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Pollution Control

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POLLUTION

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Pollution control

Environmental managementEnvironmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest, the management of the environment as such, butrather the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. Thethree main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources(money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. Amore common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity.Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. Theconcept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory.Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake,but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake. This element of sustainable exploitation,getting the most out of natural assets, is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, bothliving (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst allliving species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such asthe social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured bysome objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental riskmanagement and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a commonauditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it invarious ways:• The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard [1] is a five level EMS designed for smaller

organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach

• BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps• The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials

or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term• Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to

do the same thing• US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to

large-scale EMS.• The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework.• The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems"using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products intoconsumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases,do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase,better environmental management is achieved without "systems".

Environmental management 89

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach andstresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable toall cases[2] ."Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It'svital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations ofthe law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."[3]

Sustainability and environmental managementAt the global scale and in the broadest sense sustainability and environmental management involves managing theoceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere, according to sustainability principles.[4] [5]

Environmental management journals• Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, ISSN 1618-954X• Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN: 1535-3966 (electronic) 1535-3958

(paper), John Wiley & Sons• Environmental Practice, ISSN: 1466-0474 (electronic) 1466-0466 (paper), Cambridge University Press• Environmental Quality Management, ISSN: 1520-6483 (electronic) 1088-1913 (paper), John Wiley & Sons• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management• Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, ISSN: 1360-0559 (electronic) 0964-0568 (paper),

Routledge• Journal of Environmental Management, ISSN: 0301-4797, Elsevier• Environmental Values

See also• Eco-Management and Audit Scheme• Actor analysis• Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management• Cleaner production• Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety• Department of Environmental Management• Environmental impact assessment• Environmental management system• Environmental management scheme• Environmental Quality Management• Environmental Risk Management Authority• Environmental science• Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM)• ISO 14000• ISO 19011• List of environmental studies topics• Multipurpose reservoir• Planetary boundaries• Deepwater Horizon oil spill

Environmental management 90

References[1] http:/ / www. greendragonems. com[2] Billé, R. (2008) “Integrated Coastal Zone Management: four entrenched illusions”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (2) (http:/ / sapiens. revues. org/ index198.

html)[3] Environmental Management Services (http:/ / www. calicheltd. com/ environmental-services-texas. aspx)[4] "The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users" (http:/ / www. economics.

noaa. gov/ ?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ). NOAA. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.[5] Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th

International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa,2003.

• Schaltegger, Stefan; Burritt, Roger; Petersen, Holger: An Introduction to Corporate Environmental Management.Striving for Sustainability. Sheffield: Greenleaf, 2003 ISBN 1874719659

External links• Economic Costs & Benefits of Environmental Management (http:/ / www. economics. noaa. gov/

?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ) NOAA Economics• business.gov (http:/ / business. gov/ guides/ environment/ ) - provides businesses with environmental management

tips, as well as tips for green business owners] (United States)• Environmental Management Tutorial (http:/ / www. umweltmanagement. me/ ) in German• Low Hock Heng (2003). Globalisation, Business and Environmental Management: to Correct the Broken

Compass? (http:/ / www. fppsm. utm. my/ download/ doc_download/122-globalisation-business-and-environmental-management-to-correct-the-broken-compass. html). JurnalKemanusiaan ISSN 1675-1930 (http:/ / www. fppsm. utm. my/ jurnal-kemanusiaan. html).

Regulation and monitoring of pollutionTo protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislationto regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Regulation and monitoring by region

InternationalSince pollution crosses political boundaries international treaties have been made through the United Nations and itsagencies to address international pollution issues.

Greenhouse gas emissions

The Kyoto Protocol[1] is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries whichratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage inemissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.[1] A total of 141 countries have ratified theagreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia, who have signed but not ratified theagreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhousegases who are also developing countries, like China and India.[2]

An UN environmental conference held in Bali 3–14 December 2007 with the participation from 180 countries aims to replace the Kyoto Protocol, which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference USA, Saudi Arabia and Canada were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day-award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on the

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 91

global climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries.[3]

CanadaIn Canada the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number of organizations depending on thenature of the pollution and its location. The three levels of government (Federal - Canada Wide; Provincial; andMunicipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution.

ChinaChina's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modelled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues todeteriorate.[4] Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its waterdischarges.[5] This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a reportrevealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's StateEnvironment Protection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of prematuredeaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke "social unrest".[6]

EuropeThe basic European rules are included in the Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integratedpollution prevention and control (IPCC) [7] and the National Emission Ceilings Directive.

United Kingdom

In the 1840s, the United Kingdom brought onto the statute books legislation to control water pollution. It wasextended to all rivers and coastal water by 1961. However, currently the clean up of historic contamination iscontrolled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IIA),as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’ found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Actcame into force in England in April 2000.Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controllingpollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of Best Available Techniques ("BAT")to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities toprevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water fromindustrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits tothe environment. The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control(IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integratedpollution prevention and control.

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 92

United States

A polluted ditch along Interstate 25 betweenColorado Springs and Pueblo, Colorado.

The United States Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1963 tolegislate the reduction of smog and atmospheric pollution in general.That legislation has subsequently been amended and extended in 1966,1970, 1977 and 1990. Numerous state and local governments haveenacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locallyimportant gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Actand similar state legislative acts have led to the widespread use ofatmospheric dispersion modeling[8] in order to analyze the air qualityimpacts of proposed major actions. With the 1990 Clean Air Act, theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began acontroversial carbon trading system in which tradable rights to emit aspecified level of carbon are granted to polluters.

Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act required facilities to obtain permits for discharges to navigable waters andestablishment of national discharge standards for municipal sewage treatment plants and many industrialcategories.[9] It required use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges includingnonpoint source pollution. Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of toxic pollutants.[10] In 1987 Congressadded permit coverage for municipal and industrial stormwater discharges.[11]

Congress passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, which created a regulatoryframework for both municipal solid waste and hazardous waste disposed on land.[12] RCRA requires that allhazardous wastes be managed and tracked from generation of the waste, through transport and processing, to finaldisposal, by means of a nationwide permit system. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 mandatedregulation of underground storage tanks containing petroleum and hazardous chemicals, and the phasing out of landdisposal of hazardous waste.[13] The Federal Facilities Compliance Act, passed in 1992, clarified RCRA coverage offederally-owned properties such as military bases. Illegal disposal of waste is punishable by fines of up to $25,000per occurrence.[14]

Passage of the Noise Control Act in 1972 established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually everysource of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of HVAC equipment and major appliances. It alsoput local government on notice as to their responsibilities in land use planning to address noise mitigation. This noiseregulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects. Congress endedfunding of the federal noise control program in 1981, which curtailed development of further national regulations.[15]

The state of California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has maintained anindependent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of Proposition 65 since 1986.See also

• Timeline of major US environmental and occupational health regulation• Superfund - Cleanup program for abandoned hazardous waste sites• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 93

See also• List of environmental issues• Dutch standards, environmental pollutant reference values

References[1] Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf)[2] "President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change" (http:/ / georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov/ news/ releases/ 2001/ 06/ print/

20010611-2. html) (Transcription of speech). 2001-06-11. . Retrieved 2006-04-09.[3] Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations (http:/ / www. fossil-of-the-day. org/ )[4] Ma, Xiaoying and Ortalano, Leonard (2000). Environmental Regulation in China: institutions, enforcement and compliance. Rowman &

Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-9398-8.[5] Sinkule, Barbara J. and Ortolana, Leonard (1995). Implementing Environmental Policy in China. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94980-X.[6] China covers up pollution deaths (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ china-covers-up-pollution-deaths/ 2007/ 07/ 04/

1183351291152. html)[7] http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CELEX:32008L0001:EN:NOT[8] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th Edition ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.

www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com)[9] United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972, (http:/ / www. glin. gov/ download. action?fulltextId=68260&

documentId=67980& glinID=67980) P.L. 92-500, 33 U.S.C.  § 1251 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1251. html) et seq. October18, 1972.

[10] U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, P.L. 95-217, December 27, 1977.[11] U.S. Water Quality Act of 1987, P.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987.[12] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, 42 U.S.C.  § 6901 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 6901. html) et

seq. October 21, 1976.[13] U.S. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.[14] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (2008). "Introduction to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act."

(http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wastes/ inforesources/ pubs/ orientat/ rom1. pdf) Chapter I of RCRA Orientation Manual.[15] EPA. "Noise Pollution." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ air/ noise. html) 2010-05-18.

External links• Environment Agency (England and Wales) (http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov. uk)• Environmental Assessment Agency - Canada (http:/ / www. ceaa-acee. gc. ca/ index_e. htm)• Environmental Protection Agency - USA (http:/ / www. epa. gov)• Extoxnet newsletters (http:/ / ace. orst. edu/ info/ extoxnet/ newsletters/ ghindex. html) - environmental pollution

news. Last update 1998.

Pollution prevention 94

Pollution preventionPollution prevention (P2) describes activities that reduce the amount of pollution generated by a process, whether itis consumer consumption, driving, or industrial production. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, whichseek to manage a pollutant after it is formed and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution preventionapproach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at itssource. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also usethe term pollution prevention to include recycling or reuse.As an environmental management strategy, pollution prevention shares many attributes with cleaner production, aterm used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specializedsub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design).The US Environmental Protection Agency has a number of P2 programs that can assist individuals and organizationsto implement P2[1] .

See also• Source reduction• Cleaner production• Environmentalism• Energy conservation• Green chemistry• Industrial Ecology• Pollution control• Recycling• Waste management

• Extended producer responsibility• Pay As You Throw• Clean Water Act of 1972

References[1] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ p2/ Environmental Protection Agency site

External links• United States National Pollution Prevention Information Center (http:/ / p2rx. org)• United States Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (http:/ / p2ric. org/ TopicHubs/ toc.

cfm?hub=26& subsec=7& nav=7)• NPPR Finds P2 Programs Effective (http:/ / enviro. blr. com/ display. cfm/ id/ 71485/ source/ WKP/ effort/ 6)• P2Gems Pollution prevention directory (http:/ / www. p2gems. org/ )• Southwest Network for Zero Waste (http:/ / www. zerowastenetwork. org)• Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (P2RIC) (http:/ / www. p2ric. org)

Waste management 95

Waste management

A blue wheelie bin in Berkshire, England

Waste management in Kathmandu (Nepal)

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recyclingor disposal, and monitoring of waste materials.[1] The term usuallyrelates to materials produced by human activity, and is generallyundertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment oraesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resourcesfrom it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous orradioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertisefor each.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developingnations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrialproducers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutionalwaste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of localgovernment authorities, while management for non-hazardouscommercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of thegenerator.

Methods of disposal

Integrated waste management

Integrated waste management using LCA (life cycle analysis) attemptsto offer the most benign options for waste management. For mixedMSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies haveindicated that waste administration, then source separation andcollection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fractionand energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic wastefraction via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path. Non-metallicwaste resources are not destroyed as with incineration, and can be reused/ recycled in a future resource depletedsociety.

Plasma gasification

Plasma is a highly ionized or electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of producingtemperatures exceeding 12600 °F (6980 °C). A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at+10000 °F (5540 °C) (the surface temperature of the Sun) in order to create a gasification zone of up to 3000 °F(1650 °C) to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is subjected to this intenseheat within the vessel, the waste’s molecular bonds break down into elemental components. The process results inelemental destruction of waste and hazardous materials.[2]

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. generated 250 million tons of waste in 2008 alone,and this number continues to rise. About 54% of this trash (135000000 short tons ( t)) ends up in landfills and isconsuming land at a rate of nearly 3500 acres (1400 ha) per year. In fact, landfilling is currently the number onemethod of waste disposal in the US. Some states no longer have capacity at permitted landfills and export their wasteto other states. Plasma gasification offers states new opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly forrenewable power generation in an environmentally sustainable manner.[3]

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Landfill

Landfill operation in Hawaii.

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and thisremains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were oftenestablished in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrowpits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienicand relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create anumber of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter,attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Anothercommon byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methaneand carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odourproblems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to containleachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste isnormally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered toprevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills alsohave landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas.Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared offor burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

Incineration

Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna.

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes aresubjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseousproducts.This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solidwaste management and solid residue from waste watermanagement.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to30 percent of the original volume . Incineration and other hightemperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as"thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat,gas, steam and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on alarge scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseouswaste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certainhazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste).Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issuessuch as emission of gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is morescarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) orenergy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steamand/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about

micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs,... which may be created within the incinerator and afterwards in

Waste management 97

the incinerator plume which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around theincinerator. On the other hand this method or the more benign anaerobic digestion produces heat that can be used asenergy.

Recycling

Steel scrap, sorted and baled for recycling.

