16

[7] Adriaens A 2004 European actions to promote and coordinate the use of analyticaltechniques for cultural heritage studies Trends Anal. Chem. 23 583–6

[8] Thickett D, Cheung C S, Liang H, Twydle J, Gr Maev R and Gavrilov D 2017 Using non-invasive non-destructive techniques tomonitor cultural heritage objects Insight 59 230–5

[9] Edwards H G M and Vandenabeele P 2012 Analytical Archaeometry-Selected Topics(Cambridge: RSC)

[10] Schreiner M, Grasserbauer M and Fresenius Z 1985 Anal. Chem. 322 181[11] Kyriakou L, Theodoridou M and Ioannou I 2019 Standardised experimental techniques and

novel micro-destructive methods for the assessment of lime mortar properties Int. Conf. onSustainable Materials, Systems and Structures (SMSS 2019), Novel Methods forCharacterization of Materials and Structures (20–22, Rovinj, Croatia)

[12] Cassar J and Degrigny C 2005 The philosophy of the workshop Benefits of Non-destructiveAnalytical Techniques for Conservation ed A Adriaens, C Degrigny and J Cassar(Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Union) pp 9–12

[13] Osman E M, Zidan Y E and Fahim N K 2017 The determination of conservation state ofarchaeological Moroccan Kilim by physical analytical methods Int. J. Cons. Sci. 8 51–8

[14] Ianna C Non-destructive Techniques Used in Materials Conservation https://ndt.net/apcndt2001/papers/1159/1159.htm

[15] Manfredi M, Robotti E, Bearman G, France F, Barberis E, Shor P and Marengo E 2016Direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry for the nondestructive investigation ofconservation treatments of cultural heritag J. Anal. Methods Chem. 2016 1–11

[16] Pedersoli J L Jr 1999 Preprint from the 9th Int. Congress of IADA, Copenhagen p 107[17] Janssens K and Grieken R V 2004 Non-destructive Micro Analysis of Cultural Heritage

Materials vol XLII (Amsterdam: Elsevier)[18] Leucci G 2019 Nondestructive Testing for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (Switzerland:

Springer)

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-9

[19] Rizzutto M A, Curado J F, Bernardes S, Campos P H O V, Kajiya E A M, Silva T F,Rodrigues C L, Moro M, Tabacniks M and Added N 2015 Analytical techniques applied tostudy cultural heritage objects 2015 Int. Nuclear Atlantic Conf.—INAC 2015 (São Paulo,SP, Brazil, 4–9 October)

[20] Vandenabeele P and Donais M K 2016 Mobile spectroscopic instrumentation in archaeo-metry research Appl. Spectrosc. 70 27–41

[21] Vandenabeele P, Edwards H GM and Jehlicka. J 2014 The role of mobile instrumentation innovel applications of Raman spectroscopy: archaeometry, geosciences, and forensics Chem.Soc. Rev. 43 2628–49

[22] Lauwers D, Hutado A G, Tanevska V, Moens L, Bersani D and Vandenabeele P 2014Characterisation of a portable Raman spectrometer for in situ analysis of art objectsSpectrochim. Acta Part A 118 294–301

[23] Smith G D and Clark R J H 2004 Raman microscopy in archaeological science J. Archaeol.Sci. 31 1137–60

[24] Vandenabeele P 2004 Raman spectroscopy in art and archaeology J. Raman Spectrosc. 35607–9

[25] Spoto G 2000 Secondary ion mass spectrometry in art and archaeology Thermochim. Acta365 157–66

[26] Dowsett M G and Adriaens A 2004 The role of SIMS in cultural heritagestudies Nucl.Instrum. Methods B 226 38–52

[27] Salvadó N, Butí S, Tobin M J, Pantos E, Prag A J NW and Pradell T 2005 Advantages of theuse of SR-FT-IRmicrospectroscopy: applications tocultural heritageAnal. Chem. 77 3444–51

[28] Delgado Robles A A, Sil J L R, Claes P and Manrique Ortega M D 2015 Non-destructive insitu spectroscopic analysis of greenstone objects from royal burial offerings of the Mayan siteof Palenque, Mexico Herit. Sci. 3 1–13

[29] Lehmann E H, Vontobel P, Deschler-Erb E and Soares M 2005 Nucl. Instrum. Methods A542 68

[30] Bitossi G, Giorgi R, Mauro M, Salvadori B and Dei L 2005 Spectroscopictechniques incultural heritage conservation: a survey Appl. Spectrosc. Rev. 40 187–228

[31] La Russa M, Ruffolo S, Barone G, Mirocle C, Mazzoleni P and Pezzino A 2009 The use ofFTIR and micro-FTIR spectroscopy: an example of application to cultural heritage Int. J.Spectrosc. 2009 893528

