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Population Ecology
By the end of this class you should understand:
• The language of ecology and how to describe a population
• The different types of growth and survivorship curves
• How to identify limiting factors of a population
• How microevolution and niche competition can lead to speciation
Ecology
• Ecology is the study of how organisms behave and interact with each other– Population Ecology is the study of a single
population of animals (all the same species)– Community Ecology is the study of interactions of
populations• Population ecology often closely studies the
size of a population over time– More sex and violence!
Key Population Terms
• Population Size– Number of individuals in a
given population• Population density– How closely packed these
individuals are on average• Population distribution– Whether the individuals are
evenly spread out or clumped in some way
Population Size
• The number of individuals in a population depends on how you define “population”– May be all animals in a particular region– May be the entire species– May be more specific, such as all
female or all with a particular gene• Usually a population includes all
organisms that regularly interbreed– Geographically isolated groups are
usually different populations
Population Size Change• A population’s numbers can change
due to any number of factors– Death of organisms– New organisms being born– Arrival (immigration) and/or leaving
(emigration) of organisms (especially animals)
• If a population’s numbers do not change over time it is never because none of these are happening– This is a stable population and almost
never happens
Why No Stable Population?
• Remember the struggle for existence!– Even if a population is isolated, by natural
selection only the horniest of organisms have reproduced over the years, so they will always be trying to make babies
– Even if there are only limited resources, the impulse to make babies cannot be denied
– Also, there are always predators and disease• A population will only be stable if the birth
and death rates perfectly cancel out– They might on one given year but not constantly
No Predators Or Disease!
• When there is no emigration and no death, a population will experience exponential growth– This means a population will double
in size every generation• Generation time varies wildly by
species– Bacteria: 20 minutes– Humans: 20 years– All species will have the same curve
though
Exponential Growth• Exponential growth cannot be
sustained without unlimited resources– A resource is anything organisms
need to survive• Some resources are in much larger
supply than others and it varies by environment– In the ocean: sunlight is a limited
resource and water is a plentiful resource
– In the desert: sunlight is a plentiful resource and water is a limited resource
Infinite Resources
• It is obviously not possible to have infinite resources– Eventually space and air would become limited
resources
• That means whichever resource runs out first will become a limiting factor– Normally predators, parasites and natural
disasters are also limiting factors by causing death
Limiting Factors
• The limiting factors of a population create a certain theoretical maximum of a population size that would be stable– This limit is called the carrying
capacity• The carrying capacity is dictated by
predators, limited resources, etc. and is not fixed but an average– Environments can be created or
damaged and carrying capacities can be changed!
Environmental Change• During the time of the bible, the
Levant (in the middle east) was a very fertile region that was the birthplace of civilization
• After centuries of overfarming the plains and clear-cutting the forests, it is now a desert– NOT due to climate change!
• Elephants also instigate major changes in local environments, even without climate change
Let’s make a list!
• What are some limiting factors on populations?– Note some of these are density-dependent (more
problematic as organisms are more crowded)– Others are density-independent (no change in
danger as population density increases)
Carrying Capacity
• When a population hits carrying capacity it can hit it in one of two ways:– It can level out at the carrying
capacity (logistic growth)– It can overshoot the capacity and
then crash (windfall pattern)
• If there are many strong limiting factors then you usually see logistic growth
Windfall Pattern• True story: an empty island off the
coast of Alaska had a substantial buildup of moss when some humans left a few reindeer on this island– No predators or disease = lots of
babies!• The population underwent
exponential growth until the moss was all gone, then crashed during a harsh winter– Eventually all the reindeer died
Windfall Population Pattern
Why Is This Relevant?• All populations have carrying
capacities– Including the human population!
• A pre-industrial society has limiting factors like disease and lack of food– Industrial revolutions are
awesome for sanitation and farming
• A post-industrial society has a low birth rate because babies are expensive
Human Population Growth• The world didn’t
hit 1 billion people until around 1800
• Hit 2 billion around 1927
• 4 billion by 1974• 7 billion back in
2012• There are
several projections…
Reproductive Strategies
• Different organisms have different strategies for survival of the species:– Some make tons of babies and
hope they survive– Some put a lot of energy into
keeping each offspring alive
• What are some organisms that are on each extreme?
Survivorship Curve
• Closely related to the reproductive strategy is the survivorship curve– Describes the percentage of a group
of organisms that are alive after a given percent of their maximum lifespan
• Organisms that produce many babies have type III survivorship while organisms that produce few babies but protect them have type I
Survivorship Curves
Microevolution• Microevolution (change in allele
frequencies) can occur due to limiting factors– Something that preferentially kills
large organisms will favor small organisms, etc.
• A good example is guppies in streams that are hunted by other fish– When hunted by larger predators,
smaller guppies result– When hunted by small predators,
larger guppies result
Genetics Over Time
• When small guppies (from streams where they are hunted by large fish) are grown in lab aquariums they are still small– They are expressing more alleles that make them
smaller as adults– Also usually reproductively active sooner
• These microevolutionary changes add up over time– The different pressures can also result in speciation
Advantages of Sizes
• Larger organisms:– Are less vulnerable to smaller predators– May be able to win competition for food and
mates against smaller organisms
• Smaller organisms:– Can be passed over by large predators– Need less food and resources– May become reproductively active sooner
Human Size
• Do you suppose humans have been getting bigger or smaller over the last few hundred years?
• Why?
Adaptive Radiation
• If there is a lot of pressure from competition for resources, the population may undergo speciation to take advantage of new resources– The African seedcrackers show this!
• The sum total of resources a population needs can be thought of as its niche– Species that lose their niche must find a new way
to get their resources quickly or else die out
Genus Panthera• Only a few million years ago,
there was some unnamed species of large cat– Its range covered Africa, Asia and
the Americas• One population became
geographically isolated and became the modern-day Jaguar
• Lions, Tigers and Leopards all still have overlapping ranges (and will very occasionally still interbreed and produce sterile offspring)– So how did that happen?
99 Problems But a Niche Ain’t One• During some of the turmoil of the
ice ages, new niches opened up– WANTED: Large predator that can
use teamwork to bring down large prey; must live in open spaces where pure surprise is difficult
– WANTED: Large predator that hunts without teamwork; must live in jungles where there is more camouflage
– WANTED: Less large predator that can catch and live off smaller prey anywhere
Niche Overlap
• If two species need the same resource, they are in competition for that resource
• The organisms that are in the fiercest competition will probably die off first
• In the case of Lion vs. Leopard, the smallest leopards and largest lions competed with each other the least– Hence, speciation!
More on Monday!
• See you in lab!