The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refersto the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materialssuch as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted intocommon types so that the raw materials from which the items are madecan be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may becollected separately from general waste using dedicated bins andcollection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminumbeverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles,glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, andcorrugated fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these are not commonlycollected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle intonew products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult,due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

SustainabilityThe management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditations.Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year. One way to do this is byimproving a company’s waste management with a new recycling service. (such as recycling: glass, food waste, paperand cardboard, plastic bottles etc.)

Biological reprocessing

An active compost heap.

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, foodscraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biologicalcomposting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter.The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost foragricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from theprocess (such as methane) can be captured and used for generatingelectricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. Theintention of biological processing in waste management is to controland accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.

There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods andtechnologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps,to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale enclosed-vesseldigestion of mixed domestic waste (see Mechanical biologicaltreatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated asbeing aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the twomethods also exist.

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Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of MSW Municipal Solid Waste has been found to be in a number ofLCA analysis studies[4] [5] to be more environmentally effective, than landfill, incineration or pyrolisis. The resultingbiogas (methane) though must be used for cogeneration (electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site ofproduction) and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading tosynthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or further refined to hydrogen for use instationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of combustion (SOx,NOx, pariculates, dioxin, furans, PAHs...).An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto, Canada, wherehousehold organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant cuttings) are collected in a dedicated container and thencomposted.

Energy recovery

Anaerobic digestion component of Lübeckmechanical biological treatment plant in

Germany, 2007

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly byusing them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processingthem into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatmentranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, toanaerobic digestion and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel forboilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis andgasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where wastematerials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygenavailability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under highpressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid,liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chenmical products(chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas(syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. Analternative to pyrolisis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermalmonophasic oxidation).

Avoidance and reduction methodsAn important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as wastereduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buyingnew, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouragingconsumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains fromcans, packaging, ...[6] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example,lightweighting of beverage cans [7]).

Waste management 99

Waste handling and transport

A front-loading garbage truck in North America.

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries andregions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by localgovernment authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Someareas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have aformal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systemsinclude:• In Australia, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste.

Every urban domestic household is provided with three bins: one forrecyclables, another for general waste and another for gardenmaterials - this bin is provided by the municipality if requested.Also, many households have compost bins; but this is not provided by the municipality. To encourage recycling,municipalities provide large recycle bins, which are larger than general waste bins. Municipal, commercial andindustrial, construction and demolition waste is dumped at landfills and some is recycled. Household waste issegregated: recyclables sorted and made into new products, and general waste is dumped in landfill areas.According to the ABS, the recycling rate is high and is 'increasing, with 99% of households reporting that theyhad recycled or reused some of their waste within the past year (2003 survey), up from 85% in 1992'. Thissuggests that Australians are in favour of reduced or no landfilling and the recycling of waste. Of the total wasteproduced in 2002–03, '30% of municipal waste, 45% of commercial and industrial waste and 57% of constructionand demolition waste' was recycled. Energy is produced from waste as well: some landfill gas is captured for fuelor electricity generation. Households and industries are not charged for the volume of waste they produce.

• In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system knownas Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutionsinclude the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems.

• In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collectswaste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their wasteby hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.

• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce.Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. Thispolicy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.

• In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly fromcollection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, andhydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvagingrecyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California,Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has beenoperational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tonsof garbage a day.[8]

Waste management 100

TechnologiesTraditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (RadioFrequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to becollected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.• Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups which

is useful when examining the usage of recycling bins or similar.• Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins

or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.• Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste

collection operations.• Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S reasons and video recording devices are becoming more

widely used, particularly concerning residential services and contaminations of the waste stream.

Waste management conceptsThere are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions.Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:

Diagram of the waste hierarchy.

• Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce,reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategiesaccording to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. Thewaste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most wasteminimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extractthe maximum practical benefits from products and to generate theminimum amount of waste.

• Extended producer responsibility - Extended ProducerResponsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration of all costs associated with productsthroughout their life cycle (including end-of-life disposal costs) into the market price of the product. Extendedproducer responsibility is meant to impose accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packagingintroduced to the market. This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell products are required to beresponsible for the products after their useful life as well as during manufacture.

• Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impactcaused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a wastegenerator to pay for appropriate disposal of the waste.

Education and awarenessEducation and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste management university project. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and Chartered Institution of Wastes Management. Many supermarkets encourage customers to use their reverse vending machines to deposit used purchased containers and receive a refund from the recycling fees. Brands that manufacture such

Waste management 101

machines include Tomra and Envipco.In 2010, CNBC aired the documentary Trash Inc: The Secret Life of Garbage about waste, what happens to it whenit's "thrown away", and its impact on the world.[9]

See also• List of waste disposal incidents• List of waste management acronyms• History of waste management• Biomedical waste• Food waste• Recycling• Rubberecycle• Recycling and Waste Management Exhibition (in the UK)• Environmental waste controls• Industrial symbiosis• ISSOWAMA

References[1] "What is Waste Management?" (http:/ / www. wanless. com. au/ what_is_waste_management. html). 2009. .[2] Alliance Federated Energy | What Is Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_what. php)[3] Alliance Federated Energy | Why Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_why. php)[4] Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Technologies (http:/ / www. idosi. org/ gjer/ gjer3(3)09/ 4. pdf)[5] Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Municipal Solid Waste Management in the State of Kuwait (http:/ / www. eurojournals. com/ ejsr_34_3_11.

pdf)[6] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)[7] http:/ / www. psc. edu/ science/ ALCOA/ ALCOA-light. html[8] Sorting through garbage for gold (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&

id=7402:sorting-through-garbage-for-gold& catid=58:environment& Itemid=101), retrieved 2009-11-24[9] Television review: 'Trash Inc.' (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ entertainment/ news/ la-et-secret-garbage-20100929,0,2134032. story), Susan

Carpenter, Los Angeles Times, 29 September 2010

External links• Waste = Food Documentary (http:/ / video. google. nl/ videoplay?docid=-3058533428492266222) - A

documentary on the Cradle to Cradle design concept of Michael Braungart and William McDonough.• Envirowise UK Portal (http:/ / www. envirowise. gov. uk)• "American dumpster: Builders deep-six too much material" (http:/ / www. readthehook. com/ stories/ 2008/ 01/

31/ ONARCH-0705. rtf. aspx)• Analysis of existing methods for refuse processing (http:/ / www. new-garbage. com/ ?id=10235#help2)• Clean Pyrolysis an alternative approach from Intervate (http:/ / www. intervate. co. uk/ )• What is Waste Management? (http:/ / www. wanless. com. au/ what_is_waste_management. html)• Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ energy/ 23406/ ?a=f)

Waste minimisation 102

Waste minimisation

Waste hierarchy

Waste minimisation is the process and thepolicy of reducing the amount of wasteproduced by a person or a society.

Waste minimisation involves efforts tominimise resource and energy use duringmanufacture. For the same commercialoutput, usually the fewer materials are used,the less waste is produced. Wasteminimisation usually requires knowledge ofthe production process, cradle-to-graveanalysis (the tracking of materials from theirextraction to their return to earth) anddetailed knowledge of the composition of the waste.

The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes from the construction anddemolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce [1] . Household waste constitutesa relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in thesupply chain. For example, a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particularpacking because it fits its packaging equipment.In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the top. In contrast to wasteminimisation, waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling,and waste-to-energy conversion.

In industriesIn industries, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will generally reduce the productionof waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative andcommercially successful replacement products. Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the widerenvironment.Waste minimisation often requires investment, which is usually compensated by the savings. However, wastereduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part.There are government incentives for waste minimisation, which focus on the environmental benefits of adoptingwaste minimisation strategies. In the UK, several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and the Dee WasteMinimisation Project, have shown the efficacy of such policies. Fourteen companies in Merseyside took part in theCatalyst Project; the project generated overall savings of £9 million and landfill waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnesper year.The following is a list of waste minimisation processes:Resource optimisation

Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes hand-in-hand with optimisingtheir use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in aparticular way to enable the garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric.

Reuse of scrap materialScraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do notbecome a waste product. Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls

Waste minimisation 103

to the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap arere-incorporated into new products.

Improved quality control and process monitoringSteps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved byincreasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection. For example, installingautomated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.

Waste exchangesThis is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process. Wasteexchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.

Ship to point of useThis involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they areassembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings orenclosures.

Product designWaste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the designstage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make iteasier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life.In some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product, but instead reducethe volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product's life, or the environmental impact of the product'suse. (See section Durability).

Fitting the intended use

In this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use. This applies especially topackaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose. On the otherhand, it could be more wasteful if food, which has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged andspoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.

Durability

Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years instead of 12, can reducewaste and usually much improves resource optimisation.But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its replacement with moreefficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing machine produced 10 years ago may use twiceas much water, detergent and energy as one produced today. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life mayplace a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model. Similarly,older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts.Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product atthe end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste. Recycling a product is easier if it isconstructed of fewer materials. Car manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their carsfrom twenty or more to three or four, hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars. However,exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on glass) do exist, and might enable aproduct to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling plant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Since transport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles

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make. If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greaterthan if the bottle had been designed for a single journey.Many choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to makeinformed decisions.

In householdsThis section details some waste minimisation techniques for householders.Appropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods; buying large containers of paint for a smalldecorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste. Also, if a pack orcan is to be thrown away, any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled [2] .Home composting, the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered wasteminimisation.The resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully (e.g. turning offlights and equipment when it is not needed) and by reducing the number of car journeys made. Individuals canreduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer.Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste. Individualscan minimise their water usage, and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cutdown emissions.In a domestic situation, the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle. Some people may view it aswasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable. Adultsworking full-time have little free time, and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require littlepreparation, or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family.The amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society, and personal wastereduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes. Yet, influence on policy can be exerted in otherareas. Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry andindividuals to change the total resource consumption. Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors byavoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling, which is currently not mandatory, or choosing products thatminimise the use of packaging. In the UK, PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packagingsurveys, in a kerbside packaging recycling classification system to waste minimise. Where reuse schemes areavailable, consumers can be proactive and use them.

References[1] ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Urban Environment (http:/ / www. official-documents. gov. uk/

document/ cm70/ 7009/ 7009. pdf) 2007[2] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)

External links• The Green Organisation's website, homepage. (http:/ / www. thegreenorganisation. info/ )

See also• Cleaner production• Eco-action• source reduction• Reuse• Recycle

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• Food waste• Waste hierarchy• Waste management• Life Cycle Assessment• European Week for Waste Reduction• Miniwaste

106

International treaties

Montreal Protocol

The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as ofSeptember 2006

The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the OzoneLayer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection ofthe Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect theozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substancesbelieved to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty wasopened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered intoforce on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki,May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990(London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believedthat if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer isexpected to recover by 2050.[1] Due to its widespread adoption andimplementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptionalinternational co-operation with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that"perhaps the single most successful international agreement to datehas been the Montreal Protocol".[2] It has been ratified by 196 states.[3]

Terms and purposesThe treaty[4] is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role inozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containingonly fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances see: [5]For each group,including group ST, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances mustbe phased out and eventually eliminated.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management PlanThe stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states:dddc: ...Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances, including ST, can significantly deplete andotherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and theenvironment, ... Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably totalglobal emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis ofdevelopments in scientific knowledge ... Acknowledging that special provision, including ST is required to meet theneeds of developing countries...shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:

from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in1986;from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in

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1986.from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA does not exceed zero.

There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc)and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of theless active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom)53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption andproduction of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time offreezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015.The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foammanufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that haveODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs ODP have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 – 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential(GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 – 2,270.There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in themetered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems[6] ) or Halon fire suppressionsystems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).The substances in Group I of Annex A are:• CFCl3 (CFC-11)• CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)• C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)• C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)• C2F5Cl (CFC-115)The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions onthe current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawnfrom the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances inunderstanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitledScientific assessment of ozone depletion.Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to presentalternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, likein refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements[7] [8] [9]

HistoryIn 1973 Chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for

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Chemistry for their work on this problem.The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of theultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead toan in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such asdamage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbonindustries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fictiontale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (andinventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain aboutRowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. Houseof Representatives in December 1974. As a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects ofthe problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released areport that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.[10] NAS continued to publishassessments of related science for the next decade.Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin shocked the scientific communitywhen they published results of a study showing an ozone "hole" in the journal Nature — showing a decline in polarozone far larger than anyone had anticipated.That same year, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, whichestablished a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances.But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (anassociation representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain tojustify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "we believe that there is no immediatecrisis that demands unilateral regulation."

Multilateral FundThe Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol provides funds to help developing countriesto phase out the use of ozone-depleting substances.The Multilateral Fund was the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty.[11] It embodiesthe principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries havea common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and sevenArticle 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to theMeeting of the Parties on its operations.Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies inthe form of eligible projects and activities.The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$ 2.1 billion over the period 1991to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel,pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.