[32] Shillito L M, Almond M J, Wicks K, Marshall L-J R and Matthews W 2009 The use ofFT-IR as a screening technique for organic residue analysis of archaeological samplesSpectrochim. Acta Part A 72 120–5

[33] Magrini D, Bartolozzi G, Bracci S, Ionnaccone R, Marchiafava V and Picollo M 2013 TheSan Pietro Martire Triptych by Beato Angelico: materials characterization by means ofintegrated non-invasive spectroscopic measurements Int. J. Cons. Sci. 4 673–80

[34] Rein A, Higgins F and Leung P T 2013 Handheld FTIR Analysis for the Conservation andRestoration of Fine Art and Historical Objects: Application Note, Materials Testing andResearch www.agilent.com/chem

[35] Litescu S-C, Teodor E D, Truica G-I, Tache A and Radu G-L 2012 Fourier TransformInfrared Spectroscopy—Useful Analytical Tool for Non-destructive Analysis, InfraredSpectroscopy—Materials Science, Engineering and Technology (London: Intech Open)

[36] Bonizzoni L, Bruni S, Fanti G, Tiberio P and Zaffino C 2016 Ageing of flax textiles:Fingerprints in micro-Raman spectra ofsingle fibers Microchem. J. 125 69–74

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-10

[37] Pérez J L, Robador M, Jiménez M, Martínez J, Garofano and Odriozola C et al 2013 Non-invasive analytical techniques applied to characterize the components of ancient goldenmedallions Herit. Sci. 1 4

[38] Barrile V, Fotia A, Ponterio R, MollicaNardo V, Giuffrida D and Mastelloni M A 2019 Acombined study of art works preserved in the archaeological museums: 3D survey,spectroscopic approach and augmented reality The Int. Archives of the Photogrammetry,Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XLII-2/W11, GEORES 2019—2ndInt. Conf. of Geomatics and Restoration (8–10 May 2019, Milan, Italy)

[39] Miliani C, Domenici D, Clementi C, Presciutti F, Rosi F, Buti D, Romani A, Minelli L Land Sgamellotti A et al 2012 Colouring materials of pre-Columbian codices: non invasivein situ spectroscopic analysis of the Codex Cospi J. Archaeol. Sci. 39 672–9

[40] Vandenabeele P, Tate J and Moens L 2007 Non-destructive analysis of museum objects byfiber-optic Raman spectroscopy Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 387 813–9

[41] Bersani D and Madariaga J M 2012 Applications of Raman spectroscopyin art andarchaeology J. Raman Spectrosc. 43 1523–8

[42] Vandenabeele P and Edwards H (ed) 2019 Raman Spectroscopy in Archaeological and ArtHistory vol 2 (London: The Royal Society of Chemistry)

[43] Deneckere A, De Reu M, Martens M P J, De Coene K, Vekemans B, Vincze L, De MaeyerP, Vandenabeele P and Moens L 2011 The use of a multi-method approach to identify thepigments in the 12th century manuscript Liber Floridus Spectrochim. Acta Part A 80 125–32

[44] Persico R 2014 Introduction to Ground Penetrating Radar: Inverse Scattering and DataProcessing (New York: Wiley)

[45] Benedetto A and Pajewski L (ed) 2015 Civil EngineeringApplications of Ground PenetratingRadar.BookSeries:SpringerTransactions inCivil andEnvironmentalEngineering (Berlin: Springer)

[46] Olivares M, Tarrino A, Murelaga X, Baceta J I, Castro K and Etxebarria N 2009 Non-destructive spectrometry methods to study the distribution of archaeological and geologicalchert samples Spectrochim. Acta Part A 73 492–7

[47] Pajewski L, Persico R, Salucci M and Solla M 2017 Ground penetrating radar forarchaeological investigations and cultural-heritage diagnostics: research activities in theCOST action TU1208 IMEKO Int. Conf. on Metrology for Archaeology and CulturalHeritage Lecce (Italy, 23–25 October 2017)

[48] Domènech A and Doménech-Carbó M T 2017 Application of Instrumental Methods in theAnalysis of Historic, Artistic and Archaeological Objects (Berlin: Springer) https://research-gate.net/publication/227177976

[49] Carvajal E, Montes L and Almanza O A 2011 Quaternary dating by electron spin resonance(ESR) applied to human tooth enamel Earth Sci. Res. J. 15 115–20

[50] https://collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/electron-spin-resonance[51] Griscom D L 2001 Amorphous Materials: Electron Spin Resonance, Encyclopedia of

Materials: Science and Technology (Amsterdam: Elsevier)[52] Le Pape L 2016 Application of EPR in studies of archaeological samples Modern Magnetic

Resonance ed G Webb (Cham: Springer)[53] Grün R 1993 Electron spin resonance dating in paleoanthropology Evol. Anthropol. 2 172–81

Spectroscopic Techniques for Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research

1-11