Montreal Protocol 109

RatificationAs of September 16, 2009, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and thesupranational European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol[12] (see external link below), Timor-Lestebeing the last country to ratify the agreement. Fewer countries have ratified each consecutive amendment. Only 154countries have signed the Beijing Amendment.[13]

In the United States, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L. 101-549) contain provisions for implementing theMontreal Protocol, as well as explicit, separate authority for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ‎ to regulateozone depleting chemicals.Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher signed the protocol in 1987.Letter from Ronald Reagan to the U.S. Senate:"THE WHITE HOUSE Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release December 21, 1987To the Senate of the United States:I transmit herewith, for the advice and consent of the Senate to ratification, the Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer, done at Montreal on September 16, 1987. The report of the Department of State is alsoenclosed for the information of the Senate.The Montreal Protocol provides for internationally coordinated control of ozone-depleting substances in order toprotect public health and the environment from potential adverse effects of depletion of stratospheric ozone. TheProtocol was negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program, pursuant to the ViennaConvention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was ratified by the United States in August 1986.In this historic agreement, the international community undertakes cooperative measures to protect a vital globalresource. The United States played a leading role in the negotiation of the Protocol. United States ratification isnecessary for entry into force and effective implementation of the Protocol. Early ratification by the United Stateswill encourage similar action by other nations whose participation is also essential.I recommend that the Senate give early and favorable consideration to the Protocol and give its advice and consent toratification.Ronald Reagan The White House December 21, 1987"Source - http:/ / www. epa. gov/ history/ topics/ montreal/ 01. htm

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Impact

Ozone-depleting gas trends

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, theatmospheric concentrations of the most importantchlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinatedhydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.[14]

Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as thehalons presently stored in fire extinguishers arereleased, but their rate of increase has slowed and theirabundances are expected to begin to decline by about2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increaseddrastically at least partly because for many uses CFCs(e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) weresubstituted with HCFCs. While there have been reportsof attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g.by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developednations, the overall level of compliance has been high.In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often beencalled the most successful international environmentalagreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found theozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the samethickness for the previous three years,[15] however in2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.[16] The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects ofthe Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in theatmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."[17]

Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought tocontribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a completephase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equallypowerful as greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate ofanthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that humanactivity will change the climate.[18]

Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.[19]

[20] [21] Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.

See also• Ozone depletion• Kyoto Protocol• Refrigerant• R-134a• Greenhouse Gases• Vienna Conference (1985)

Montreal Protocol 111

References[1] Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment New Haven: Yale University Press, pp 95.[2] The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (http:/ / www. theozonehole. com/ montreal. htm)[3] http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/[4] The full terms are available from http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Publications/ MP_Handbook/ Section_1. 1_The_Montreal_Protocol/ .[5] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ ods. html[6] Exemption Information - The Ozone Secretariat Web Site (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Exemption_Information/ )[7] Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf[8] The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp,

1996[9] Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http:/ / homer. ornl. gov/ nuclearsafety/ nsea/ oepa/ guidance/

ozone/ phaseout. pdf[10] National Academy of Sciences (1976). Halocarbons, effects on stratospheric ozone (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=a2YrAAAAYAAJ& dq=Halocarbons:+ Effects+ on+ Stratospheric+ Ozone). Washington, DC. .[11] http:/ / www. multilateralfund. org/ about_the_multilateral_fund. htm[12] http:/ / europa. eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction. do?reference=IP/ 09/ 1328& format=HTML& aged=0& language=EN& guiLanguage=en[13] http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/[14] (http:/ / www. al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)[15] "Top Story - 2001 Antarctic Ozone Hole Similar in Size to Holes of Past Three Years, NOAA and NASA Report - October 16, 2001" (http:/

/ www. gsfc. nasa. gov/ topstory/ 20011016ozonelayer. html). www.gsfc.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.[16] "NOAA News Online (Story 2099)" (http:/ / www. noaanews. noaa. gov/ stories/ s2099. htm). www.noaanews.noaa.gov. . Retrieved

2010-09-16.[17] Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ csd/ assessments/ 2006/ report. html[18] "EIA - Emissions of the Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2005" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ oiaf/ 1605/ ggrpt/ other_gases. html).

www.eia.doe.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.[19] Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing

abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106(49) 20616-20621; doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106

[20] CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." GlobalEnvironmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330-340; doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003

[21] UNEP press release, 2008 http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/ Default. asp?DocumentID=593& ArticleID=6250& l=en&t=long

 This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition" (http:/ /www. umsl. edu/ services/ govdocs/ wofact2003/ index. html). (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)• Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador

Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)• Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5• http:/ / www. multilateralfund. org/

External links• (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ Pages/ ViewDetails. aspx?src=TREATY& id=504& chapter=27& lang=en) The Parties

involved• The Montreal Protocol (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Publications/ MP_Handbook/ Section_1.

1_The_Montreal_Protocol/ )• The Montreal Protocol Who's Who (http:/ / www. unep. fr/ ozonaction/ montrealprotocolwhoswho/ )• THE CFC-OZONE PUZZLE:Environmental Science in the Global Arena (http:/ / www. ncseonline. org/

NCSEconference/ 2000conference/ Chafee/ ) by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina• The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion (http:/ / www. ciesin. org/ docs/ 003-006/

003-006. html) by P. M. Morrisette, Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820 (1989).• Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (http:/ / www.

al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)

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• Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming (http:/ / www. cei. org/ gencon/ 025,01184.cfm) by Ben Lieberman (http:/ / www. cei. org/ dyn/ view_expert. cfm?expert=6)

• Halon and the Ozone Layer (http:/ / www. h3rcleanagents. com/ support_faq_3. htm)• http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 6292142/ Brief-on-Hydro-Chlorofluorocarbons

Kyoto Protocol

Participation in the Kyoto Protocol, as of June 2009, where dark green indicates thecountries that have signed and ratified the treaty, grey is not yet decided and red is no

intention to ratify.

The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol tothe United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed atfighting global warming. TheUNFCCC is an internationalenvironmental treaty with the goal ofachieving "stabilization of greenhousegas concentrations in the atmosphere ata level that would prevent dangerousanthropogenic interference with theclimate system."[1]

The Protocol was initially adopted on11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of July 2010, 191 states havesigned and ratified the protocol.[2]

Under the Protocol, 39 industrialized countries and the European Union(called "Annex I countries") committhemselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphurhexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and allmember countries give general commitments. Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gasemissions by 5.2% from the 1991 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation andshipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.The benchmark 1990 emission levels were accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3)were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report.[3] These figuresare used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO2 equivalents (CO2-eq) whencomputing overall sources and sinks.The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism(CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasingGHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions innon-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances.Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gasemissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominatea person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all ofthe non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto obligations,specifically the "CDM process" that determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by theCDM Executive Board.

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BackgroundThe view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking (NRC, 2001,p. 3,[4] 2008, p. 2).[5] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue through the 21st century.IPCC (2007) produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.[6]

Projections spanned a range due to socio-economic uncertainties, e.g., over future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissionlevels, and uncertainties with regard to physical science aspects, e.g., the climate sensitivity. For the time period2090-2099, measured from global mean temperature in the period 1980-1999, the "likely" range (as assessed to havea greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on expert judgement) across the six SRES "marker" emissionsscenarios was projected as an increase in global mean temperature of 1.1 to 6.4 °C.The scientific question of what constitutes a "safe" level of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations has beenasked (NRC, 2001, p. 4). This question cannot be answered directly since it requires value judgements of, forexample, what would be an acceptable risk to human welfare. In general, however, risks increase with both the rateand magnitude of future climate change.

Ratification processThe Protocol was adopted by COP 3 on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 forsignature by parties to UNFCCC.Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on whichnot less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for atleast 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instrumentsof ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002.[7] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clausewas reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of90 days.As of November 2009, 187 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement,representing over 63.9% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries.[2] The most notable non-party to theProtocol is the United States, which is a party to UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emissionlevels of Annex I countries. The Protocol can be signed and ratified only by parties to UNFCCC, (Article 24) and acountry can withdraw by giving 12 months notice. (Article 27)

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Objectives

Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.

The objective is the "stabilization and reconstruction ofgreenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at alevel that would prevent dangerous anthropogenicinterference with the climate system."[1]

The objective of the Kyoto climate change conferencewas to establish a legally binding internationalagreement, whereby all the participating nationscommit themselves to tackling the issue of globalwarming and greenhouse gas emissions. The targetagreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from1990 levels by the year 2012. According to the treaty,in 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled theirobligations of reduction of greenhouse gases emissionsestablished for the first commitment period(2008–2012) (see Annex B of the Protocol). The Protocol expires at the end of 2012.

The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:• Commitments. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing commitments for the reduction of greenhouse gases

that are legally binding for Annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries.• Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries are required to prepare policies

and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required toincrease the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, theclean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow moregreenhouse gas emissions at home.

• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the

Protocol.

2012 emission targets and "flexible mechanisms"39 of the 40 Annex I countries have ratified the Protocol. Of these 34 have committed themselves to a reduction ofgreenhouse gases (GHG) produced by them to targets that are set in relation to their 1990 emission levels, inaccordance with Annex B of the Protocol. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane,nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. The sixGHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are inaddition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.Under the Protocol, Annex I countries have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets, (formallycalled "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) - Article 4.1) that range from a jointreduction of 8% for the European Union and others, to 7% for the United States (non-binding as the US is not asignatory), 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia. The treaty permits emission increases of 8% for Australia and 10% forIceland.[8] Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.Annex I countries can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have

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excess emissions credits.38 of the 39 Annex I countries have agreed to cap their emissions in this way, two others are required to do so undertheir conditions of accession into the EU, and one more (Belarus) is seeking to become an Annex I country.

Flexible mechanismsThe Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I countries in meeting their emissionreduction commitments (Bashmakov et al.., 2001, p. 402).[9] The flexibility mechanisms are International EmissionsTrading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex Icountries to "trade" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short). For IET, theeconomic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of emission abatement differs among countries.Trade could potentially allow the Annex I countries to meet their emission reduction commitments at a reduced cost.This is because trade allows emissions to be abated first in countries where the costs of abatement are lowest, thusincreasing the efficiency of the Kyoto agreement.The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects.The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitativerestriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions (Toth etal.., 2001, p. 660).[10] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex Icountries, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I countries.The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex B countries in meetingtheir emission reduction commitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measuredagainst a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emissionreduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs);reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" becausethey are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.

International Emissions Trading

The most advanced emissions trading system (ETS) is the one developed by the EU (Gupta et al.., 2007).[11]

Ellerman and Buchner (2008) (referenced in Grubb et al.., 2009, p. 11) suggested that during its first two years inoperation, the EU ETS turned an expected increase in emissions of 1-2 percent per year into a small absolutedecline.[12] Grubb et al.. (2009, p. 11) suggested that a reasonable estimate for the emissions cut achieved during itsfirst two years of operation was 50-100 MtCO2 per year, or 2.5-5 percent.

Clean Development Mechanism

Between 2001, which was the first year CDM projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the Kyotocommitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) inemission reductions.[13] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy, energy efficiency, and fuelswitching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China(52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of thepotential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).

Joint Implementation

The formal crediting period for JI was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did notstart until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).[14] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officiallyapproved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM.Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between theUkraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N2O emissions.

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Details of the agreementAccording to a press release from the United Nations Environment Program:

"After 10 days of tough negotiations, ministers and other high-level officials from 160 countries reachedagreement this morning on a legally binding Protocol under which industrialized countries will reduce theircollective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%.The agreement aims to lower overall emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by 2008–12, calculatedas an average over these five years. Cuts in the three most important gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) – will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-livedindustrial gases – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – canbe measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline."

National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and others, to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan,0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.[8]

The agreement supplements the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted atthe Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any limitations or enforcement mechanisms. Allparties to UNFCCC can sign or ratify the Kyoto Protocol, while non-parties to UNFCCC cannot. The Kyoto Protocolwas adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. Mostprovisions of the Kyoto Protocol apply to developed countries, listed in Annex I to UNFCCC.National emission targets exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use, land usechange, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets (Dessai, 2001, p. 3).[15] LULUCF activities are also called"sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate (IPCC, 2007).[16] Particular criteriaapply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCFactivities under the Protocol (Dessai, 2001, p. 9). Annex I Parties use of forestry management in meeting their targetsis capped.

Common but differentiated responsibilityUNFCCC adopts a principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed that:1. the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed countries;2. per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;3. the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development

needs.[17]

Emissions

Per-capita emissions are a country's total emissions divided by its population (Banuri et al.., 1996, p. 95).[18]

Per-capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developingcountries (Grubb, 2003, p. 144).[19] This is one reason industrialized countries accepted responsibility for leadingclimate change efforts in the Kyoto negotiations. In Kyoto, the countries that took on quantified commitments for thefirst period (2008–12) corresponded roughly to those with per-capita emissions in 1990 of two tonnes of carbon orhigher. In 2005, the top-20 emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions (PBL, 2010. See also the notes in thefollowing section on the top-ten emitters in 2005).[20] Countries with a Kyoto target made up 20% of total GHGemissions.Another way of measuring GHG emissions is to measure the total emissions that have accumulated in the atmosphere over time (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[21] Over a long time period, cumulative emissions provide an indication of a country's total contribution to GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. Over the 1900-2005 period, the US was the world's largest cumulative emitter of energy-related CO2 emissions, and accounted for 30% of total cumulative

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emissions (IEA, 2007, p. 201). The second largest emitter was the EU, at 23%; the third largest was China, at 8%;fourth was Japan, at 4%; fifth was India, at 2%. The rest of the world accounted for 33% of global, cumulative,energy-related CO2 emissions.Top-ten emitters

What follows is a ranking of the world's top ten emitters of GHGs for 2005 (MNP, 2007).[22] The first figure is thecountry's or region's emissions as a percentage of the global total. The second figure is the country's/region'sper-capita emissions, in units of tons of GHG per-capita:1. China1 – 17%, 5.82. United States3 – 16%, 24.13. European Union-273 – 11%, 10.64. Indonesia2 - 6%, 12.95. India – 5%, 2.16. Russia3 – 5%, 14.97. Brazil – 4%, 10.08. Japan3 – 3%, 10.69. Canada3 – 2%, 23.210. Mexico – 2%, 6.4Notes

• These values are for the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production. Calculations are for carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and gases containing fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, PFCs andSF6).

• These estimates are subject to large uncertainties regarding CO2 emissions from deforestation; and the per countryemissions of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are also other large uncertainties which mean that smalldifferences between countries are not significant. CO2 emissions from the decay of remaining biomass afterbiomass burning/deforestation are not included.

• 1 excluding underground fires.• 2 including an estimate of 2000 million tonnes CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of peat soils after draining.

However, the uncertainty range is very large.• 3 Industrialised countries: official country data reported to UNFCCC

Financial commitmentsThe Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supplytechnology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed inUNFCCC.

RevisionsThe protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attemptedto resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputesbetween the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada,Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions wereadopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get Japanand Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of theprotocol.

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The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United NationsClimate Change Conference.The 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.Of the signatories, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union)agreed to a 10%emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations,[23] much largerincreases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increasein greenhouse gas emission since 1990).[24] Reduction limitations expire in 2013.

EnforcementIf the enforcement branch determines that an annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, thenthat country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspendedfrom making transfers under an emissions trading program.[25]

NegotiationsArticle 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions (Grubb,2003, p. 144).[19] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by theyear 2000. The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyotomoved to binding commitments.At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 (a coalition of 77 developing nations within theUN) was able to push for a mandate where it was recognized that (Liverman, 2008, p. 12):[26]

• developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere• developing country emissions per-capita were still relatively low• and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.This mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emissionreduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large potential for growth in developingcountry emissions made negotiations on this issue tense (Grubb, 2003, p. 145-146). In the final agreement, the CleanDevelopment Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developingcountries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. The general assumption was that developing countries wouldface quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meettheir first round commitments.

Base year

The choice of the 1990 base year remains in Kyoto, as it does in the original Framework Convention. The desire tomove to historical emissions was rejected on the basis that good data was not available prior to 1990. The 1990 baseyear also favoured several powerful interests including the UK, Germany and Russia (Liverman, 2008, p. 12).[26]

This is because the UK and Germany had high CO2 emissions in 1990.In the UK following 1990, emissions had declined because of a switch from coal to gas ("dash for gas"), which haslower emissions than coal. This was due to the UK's privatization of coal mining and its switch to natural gassupported by North sea reserves. Germany benefitted from the 1990 base year because of its reunification betweenWest and East Germany. East Germany's emissions fell dramatically following the collapse of East German industryafter the fall of the Berlin Wall. Germany could therefore take credit for the resultant decline in emissions.Japan promoted the idea of flexible baselines, and favoured a base year of 1995 for HFCs. Their HFC emissions hadgrown in the early 1990s as a substitute for CFCs banned in the Montreal Protocol (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). Some ofthe former Soviet satellites wanted a base year to reflect their highest emissions prior to their industrial collapse.

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Emissions cuts

The G77 wanted strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world of 15% (Liverman, 2008, p. 13).[26]

Countries, such as the US, made suggestions to reduce their responsibility to reduce emissions. These suggestionsincluded:• the inclusion of carbon sinks (e.g., by including forests, that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere).• and having net current emissions as the basis for responsibility, i.e., ignoring historical emissions.The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiationsof the first (Grubb, 2003, p. 148).[19] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than2005. Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in thesubsequent period.The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO2, CH4, and N2O – with other gases such as HFCsregulated separately (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it couldmake a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs.The most vulnerable nations – the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts bydeveloped nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.The final days of negotiation of the Protocol saw a clash between the EU and the US and Japan (Grubb, 2003,p. 149). The EU aimed for flat-rate reductions in the range of 10-15% below 1990 levels, while the US and Japansupported reductions of 0-5%. Countries that had supported differentiation had different ideas as to how it should becalculated, and many different indicators were proposed: relating to GDP, energy intensity (energy use per unit ofeconomic output), etc. According to Grubb (2003, p. 149), the only common theme of these indicators was that eachproposal suited the interests of the country making the proposal.The final commitments negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises (Liverman,2008, p. 13-14). These include an 8% cut from the 1990 base year for the EU, 7% for the US, 6% for Canada andJapan, no cut for Russia, and an 8% increase for Australia. This sums to an overall cut of 5.2% below 1990 levels.Since Australia and the US did not ratify the treaty (although Australia has since done), the cut is reduced from 5.2%to about 2%.Considering the growth of some economies and the collapse of others since 1990, the range of implicit targets ismuch greater (Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 7).[27] The US faced a cut of about 30% below "business-as-usual" (BAU)emissions (i.e., predicted emissions should there be no attempt to limit emissions), while Russia and other economiesin transition faced targets that allowed substantial increases in their emissions above BAU. On the other hand, Grubb(2003, p. 151) pointed out that the US, having per-capita emissions twice that of most other OECD countries, wasvulnerable to the suggestion that it had huge potential for making reductions. From this viewpoint, the US wasobliged to cut emissions back more than other countries.

Flexibility mechanisms

Negotiations over the flexibility mechanisms included in the Protocol proved controversial (Grubb, 2003, p. 153).[19]

Japan and some EU member states wanted to ensure that any emissions trading would be competitive andtransparent. Their intention was to prevent the US from using its political leverage to gain preferential access to thelikely surplus in Russian emission allowances. The EU was also anxious to prevent the US from avoiding domesticaction to reduce its emissions. Developing countries were concerned that the US would use flexibility to its ownadvantage, over the interests of weaker countries.

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Compliance

The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penaltiesfor non-compliance."[28] According to Grubb (2003, p. 157), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of thetreaty are weak compared to domestic law.[19] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in theMarrakesh Accords. According to Grubb (2003), Japan made some unsuccessful efforts to "water-down" thecompliance package.

Government action and emissions

Carbon emissions from various global regions during the period1800–2000 AD

Annex I

In total, Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC (including theUS) managed a cut of 3.3% in GHG emissions between1990 and 2004 (UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).[29] In 2007,projections indicated rising emissions of 4.2% between1990 and 2010. This projection assumed that no furthermitigation action would be taken. The reduction in the1990s was driven significantly by economicrestructuring in the economies-in-transition (EITs. Seethe following section for the list of EITs). Emissionreductions in the EITs had little to do with climatechange policy (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[14] Somereductions in Annex I emissions have occurred due topolicy measures, such as promoting energy efficiency(UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).

Progress towards targets

Progress toward the emission reduction commitments set in the Kyoto Protocol has been mixed. World Bank (2008,p. 6) reported that there were significant differences in performance across individual countries:[30]

• For the Annex I non-Economies-in-Transition (non-EIT) Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, emissions in 2005 were5% higher than 1990 levels (World Bank, 2008, p. 59). Their Kyoto target for 2008-2012 is for a 6% reduction inemissions. The Annex I non-EITs KP Parties are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France,Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand,Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

• The Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) KP Parties emissions in 2005 were 35% below 1990 levels. TheirKyoto target is for a 2% reduction. The Annex I EIT KP Parties are Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine.

• In 2005, the Annex I non-KP Parties emissions were 18% above their 1990 levels. The Annex I non-KP Partiesare Turkey and the United States.

• In total, the Annex I KP Parties emissions for 2005 were 14% below their 1990 levels. Their Kyoto target is for a4% reduction.

KP Parties

According to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, 2009), the industrialized countries with aKyoto target will, as a group, probably meet their emission limitation requirements.[31] Collectively, this was for a4% reduction relative to 1990 levels. A linear extrapolation of the 2000-2005 emissions trend led to a projectedemission reduction in 2010 of almost 11%. Including the potential contribution of CDM projects, which may accountfor emissions reductions of approximately 500 megatonnes CO2-eq per year, the reduction might be as large as 15%.

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The expected reduction of 11% was attributed to the limited increase in emissions in OECD countries, but wasparticularly due to the large reduction of about 40% until 1999 in the EITs. The reduction in emissions for thesmaller EITs aids the EU-27 in meeting their collective target. The EU expects that it will meet its collective targetof an 8% reduction for the EU-15. This reduction includes:• CDM and JI projects, which are planned to contribute 2.5% towards the target;• carbon storage in forests and soils (carbon sinks), which contribute another 0.9%.Japan expects to meet its Kyoto target, which includes a 1.6% reduction from CDM projects and a 3.9% reductionfrom carbon storage, contributing to a total reduction of 5.5%. In other OECD countries, emissions have increased.In Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Switzerland, emissions have increased by 25% compared to the base year,while in Norway, the increase was 9%. In the view of PBL (2009), these countries will only be able to meet theirtargets by purchasing sufficient CDM credits or by buying emissions ("hot air") from EIT countries.Non-KP Parties

Emissions in the US have increased 16% since 1990. According to PBL (2009), the US will not meet its originalKyoto target of a 6% reduction in emissions.[31]

Non-Annex IUNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[32] Most reportingnon-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income (p. 4). MostParties included information on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development prioritiesmentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care (p. 6).Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include globalconcerns such as climate change (p. 7).A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions could affect theireconomies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production,processing, and export of fossil fuels.Emissions

GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq. CO2 was thelargest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%).The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sectorwas the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122non-Annex I Parties.• The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.• The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of

2.6 tonnes.• The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of

4.6 tonnes.• The "other" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Republic of Moldova, and the former

Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of5.1 tonnes.

Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a smalldifference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, totalaggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.Trends

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In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, andIran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).[31] For example, emissions in China have risen stronglyover the 1990-2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, forthe most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emissionreduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policyprogramme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.

Views on the ProtocolGupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments ofthe UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.[33]

In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The FrameworkConvention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.World Bank (2010, p. 233) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing globalemissions growth.[13] The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but by 2005, energy-related emissions had grown 24%.World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries toassist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[26] Thishas particularly centred on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world toclimate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," and possiblybecause they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions(Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 9).[27] In 2001, sixteen national science academies[34] stated that ratification of the Protocolrepresented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases."[35]

Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000,p. 5).[36]

Many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified (Grubb, 2000, p. 31). The lack ofquantitative emission commitments for developing countries led the US and Australia (under Prime Minister JohnHoward) to decide not to ratify the treaty (Stern 2007, p. 478).[37] Australia, under former Prime Minister KevinRudd, has since ratified the treaty. Despite ratification, Australia has thus far not implemented legislation to bringitself into compliance.In May 2010 the Hartwell Paper was published by the London School of Economics with funding from the JapanIron and Steel Federation, Tokyo, Japan and Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc., Tokyo, Japan .[38]

The authors argued that after what they regard as the failure of the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Summit, the KyotoProtocol crashed and they claimed that it "has failed to produce any discernable real world reductions in emissionsof greenhouse gases in fifteen years."[38] [39] They argued that this failure opened an opportunity to set climate policyfree from Kyoto and the paper advocates a controversial and piecemeal approach to decarbonization of the globaleconomy.[40] [41] [42]

SuccessorIn the non-binding 'Washington Declaration' agreed on 16 February 2007, Heads of governments from Canada,France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and SouthAfrica agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisage a global cap-and-tradesystem that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and hoped that this would be inplace by 2009.[43] [44]

Kyoto Protocol 123

On 7 June 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8 summit agreed that the G8 nations would "aim to at least halve global CO2emissions by 2050". The details enabling this to be achieved would be negotiated by environment ministers withinthe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in a process that would also include the majoremerging economies.[45]

A round of climate change talks under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) (Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007) concluded in 31 August 2007 with agreement on keyelements for an effective international response to climate change.[46]

A key feature of the talks was a United Nations report that showed how efficient energy use could yield significantcuts in emissions at low cost.The talks were meant to set the stage for a major international meeting to be held in Nusa Dua, Bali, which started on3 December 2007.[47]

The Conference was held in December 2008 in Poznań, Poland. One of the main topics on this meeting was thediscussion of a possible implementation of avoided deforestation also known as Reducing emissions fromdeforestation and forest degradation (REDD) into the future Kyoto Protocol.[48]

After the lack of progress leading to a binding commitment or an extension of the Kyoto commitment period inclimate talks at COP 15 in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009, there are several further rounds of negotiation COP 16 inCancun, Mexico in 2010, South Africa in 2011 (COP 17), and in either Qatar or South Korea in 2012 (COP 18).Because any treaty change will require the ratification of the text by various countries' legislatures before the end ofthe commitment period Dec 31, 2012, it is likely that agreements in South Africa or South Korea/Qatar will be toolate to prevent a gap between the commitment periods.[49]

See also• Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate• Business action on climate change• Carbon emission trading• Carbon finance• Environmental agreements• Environmental tariff• List of climate change initiatives• Low-carbon economy• Montreal Protocol• Politics of global warming• World People's Conference on Climate Change

References[1] "Article 2" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ essential_background/ convention/ background/ items/ 1353. php). The United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change.. . Retrieved 15 November 2005. "Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allowecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development toproceed in a sustainable manner"

[2] "Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/ kyoto_protocol/ status_of_ratification/ application/ pdf/ kp_ratification.pdf) (PDF). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2009-01-14. . Retrieved 2009-05-06.

[3] "Methodological issues related to the Kyoto protocol" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ cop3/ 07a01. pdf#page=31). Report of theConference of the Parties on its third session, held at Kyoto from 1 to 11 December 1997, United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange. 1998-03-25. . Retrieved 2010-02-13.

[4] NRC (2001). "Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions" (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10139).National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.. . Retrieved 2010-02-11.

[5] NRC (2008). "Understanding and Responding to Climate Change" (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ dels/ rpt_briefs/ climate_change_2008_final. pdf).Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ basc), US National Academy of Sciences. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.

Kyoto Protocol 124

[6] IPCC (2007). "3. Projected climate change and its impacts. In (book section): Summary for Policymakers. In (book): Climate Change 2007:Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (Core Writing Team et al. (eds.))" (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ syr/ en/ spms3. html). Print version: CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. . Retrieved 2010-03-18.

[7] European Union (2002-05-31). "European Union ratifies the Kyoto Protocol" (http:/ / europa. eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/ 02/ 794& format=HTML& aged=0& language=EN& guiLanguage=en). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-02-13.

[8] United Nations Environment Programme (1997-12-11). "Industrialized countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2%" (http:/ / unfccc.int/ cop3/ fccc/ info/ indust. htm). Press release. . Retrieved 2007-08-06.

[9] Bashmakov, I. et al. (2001). "Chapter 6 Policies, Measures, and Instruments" (http:/ / www. grida. no/ publications/ other/ ipcc_tar/ ?src=/climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg3/ 454. htm). In B. Metz et al. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the ThirdAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y.,U.S.A.. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.

[10] Toth, F.L. et al. (2001). "Decision-making Frameworks." (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ publications_and_data_reports.htm). In B. Metz et al. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. . Retrieved2010-01-10.

[11] Gupta, S. et al. (2007). "13.3.3.4.2 Flexibility provisions. In (book chapter): Policies, instruments, and co-operative arrangements." (http:/ /www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ wg3/ en/ ch13s13-3-3-4. html). In B. Metz et al.. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contributionof Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Print version: CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. . Retrieved 2010-04-02.

[12] Grubb, M. et al. (3 August 2009). "Climate Policy and Industrial Competitiveness: Ten Insights from Europe on the EU Emissions TradingSystem" (http:/ / www. climatestrategies. org/ our-reports/ category/ 17/ 204. html). Climate Strategies. . Retrieved 2010-04-14.

[13] World Bank (2010). "World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change" (http:/ / go. worldbank. org/ BKLQ9DSDU0).The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. . Retrieved2010-04-06.

[14] Carbon Trust (March 2009). "Global Carbon Mechanisms: Emerging lessons and implications (CTC748)" (http:/ / www. carbontrust. co. uk/Publications/ pages/ publicationdetail. aspx?id=CTC748& respos=2& q=global+ carbon+ market& o=Rank& od=asc& pn=0& ps=10).Carbon Trust website. . Retrieved 2010-03-31.

[15] Dessai, S. (2001). "The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?" (http:/ / www. tyndall. ac. uk/content/ climate-regime-hague-marrakech-saving-or-sinking-kyoto-protocol). Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12. Tyndall Centre website. .Retrieved 2010-05-05.

[16] IPCC (2007). "Glossary J-P. In (section): Annex II Glossary. In (book):" (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ syr/ en/annexessglossary-j-p. html). In Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A.. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I,II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team,. IPCC, Geneva,Switzerland (web version). ISBN 9291691224. . Retrieved 2010-05-28.

[17] "The full text of the convention" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ essential_background/ convention/ background/ items/ 1353. php). The United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change. . Retrieved 5 November 2006.

[18] Banuri, T. et al. (1996). "Equity and Social Considerations.". In J.P. Bruce et al.. Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions ofClimate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. doi:10.2277/0521568544. ISBN 9780521568548.

[19] Grubb, M. (July-September 2003). "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol" (http:/ / www. econ. cam. ac. uk/ rstaff/ grubb/ publications/ J36.pdf). World Economics 4 (3): 143–189. . Retrieved 2010-03-25.

[20] PBL (24 February 2010). "Dossier Climate Change: FAQs. Question 10: Which are the top-20 CO2 or GHG emitting countries?" (http:/ /www. pbl. nl/ en/ dossiers/ Climatechange/ FAQs/ index. html?vraag=10& title=Which are the top-20 CO2 or GHG emitting countries?#10).Netherlands Environment Agency website. . Retrieved 2010-05-01.

[21] IEA (2007). "World Energy Outlook 2007 Edition- China and India Insights" (http:/ / www. iea. org/ publications/ free_new_Desc.asp?PUBS_ID=1927). International Energy Agency (IEA), Head of Communication and Information Office, 9 rue de la Fédération, 75739Paris Cedex 15, France. pp. 600. . Retrieved 2010-05-04.

[22] MNP (2007). "Greenhouse gas emissions of countries in 2005 and ranking of their per capita emissions" (http:/ / www. pbl. nl/ images/Top20-CO2andGHG-countries-in2006-2005(GB)_tcm61-36276. xls). Netherlands Environment Agency website. . Retrieved 2010-05-01.

[23] "The Kyoto protocol – A brief summary" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ environment/ climat/ kyoto. htm). European Commission. . Retrieved2007-04-19.

[24] "Kyoto Protocol" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ kyoto_protocol/ background/ items/ 3145. php). UNFCCC. 2008-05-14. . Retrieved 2009-05-21.[25] "An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol Compliance Mechanism" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ kyoto_mechanisms/ compliance/ introduction/ items/

3024. php). UNFCC. . Retrieved 2006-10-30.[26] Liverman, D.M. (2008). "Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere" (http:/ / www.

eci. ox. ac. uk/ ~dliverma/ CV/ JHGE07-17. pdf). Journal of Historical Geography 35: 279. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008. . Retrieved2009-08-08.

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[27] Aldy, J.E. et al. (September 9, 2003). "Thirteen Plus One: A Comparison of Global Climate Policy Architectures" (http:/ / belfercenter. ksg.harvard. edu/ publication/ 17261/ thirteen_plus_one. html). Climate Policy 3 (3): 373–397. doi:10.1016/j.clipol.2003.09.004. . Retrieved2010-04-02.

[28] Compliance with the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change, S. Maljean-Dubois, Synthèse, n° 01, 2007, Institute for Sustainable Developmentand International Relations. (http:/ / www. iddri. org/ Publications/ Collections/ Syntheses/Compliance-with-the-Kyoto-Protocol-on-Climate-Change)

[29] UNFCCC (19 November 2007). "Compilation and synthesis of fourth national communications. Executive summary. Note by thesecretariat. Document code: FCCC/SBI/2007/INF.6" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ documentation/ documents/ advanced_search/ items/ 3594.php?rec=j& priref=600004368#beg). United Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland. . Retrieved 2010-05-17.

[30] World Bank (2008). "Development and Climate Change: A Strategic Framework for the World Bank Group: Technical Report" (http:/ /beta. worldbank. org/ overview/ strategic-framework-development-and-climate-change). The International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment / The World Bank. 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[31] PBL (October 16, 2009). "Industrialised countries will collectively meet 2010 Kyoto target" (http:/ / www. pbl. nl/ en/ dossiers/ COP13Bali/moreinfo/ Industrialised-countries-will-collectively-meet-2010-Kyoto-target. html). Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL)website. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[32] UNFCCC (25 October 2005). "Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial national communications from Parties not included in Annex I tothe Convention. Note by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document code FCCC/SBI/2005/18" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ documentation/documents/ advanced_search/ items/ 3594. php?rec=j& priref=600003578#beg). United Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland. . Retrieved2010-05-20.

[33] Gupta, S. et al. (2007). "13.3.1 Evaluations of existing climate change agreements. In (book chapter): Policies, instruments, and co-operativearrangements." (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ wg3/ en/ ch13s13-3-1. html). In B. Metz et al. Eds.. Climate Change 2007:Mitigation.. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Printversion: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. . Retrieved 2010-04-02.

[34] the Australian Academy of Science, the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Sciences and the Arts, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences,the Royal Society of Canada, the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, theGerman Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, the Indian National Science Academy, the Indonesian Academy of Sciences, the RoyalIrish Academy, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), the Academy of Sciences Malaysia, the Academy Council of the Royal Society ofNew Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society (UK)

[35] Joint academies' statement (May 18, 2001). "The Science of Climate Change (editorial)" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ short/292/ 5520/ 1261). Science 292 (5520): 1261. doi:10.1126/science.292.5520.1261. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[36] Grubb, M. (April 2000). "The Kyoto Protocol: An Economic Appraisal. FEEM Working Paper No. 30 2000" (http:/ / ssrn. com/abstract=229280). SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.229280. . Retrieved 2010-04-02.

[37] Stern, N. (2007). "Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (pre-publication edition)" (http:/ / www. hm-treasury. gov. uk/sternreview_index. htm). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. . Retrieved 2010-02-25.

[38] Prins, Gwyn et. al (May 2010). "The Hartwell Paper - A new direction for climate policy after the crash of 2009" (http:/ / eprints. lse. ac. uk/27939/ 1/ HartwellPaper_English_version. pdf). London School of Economics. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[39] Mike Hulme (2010-05-11). "After the crash - a new direction for climate policy" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8673828.stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[40] Andrew C. Revkin (2010-05-11). "A Tough Observer of Climate Prescriptions" (http:/ / dotearth. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 05/ 11/a-tough-observer-of-climate-prescriptions/ ?ref=earth). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[41] "Oblique strategies" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ international/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=16099521). The Economist.2010-05-11. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[42] "Do You Heart 'The Hartwell Paper'?" (http:/ / news. sciencemag. org/ scienceinsider/ 2010/ 05/ do-you-heart-the-hartwell-paper. html).Science Insider. 2010-05-12. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.

[43] "Politicians sign new climate pact" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 6364663. stm). BBC. 2007-02-16. . Retrieved 2007-05-28.[44] "Global leaders reach climate change agreement" (http:/ / environment. guardian. co. uk/ climatechange/ story/ 0,,2014683,00. html).

Guardian Unlimited. 2007-02-16. . Retrieved 2007-05-28.[45] "Breakthrough on climate protection" (http:/ / www. g-8. de/ nn_92160/ Content/ EN/ Artikel/ __g8-summit/

2007-06-07-g8-klimaschutz__en. html). G8 Summit 2007 Heiligendamm. 2007-06-07. . Retrieved 2007-06-07.[46] United Nations (2007-08-31). "Vienna UN conference shows consensus on key building blocks for effective international response to

climate change" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/ press/ news_room/ press_releases_and_advisories/ application/ pdf/20070831_vienna_closing_press_release. pdf) (PDF). Press release. . Retrieved 2007-10-12.

[47] CBC News (2007-12-03). "UN climate change conference hails Australia Kyoto signing" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 12/ 03/un-climate. html). Press release. .

[48] Walsh, Bryan (2008-12-04). "Green Banks: Paying Countries to Keep their Trees" (http:/ / timeinc8-sd11. websys. aol. com/ time/ nation/article/ 0,8599,1864302,00. html). Time Magazine. . Retrieved 2009-05-21.

[49] UNFCCC (2010-07-20). "Legal considerations relating to a possible gap between the first and subsequent commitment periods" (http:/ /unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ 2010/ awg13/ eng/ 10. pdf). Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the KyotoProtocol. . Retrieved 2010-08-03.

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Further reading• Depledge, J. (August 1999/August 2000). "Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article

Textual History" (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ tp/ tp0200. pdf). UNFCCC Technical paper. Retrieved2009-05-20.

• Ekardt, F./von Hövel, A.: Distributive Justice, Competitiveness, and Transnational Climate Protection. In:Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 3., 2009, p. 102–114.

• Kogan, Lawrence A. (June 2002). "The U.S. Response to the Kyoto Protocol – A Realistic Alternative?" (http:/ /blogs. shu. edu/ projects/ diplomacy/ archives/ 5_kogan. pdf). The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy andInternational Relations, Volume III, Number 2. Retrieved 2001-10-20.

Economics• Weyant, J.P. (ed) (May 1999). "The Costs of the Kyoto Protocol: A Multi-Model Evaluation" (http:/ / emf.

stanford. edu/ publications/ the_costs_of_the_kyoto_protocol_a_multimodel_evaluation/ ). Energy Journal(Special issue). Retrieved 2009-08-08. From this issue:• Manne, A.S. and R. Richels. The Kyoto Protocol: A Cost-Effective Strategy for Meeting Environmental

Objectives? (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ dataoecd/ 38/ 53/ 1923159. pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.• Nordhaus, W.D. and J.G. Boyer. Requiem for Kyoto: An Economic Analysis of the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ /

www. econ. yale. edu/ ~nordhaus/ homepage/ Kyoto. pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.

External links• Full text of the Kyoto Protocol (HTML version) (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. html), (PDF

version) (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf) (Alternate HTML version) (http:/ / kyoto.internationalnetwork. com/ )

• Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org (http:/ / law-ref.org/ KYOTO/ index. html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents

• List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ / unfccc. int/ files/essential_background/ kyoto_protocol/ application/ pdf/ kpstats. pdf)

• The layman's guide to the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ / mindprod. com/ environment/ kyoto. html)• 2008 [[Cap and trade (http:/ / lieberman. senate. gov/ documents/ amendment. pdf)] Bill in the U.S. Senate]• The case against carbon trading by The Rising Tide Environmentalist Group (http:/ / risingtide. org. uk/ book/

print/ 101)• Text of the Protocol (http:/ / www. worldinbalance. net/ intagreements/ 1997-kyotoprotocol. php) at the Center for

a World in Balance• Kyoto: On Target? - Google Docs (https:/ / spreadsheets. google. com/

ccc?key=0AmCeWwNKr6FmdGZLWGotWGNfcUtYWmkyalJIb21vbnc& hl=en<br ></ a>#gid=0)

CLRTAP 127

CLRTAPThe Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP,is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution,including long-range transboundary air pollution.The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and entered into force on 1983-03-16.The current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.

Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution signatories(green) and ratifications (dark green) as of July 2007

The Convention, which now has 51Parties, identifies the ExecutiveSecretary of the United NationsEconomic Commission for Europe(UNECE) as its secretariat.

Since 1979 the Convention onLong-range Transboundary AirPollution has addressed some of themajor environmental problems of theUNECE region through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eightprotocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants.The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce andprevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies tocombat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring.The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive Body to review ongoing work and plan future activitiesincluding a workplan for the coming year. The three main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Effects, theSteering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention'sImplementation Committee, report to the Executive Body each year.Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols,implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on EasternEurope, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information withother regions of the world.Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003 edition

See also• Critical load• Environmental agreements• Gothenburg (Multi-effect) Protocol

External links• CLRTAP Homepage [1] at the UNECE website

References[1] http:/ / www. unece. org/ env/ lrtap/

OSPAR Convention 128

OSPAR Convention

The official logo of the OSPARConvention

The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of theNorth-East Atlantic [1] or OSPAR Convention is the current legislativeinstrument regulating international cooperation on environmental protection in theNorth-East Atlantic. It combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention ondumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources ofmarine pollution. Work carried out under the convention is managed by theOSPAR Commission, which is made up of representatives of the Governments ofthe 15 signatory nations, and representatives of the European Commission,representing the European Community.

HistoryThe Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic was opened for signature atthe Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in Paris on September 22, 1992. The Convention hasbeen signed and ratified by all of the Contracting Parties to the original Oslo or Paris Conventions (Belgium,Denmark, the European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) and by Luxembourg andSwitzerland. The OSPAR Convention entered into force on March 25, 1998, and replaced the Oslo and ParisConventions, but decisions and other agreements adopted under those conventions remained applicable unless theyare terminated by new measures adopted under the OSPAR Convention.The first Ministerial Meeting of the OSPARCommission at Sintra, Portugal, in 1998 adoptedAnnex V to the Convention, extending the cooperationof the signatory parties to cover "all human activitiesthat might adversely affect the marine environment ofthe North East Atlantic". Nevertheless, programmesand measures cannot be adopted under the Conventionon questions relating to fisheries management, whichare currently coordinated by European nations in thenorth east Atlantic and North Sea by the InternationalCouncil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). TheOSPAR convention now regulates European standardson marine biodiversity, eutrophication, the release ofhazardous and radioactive substances into the seas, theoffshore oil and gas industry and baseline monitoringof environmental conditions.

In 2000, the OSPAR Commission published acomprehensive report on the quality of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. This was supported byfive smaller reports on the different parts of the OSPAR maritime area –the Arctic, the Greater North Sea, the CelticSeas, the Bay of Biscay/Golfe de Gascogne and Iberian waters, and the Wider Atlantic.

OSPAR Convention 129

See also• Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft

External links• http:/ / www. ospar. org/

References[1] http:/ / www. ospar. org/ html_documents/ ospar/ html/ OSPAR_Convention_e_updated_text_2007. pdf

Stockholm Convention 130

Stockholm Convention

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

The logo of the Stockholm Convention Secretariat

Type oftreaty

United Nations treaty

SignedLocation

23 May 2001Stockholm, Sweden

EffectiveCondition

17 May 2004Ninety days after the ratification by at least 50signatory states

Signatories 152

Parties 169

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish

     State parties to the StockholmConvention as of May 2009.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty that aims toeliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

HistoryIn 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action tobe taken on POPs, which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate throughthe food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme onChemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of

Stockholm Convention 131

dioxins and furans.Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and addedto the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of newchemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.As of December 2008, there are 168 parties to the Convention.[1]

Listed substancesThere were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene andpolychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.[2]

Annex Name CASNumber

Exemptions

A. Elimination Aldrin 309-00-2 Production noneUse as a local ectoparasiticide and insecticide

A. Elimination Chlordane 57-74-9 Production by registered partiesUse as a local ectoparasiticide, insecticide, termiticide (includingin buildings, dams and roads) and as an additive in plywoodadhesives

A. Elimination Dieldrin 60-57-1 Production noneUse in agricultural operations

A. Elimination Endrin 72-20-8 None

A. Elimination Heptachlor 76-44-8 Production noneUse as a termiticide (including in the structure of houses andunderground), for organic treatment and in underground cableboxes

A. Elimination Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1 Production by registered partiesUse as a chemical intermediate and a solvent for pesticides

A. Elimination Mirex 2385-85-5 Production by registered partiesUse as a termiticide

A. Elimination Toxaphene 8001-35-2 None

A. Elimination Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various Production noneUse in accordance with part II of Annex A

B. Restriction DDT 50-29-3 Disease vector control in accordance with Part II of Annex BProduction and use as an intermediate in the production ofdicofol and other compounds

C. UnintentionalProduction

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins("dioxins") and polychlorinateddibenzofurans

various

C. UnintentionalProduction

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various

C. UnintentionalProduction

Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1

Added by the Fourth Conference of Parties, May 2009These modifications will come into force on 26 August 2010, except for countries that submit a notificationpursuant to the provisions of paragraph 3(b) of Article 22.[3]

Stockholm Convention 132

Annex Name CASNumber

Exemptions

A. Elimination α-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-84-6 None

A. Elimination β-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-85-7 None

A. Elimination Chlordecone 143-50-0 None

A. Elimination Hexabromobiphenyl 36355-01-8 None

A. Elimination Hexabromodiphenyl etherand heptabromodiphenyl ether

various Production noneUse recycling and reuse of articles containingthese compounds

A. Elimination Lindane 58-89-9 Production noneUse Human health pharmaceutical for control ofhead lice and scabies as second line treatment

A. Elimination & C.Unintentional Production

Pentachlorobenzene 608-93-5 None

A. Elimination Tetrabromodiphenyl etherand pentabromodiphenyl ether

various Production noneUse recycling and reuse of articles containingthese compounds

B. Restriction Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), its salts andperfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (PFOSF)

various Production for permitted usesUse various uses specified in part III ofAnnex B

ControversiesAlthough some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in realitythe treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector).[4] [5]

[6] From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, andenvironmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need forresearch.[7]

References[1] http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Countries/ StatusofRatification/ tabid/ 252/ language/ en-US/ Default. aspx[2] Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. "Measures to reduce or eliminate POPs" (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ docs/ publications/

sc_factsheet_001. pdf) (PDF). Geneva. . Retrieved 12 June 2009.[3] Depostary notification (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ download. aspx?d=UNEP-POPS-COP-NOTIF-DN-CN524-2009. English. pdf),

Secretary-General of the United Nations, 26 August 2009, , retrieved 2009-12-17.[4] Curtis, C. F. (2002), "Should the use of DDT be revived for malaria vector control?", Biomedica 22 (4): 455–61, PMID 12596442.[5] 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention (http:/ / www. who. int/ malaria/ docs/ 10thingsonDDT. pdf),

World Health Organization, 2005, .[6] Bouwman, H. (2003), "POPs in southern Africa" (http:/ / 192. 129. 24. 144/ licensed_materials/ 0698/ bibs/ 3003o/ 3003o0297. htm),

Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3O: Persistent Organic Pollutants, pp. 297–320, .[7] Bouwman, H. (2004), "South Africa and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants", Sth. Afr. J. Sci. 100 (7/8): 323–28.

Stockholm Convention 133

External links• Official site (http:/ / www. pops. int/ )

• Text of the Convention (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ Repository/ convention_text/UNEP-POPS-COP-CONVTEXT-FULL. English. PDF)

Article Sources and Contributors 134

Article Sources and ContributorsPollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395402959  Contributors: .snoopy., 168..., 16@r, 5 albert square, @pple, A little insignificant, ABF, AJR, APsci, Aarchiba,Abeg92, Absroks, Acalamari, Acather96, AdamCarden, Addihockey10, AdjustShift, Adriaan, Adrian, Aeidein, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajor, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alejrb, Aliensvortex, Alksub, Alloquep, AnakngAraw, Anand Karia, Anaraug, Anarchangel, Andrei Stroe, Andrewhiteisgay, Andrewrp, Andy M. Wang, Andy120290, AndySpeed, Andyjsmith,Anenglishperson, Angela, Anitaisme, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Anon169, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Antidemon, Anurag.yadav090, Aqwis, Arjun01, Arnack, Arpit123,Arthena, Arturo zuniga, Asterion, AutoGeek, Avicennasis, Avoided, Awesomeness, Awotter, Aymatth2, AzureFury, Badgernet, Banes, Bargains001, Barthandelus, Basar, Battoe19, Bejnar,Beland, Ben Ben, Bhadani, Bidgee, Big Brother 1984, Bigger digger, Bill37212, Black-Velvet, Blackangel25, BlankVerse, Blossom ananya, Bluezy, Bobby H. Heffley, Bobet, Bobo192,Bogdangiusca, Bookofjude, BostonMA, Bowlhover, Brent bray, Brockle, Brugess36, Burgercat, Burzmali, C.Fred, C6541, CALR, CUSENZA Mario, Cactus.man, Cadmium, Caelarch, Caffeine,Calmer Waters, Calor, Caltas, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Canderson7, Caper13, Capricorn42, Casmith 789, Casper2k3, Cenarium, Cgingold, Chani072398,CharlotteWebb, Chcknwnm, Cherry blossom tree, Cherrylips 15, Christian75, Christopher Parham, Chriswaterguy, Chuunen Baka, Cinnamon42, Citizen Premier, CleanUp2, Cleverclogs1234,Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll, Codetiger, Coemgenus, ColetteHoch, Confession0791, Connormah, Controlfreak0, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmos416, Courcelles, Cptmurdok, Curps,Cwilliamsdog, D0li0, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHeyward, DSRH, DVD R W, DVdm, DabMachine, Dadude3320, Daniel Collins, Daniel5127, Daron48813, Davewho2, Davewild, DavidKernow, David Shankbone, DavidRader, Davidzukovny, Dbiel, Dean1970, Deenoe, Deli nk, Deniz Feneri, Dephuna, DerHexer, Destructo111, Dfa881, Dhs, Diannaa, Dice4321, Dino,Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Dlary, DogNewTricks, Donarreiskoffer, Donkeynilasish, Doulos Christos, Download, Drmies, Drs4ever, Drstuey, Dungodung, Durova, ERcheck, Earth, EarthPerson,Econrad, Ecw.technoid.dweeb, Ed Poor, Edgar181, EdoDodo, Edward, Edward321, Egmontaz, El C, ElectricEye, Elfino, Emiljosthomas, Emmettco, Enauspeaker, Epbr123, Epipelagic,Eras-mus, EricWesBrown, EronMain, Esfandieasil, Estonofunciona, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Ex nihil, Excirial, Ezzex, FF2010, Fabricationary, Fagopyrum, Fang Aili, Fanghong, Fanra,Fastilysock, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Finlay McWalter, Fizzred, Flewis, Flo98, Flyguy649, FlyingPenguins, Fratrep, Frecklefoot, Frosted14, Furrykef, Fæ, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius,Geoffspear, George The Dragon, George100, GeorgeStepanek, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Ginsengbomb, Glandrid, Glane23, Glen, Glenn, Gobbleswoggler, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldom,Gopy333, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Graham87, Granitethighs, Gtg179u, Guanaco, Gueneverey, Gunnville, Gurch, Gwernol, H Padleckas, Haakon, Hagedis, Haha2014, Haham hanuka, HalJor,Happysailor, Harishreddya6991, Haukurth, Headbomb, Healthvalue, Heimstern, Helix84, Henrik, Heron, Hitrish, Hmrox, Hockey294, Holon67, Hoo man, Housecat Monkey, Hu12, Humussapiens, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperandy, IGlowInTheDark, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IJA, IRP, Ialsoagree, Ibbn, Iced Kola, Immunize, Imnotminkus, ImperfectlyInformed, Incantation,Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Infrogmation, Intelligentsium, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, It Is Me Here, Ivang, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal, JLaTondre, JNW, JRR Trollkien,JTSchreiber, Ja 62, Jackmonk, Jagged 85, Jake1237, JamesAM, JamesBWatson, Jandrewc, Janedeer, Jeandré du Toit, Jeff3000, Jeffh822, Jesse0307, Jhon montes24, Jj137, Jklin, JodyB,JoeSmack, Joel Russ, John, JohnJohn, Johnbrownsbody, JonatasM, Jons63, Jordansege, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jrockley, Jrtayloriv, Jusdafax, JustforI, Jwalte04, Katherine, Kctony, Ke5crz,Keegan, Kennyer39, Kevin B12, Kf4bdy, Khukri, Kils, Kingpin13, Knucmo2, Kribbeh, Kster45, Kurieeto, L Kensington, LLDMart, LOL, LUCKY GAURAV, La goutte de pluie, Lakersdude09,Lankiveil, Lbr123, LeaveSleaves, LeinaD natipaC, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Levineps, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lijnema, Linuxbeak, LizardJr8, Lmblackjack21, LokiV, Lost tourist, Lotje,Luk, Luna Santin, MC MasterChef, MC10, MER-C, MJ94, MONGO, Mac, Mack782, Madhero88, Majorly, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Manu bcn, MapleTree, Mardenpb1, Marek69,MarkSutton, Markco1, MastCell, Master of Puppets, Matticus78, Mauro100, Maxí, Mbertsch, Mbeychok, McSly, Mechanical digger, MeekSaffron, Melissa1995, Mentality, Mentifisto, Mercury,MichaelBillington, Midgrid, Miguool, Mikael Häggström, MikeCapone, Mikegrant, Mikemill, Mikeo, Minna Sora no Shita, Mintleaf, Minwu, Miranda, Mkbnett, Mkfwd, Modulatum, Modupeadetifa, Molerat, MonoAV, Montelatici, Mookie25, Mordgier, Morven, Motownnw17, Mr. Quickling, Mr. XYZ, MrOllie, Mrs Trellis, Mwanner, Mwilso24, N5iln, NJA, Nagy, Nakon, Natalya,NawlinWiki, Ndkl, Nehrams2020, NeilN, Neko-chan, Neonblak, Nerd 2, NewEnglandYankee, Newsroom hierarchies, Nibuod, Nick, Nicknw909, NigelR, Nikis7 denisse, Nilfanion, Nixeagle,Nomoretalking1976, Nopetro, Ocolon, Od Mishehu, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Omicronpersei8, Onceler, Onkelschark, Opelio, Ori.livneh, Oschoonover, PKn, PM800, PRRfan, Pakaraki,Paleorthid, Pan Dan, Pascal.Tesson, Paul August, Peaface25, Pekaje, Peruvianllama, PeterSymonds, Peterlewis, Pgk, Ph.D.Nikki, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phil153, PhilipTrueman, Philippe, Pill, Pinderpower, Pinethicket, Poccil, Poetic Decay, Pollinator, Pollutionfighter, Porqin, Prof.glue, Prolog, PuzzletChung, Pwelleman, Pyroflames0, Qaz2, Queen Rhana,Quietust, Quintote, Qxz, RB972, RJaguar3, RaCha'ar, Rafael Archuleta, Rahul31singh31, RandomStringOfCharacters, Ratinator, Raul654, Raylena, Rdash, Reach Out to the Truth, Redthoreau,Reguiieee, Remi0o, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RichAromas, Richard001, Richard416282, Riotrocket8676, Rjwilmsi, Rljohnson37, Rob011, Robert Merkel, Roberta F., Rockstone35,Rokbas, Ronhjones, Rory096, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Ryt, S.s23shipra, SCEhardt, SMG Bailey, SQGibbon, Sabarna, Sam Korn, Sam907, Samgarne, Samohyl Jan, Samsameerindia,Samtheboy, SamuelTheGhost, Sangeethasuri, Sango123, SchfiftyThree, Schlüggell, Schrandit, Schzmo, Scientus, Sciurinæ, Seagull76, Seb az86556, Senthryl, Seraphimblade, Sf18echo, Sfoskett,Shadowin, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shashank321, SheikYerBooty, Sheogorath, Sherif98, Shiftchange, Shoujun, Sidasta, Siddhant, Siliconov, SineWave, Sinn, Sjakkalle, Sjö, Skarebo, SkerHawx,Skoolgeek101, Skysmith, SleepyHappyDoc, Slippery Mudhills, Smartse, SmilesALot, Snisfrealaaa, Snowolf, Socrates2008, Some jerk on the Internet, Sophie, SpLoT, SpNeo, Spliffy, SpuriousQ,Srtxg, Ssbohio, Staples, Stars4change, Stemonitis, Stephenb, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Strangerer, Stwalkerster, Suffusion of Yellow, SuperDude115, Superabhay, Superm401, Supermousedog,SweetNeo85, Symane, Synchronism, TBadger, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tangotango, Tanthalas39, Tbhotch, Teedude10, Tekana, Template namespace initialisation script, Templationist,Texas™, Thannad, The Cunctator, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, The Vindictive, The wub, Thelifeofbrian, Thennarasu, Theodopulus, Thiagoreis leon,Thingg, Thue, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tnxman307, Tobby72, Tom harrison, Tombomp, Tommy2010, Toyotaboy95, Tpbradbury, TransUtopian, Traxs7, Trigger hippie77,Triplejumper, Tristanb, Triwbe, Trusilver, TutterMouse, Tv316, Twoe gappes, UBeR, Ultramarine, Uncle Dick, Unknown1015, Unschool, User2004, Utcursch, Uyanga, V95micfa, VMS Mosaic,Valaggar, Veinor, Velella, Versageek, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vickyvicky vijay, Vrenator, Vsmith, WJBscribe, Walden, Walkerma, Walton One, WatermelonPotion, Wavelength, Wayne Olajuwon,Wayward, West.andrew.g, WhisperToMe, Whowantstobeamillionaire, Wiki alf, WikiRigaou, WikiSlasher, Wikipelli, Wikitanvir, Wimt, Wj32, Woohookitty, WorstWikipedistEver, Woseph,Wperdue, WriterHound, XXXBILLYXXX, Y2H, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yk Yk Yk, Yourmother125912521, Z.E.R.O., Zbecerr, Zero Gravity, Zhou Yu, Zikrullah, Zinzie, Zippy, Zjhafeez, Zsinj, º¡º,Åkebråke, 1833 ,ينام anonymous edits

Pollutant  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393300280  Contributors: 16@r, Adashiel, Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, AlphaEta, Arthur Rubin, Awotter, BRG, Bluerasberry,Boxandwhiskar, CALR, Cacycle, Capt. James T. Kirk, Cdang, ChVA, Conversion script, Daniel Collins, Deglr6328, Derek Ross, Deville, Dhp1080, Edward, Fanghong, Fornaeffe, Giftlite, HardRaspy Sci, Headbomb, Ian Pitchford, IvanLanin, JForget, Jacopo Werther, Jboggs, K10wnsta, Knuckles, Mac, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Mbeychok, Moreau1, Pearle, Pinethicket, Polonium,Ranveig, Reinyday, Rickjamez, Roastytoast, SCEhardt, SDC, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Sodium, Stefan da, Tad Lincoln, The Vindictive, TheArmadillo, Thepcnerd, Velella, Wayne Olajuwon,Zoicon5, 81 anonymous edits

Air pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397938065  Contributors: 10014derek, 2D, 2kentjd, 5 albert square, A D Monroe III, A Softer Answer, AKA MBG, AbsolutDan, Acather96, Accas1, Adam Bishop, Adriaan, AgentPeppermint, Ahm2307, Ahmiguel, Ahoerstemeier, Akendall, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Aleenf1, Alex dacosta, Alex3917, Alexandra mb, Alexius08, All Is One, Allstarecho, Alnokta, Alphatwo, Altermike, Amaury.lecocq, Ameliorate!, Andre Engels, Andrewmc123, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Anetode, Angela, Anlace, Anneman, Antandrus, Antonrojo, Apppooos, Aqwis, Aricco, ArielGold, Arpit123, Artaxiad, Arturo zuniga, AtheWeatherman, Avoided, Awesdh, BCAttwood, BTDenyer, Babban12, Babyface123, Bad words suc, Badanedwa, Barneca, BarretBonden, Beagel, Beetstra, Beland, Bergsten, Betterusername, Beurk, BillFlis, Billtubbs, Binksternet, Blanchardb, Bluemoose, Bobak, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Boing! said Zebedee, Bongwarrior, Bookgrrl, Bookofjude, Boorvix, BoredTerry, Borisblue, Bradeos Graphon, Brentleefrog, Brett R. 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Article Sources and Contributors 135

NuclearWarfare, Nudecline, Nukeless, Nut-meg, Nuttycoconut, Ohnoitsjamie, Ojigiri, OllieFury, Omicronpersei8, Omulazimoglu, Onceler, Optigan13, Orange Suede Sofa, Oroso, Ottawa4ever,Oxymoron83, PDH, PV=nRT, Pampas Cat, Paul August, Paxsimius, Pbroks13, Pburka, Peachey88, Pedicabo ego vos et irrumabo, Peri, Peter, Peter Karlsen, Peterlewis, Peterrhyslewis, Pflatau,Phaedriel, Phantomsteve, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, PiaH, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Pmhunt, Poeloq, Pokemon222222, Politepunk, Pollutionfighter,Poo13, Porqin, Pretzelpaws, Professor marginalia, Proofreader77, Pschwa, Pyroflames0, Quadell, Quintote, Qwfp, Qwghlm, Qxz, R'n'B, Rak-Tai, Random account 47, RandomP, Rd232, ReachOut to the Truth, Recurring dreams, RedBLACKandBURN, Repliedthemockturtle, Rettetast, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richardelainechambers, Rickington, Rifleman 82, Rishb, Rje,Rjwilmsi, Rl, Roastytoast, Robert Skyhawk, Roberta F., Rocksanddirt, Romanskolduns, Rory096, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rtdrury, RxS, Ryan Postlethwaite, RyanCross, SCEhardt,SHIMONSHA, SJP, SMC, SWAdair, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Saperaud, Sarahmschutz, Sarregouset, Savant13, SchfiftyThree, SchuminWeb, Scientizzle, Scm83x, Sd31415, Securiger, Senorsopa, Shadowjams, Shangrilaista, Shanoman, Shark0716, Shawn in Montreal, Shobhit102, Shoeofdeath, Shotwell, Siim, Silencedmajority, SimonD, SimonP, SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas deMimsy-Porpington, Siroxo, Site manager, Sjakkalle, Sjö, Slakr, Sljaxon, Slyguy, Smalljim, Smartse, Sniggity, Snoyes, Somenerd, Sopranosmob781, Soumik ghosh, South Bay, Spiffy sperry,SpigotMap, Spitfire, Splat, SpuriousQ, SpyMagician, Starshadow, Staycool rushabh, Stemonitis, StephanieM, Stephenb, Stian, Sturm58, Susan Mason, SweetNeo85, Sylent, T24G, TBadger,TDS, Taha amjad, Tangotango, Tanthalas39, Tcncv, TeaDrinker, Teamjenn, Techman224, TedE, Teh roflmaoer, Templationist, Tempodivalse, The Fifth Horseman, The Thing That Should NotBe, The Vindictive, The wub, TheDJ, TheFeds, TheGerm, TheKMan, ThePointblank, TheRanger, Thedjatclubrock, Thegreatdr, Thejerm, Thenyarx, ThinkBlue, Tide rolls, Tiggerjay, Tim1357,Tiptoety, Titoxd, TomTheHand, Tombomp, Tomchiukc, Tpbradbury, Travelbird, TreadingWater, Triona, Tslocum, Ttsuchiya0491, Twiggy 4 eva, Tyw7, Uber nemo, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick,User2004, VSquared, Vary, Veesicle, Veinor, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorianMutant, Victory721, Virtual Cowboy, Vortexrealm, Vranak, Vsmith, W guice, WODUP, Walor,WatermelonPotion, Wavelength, Wee11, West.andrew.g, Western Pines, Wifiless, Wiki alf, WikiLaurent, Wikityke, Will Beback, Wimt, Wknight94, Wnauta, Wolverine1121, Woohookitty,WriterHound, Wsiegmund, Wtmitchell, XF641D9K, Xavexgoem, Xaxx, Xen 1986, Xeno, Xxxxxxxxxxxxl, Y23, Yamamoto Ichiro, YixilTesiphon, Yorkshire29, Zikiodotte, Zoicon5, Zsinj,Zzuuzz, ΙωάννηςΚαραμήτρος, 2122 ,لیقع فشاک anonymous edits

Light pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397316504  Contributors: 041744, 2toise, 75th Trombone, A Stop at Willoughby, Accurizer, Adam850, Akamad, AlanLiefting, Alansohn, Albester, Alnokta, Andersmusician, Andre Engels, Andycjp, Andyroo g, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anthony Arrigo, Antonio Lopez, Arbiter117, Ardo191, Arthena,AstroHurricane001, Axeman89, Baeksu, Bbpen, Beetstra, Berkut, Betacommand, Bevo, Bige1977, BillFlis, BitterMan, Bkell, Blathersby, Bletch, BlueEarth, Bob98133, Bobblewik, Bobo192,BorisFromStockdale, Bryan Derksen, Bsherr, Btafreshi, C.Fred, Cactus.man, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canberra User, Casper2k3, Catgut, Cburnett,CelticWonder, Chamal N, Chesnok, Chris Roy, ChrisCork, ChrisHodgesUK, Cieloscuro, Civil Engineer III, Cluginbuhl, Cocuyo, Coffee, Collegebookworm, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker,Conversion script, Craigsjones, Cremepuff222, D. F. Schmidt, Daniel J. Leivick, Dantheman531, David G Brault, Dcoetzee, DeadEyeArrow, Deltapi, Denelson83, DerHexer, Difu Wu,Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003, Download, Downstream, Dust Filter, Dusti, E Pluribus Anthony, Ed Cormany, Ed Poor, EdgeOfEpsilon, Eidako, El C, Emijrp, Enviroboy, Envirocorrector,Equendil, Eregli bob, EromiralT, Esfandieasil, Esn, Eumolpo, Fastily, Felix Wiemann, Fireaxe888, Foobaz, Fotaun, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Bruce, Gary King, GavinTing, Geniac, Gentgeen,Geremia, GiancarloGotta, Giftlite, Gilliam, GngstrMNKY, Gobonobo, GrahamLP, Gralo, Grand Dizzy, Ground Zero, Hashar, Hdt83, Head, Headbomb, Henry Flower, Heron, Hertz1888,Hooriaj, Hop77, Hordaland, Hottentot, Hurtetusda, Inkypaws, Into The Fray, Itsmine, Izogi, J.delanoy, JHMM13, JRR Trollkien, JWGreen, Jackp, Jayjg, Jeff G., Jenikhollan, Jimtaip, JoanneB,Joeblakesley, JohnOwens, Johnny Au, Jonathan Kovaciny, Josh Parris, Karol Langner, Keegan, Kenneth Cooke, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kosebamse, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krushdiva, Ksenon, Ktr101,Kukini, Kwigell, Lambiam, Lamiot, Leon7, Lexor, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LilHelpa, Litefantastic, Looxix, Loren.wilton, Lova Falk, MGTom, MMich, MSTCrow, Mangostar,Manu bcn, Margin1522, Martarius, Marty 0750, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist, Mdd4696, Measure, Meelar, Megan 189, Metafax1, Mhansen, Michael Hardy, Middayexpress, Midgrid,Mifter, Mike s, Millbrooky, Mimihitam, Mitsuhirato, Mormegil, Mozasaur, Mykll, N5iln, NJR ZA, Nagkamali sa trigo, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nick carson, Nihiltres, Nikai, NoEggsHere, Nsaa,Numbo3, Omegatron, Onebravemonkey, Onorem, Open2universe, PCHS-NJROTC, Pagw, Party, Passionless, Patrick, Pats1, Pearle, Peregrine981, Pflatau, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman,PhilipStobbart, Photophiliac, Pigsonthewing, Pizza Puzzle, PleaseStand, Pollinator, PrestonH, Pwnage8, R Lee E, RG2, Rboatright, Reedy, Rei, Reinyday, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough,Rintojiang, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Robert Merkel, Rohnadams, S0uj1r0, SBarnes, ST47, Sabarna, Samuelcraft09, Sango123, Saperaud, ScOtTyZ, Schenzman, Scottk, Sean Whitton, Securiger, SethIlys, Sfan00 IMG, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shblight, Sherazade96, SimonP, Skatebiker, Skywalter2000, SmileToday, Snailwalker, Snaxorb, Solipsist, Songyw124, Sp3000, Srleffler, StaceyGrove,StarlightCBL, Swaggerjacker, Tatpong, Templationist, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGreenMartian, ThePedanticPrick, Thompsma, Thorseth,Thw1309, Tigerlisa, Tothebarricades.tk, TreasuryTag, Trilobitealive, Triona, Twinsday, Ulric1313, Uppland, Vegaswikian, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorAnyakin, VictorianMutant, Voidxor,Voyevoda, Vsmith, Warren, Washburnmav, Wavelength, Wayward, Windharp, Woohookitty, Worfasdgi, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Xxxkhjaosxxx, Yankeguy, YorkBW, Yvan Dutil, Zerial48,Zodon, 533 anonymous edits

Marine pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397935389  Contributors: AKGhetto, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Andonic, Anxietycello, BackslashForwardslash, BomBom, Brandon5485, CSWarren, Caiaffa, CambridgeBayWeather, Capricorn42, Censol, Cgingold, Cskok, Cubanonradar, DabMachine, Dasani, DeadEyeArrow, Dean1970,Djrao25, Elemesh, Elfino, Epipelagic, Ex nihil, Fagopyrum, Falcon8765, Favonian, Flyguy649, Gene Nygaard, Gjs238, Headbomb, Hotcrocodile, Infrogmation, Inomyabcs, Jeff G., KGasso,Kaszeta, Kevin Forsyth, Kils, Koba-chan, Lesliebre, LilHelpa, Luthiens submarine, Mahlum, Marinecreatures, Mazca, Miguel.mateo, Miquonranger03, Mkill, Monfornot, MrOllie, NJA, Nakon,Niffweed17, Nsaa, Nukesea, Onceler, Pakaraki, Pakaran, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Raywil, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rrburke, Sandstein, Seidenstud, Snowolf,Squirepants101, Stephen, Templationist, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Themfromspace, Tommy2010, Trofobi, Usmanmumtazbutt, Valentin Zahrnt, Velella, Vsmith,Wavelength, William M. Connolley, Willking1979, Woohookitty, 179 anonymous edits

Noise pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397397842  Contributors: -1g, 5 albert square, Aagneya, Abb615, Acather96, Adolphus79, Aeternus, Afluent Rider, Ahills60,Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, All Is One, Amazon10x, Anakin101, Andrea105, Andycjp, Anechoic Man, Anetode, Angrymansr, Anlace, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard,Anunay333, Aranherunar, Arpingstone, Asclepias, Atomic Monarch, AzaToth, Barticus88, BaseballDetective, Battyface, Beland, BernardBlackII, Binksternet, Biscuittin, BlueEarth, BrendanMoody, Bunnyhugger, CALR, Caltas, Cambrasa, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canberra User, Canthusus, Capa49, Capricorn42, Ccoll, CharlotteWebb, ChillDeity, CjDMaX, Cjos, Cjwright79,Claush66, Closedmouth, ConCompS, Connormah, Corvus cornix, Covalent, Coyote`, D. Recorder, D0762, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Daa89563, Dana boomer, Dark Serge, Dawn Bard, Dcooper,Dekisugi, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Discospinster, DoubleBlue, Download, Drawat123, Drugsarefun123, Dumpweed777, Dysmorodrepanis, ERK, ESkog, Edward Z. Yang, ElectricEye, EmptyBuffer, Eno1, Epbr123, Epipelagic, EvilZak, Excirial, Fang Aili, Fangjian, Faradayplank, Fennec, Fiberglass Monkey, Fischer.sebastian, Flewis, Footballrocks, Fox816, Frap, Freakofnurture,Frosted14, Fuzzy510, Fyyer, GCFreak2, Gabriel Kielland, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Ganesh.fc, Gawaxay, Ggrinnell, Ghaly, Giant89, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Gimpmask, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Harland1,Headbomb, Hemanshu, Hephaestos, Heron, Hhielscher, Hooperbloob, Hu, Hyacinth, Ihope127, IncognitoErgoSum, Ipatrol, Iridescent, Irma71, Ithildraug, J.delanoy, Jamoche, Jaredroberts, JasonQuinn, JasonMitch, JayJasper, JimVC3, Jncraton, JoanneB, John0099, Johnmc, Jojhutton, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jpers36, Juliancolton, Jwy, K2wiki, Karenjc, Kenguest, Kerotan,Kevin B12, Kilbosh, Killjoy12, Kingpin13, Kinkyturnip, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstable, Krajinaetc, Krakahead, KrakatoaKatie, Kwiki, L'Aquatique, LOL, LarryGilbert, Lear's Fool, Lesonyrra,Light current, Lindosland, LittleHow, Lobo, Lordluxion, Lou.weird, Luna Santin, Lusitana, Lyrelle Everyne, MBisanz, MECU, MER-C, MFZoubeir, Maias, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer,Malcolmxl5, Mangostar, Manop, Marcopololu, Mausy5043, Max13102, McGeddon, McVities, Mdebets, Meekywiki, Meezaa., Melaen, Mentifisto, Mike Rosoft, MiloKral, Minimac,Musica-magic 6, N5iln, Ndenison, Neutrality, Newsaholic, Nikai, Noiseactivist, Noisefighter, Nposs, O Govinda, Ocee, Omegatron, Onceler, Oxymoron83, PL290, PaperTruths, Paul Erik,Pauljvanorden, Paxsimius, Pearle, Persian Poet Gal, Pewwer42, Pflatau, PhiLiP, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Pollypollypollywee, Poweroid, Pris0ner, PseudoSudo, Qwe,Qxz, Raelx, RandomP, Rd232, Reconsider the static, Redanim, Reinyday, Rg998, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Rintojiang, Rjwilmsi, Robert Bond, Roleplayer, Rolypolyman, Royalguard11,Rrburke, Runt, Rupy, RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, S unsure36, SBKT, SCEhardt, SJP, Sachinvenga, Saga City, Sambob999999, Sandcherry, Scarlet Lioness, Scohoust, SebastianHelm, Semperf,Shanes, Shantavira, Shiftchange, Sibi antony, SimonMayer, SkerHawx, Smappy, Smart youth, Snottywong, Solomaxwell, Srleffler, Stambouliote, Stemonitis, Stevebailey09, Stewartadcock,Surv1v4l1st, Sw258, Sylent, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Techman224, Templationist, Teriyakimoto, Tevildo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thunderbird2, Thunderboltz, Tibzycool, Tiderolls, Tim Q. Wells, TimothyPilgrim, Timvasquez, Tivedshambo, Tommy2010, Travelbird, Trevor MacInnis, Trigaranus, Triona, Tuchicita, TutterMouse, Twinsday, Typpo, UV254, Uncle Dick,UncleBubba, UtherSRG, Vald, Valentinian, Vary, Versus22, Viriditas, Vslashg, Vsmith, Waveguy, Wavelength, Wgeorge737, Whispering, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, WikipedianMarlith, WilliamPietri, Wordmoderators, WriterHound, Wyatt Riot, Xiaxei, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Z.E.R.O., Zachbe, Zikiodotte, Zodon, Zsinj, 786 anonymous edits

Radioactive contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393329883  Contributors: Aarchiba, Aditya Gune, Alansohn, Altenmann, Anna Lincoln, AnthonyA7, Anville,Becook, Bornintheguz, Bryan Derksen, Cadmium, Caknuck, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carbon-16, Charles Matthews, Coffee, Corruptcopper, DV8 2XL, Daggerstab, Deglr6328, DennisBrown, Dgies, Eric119, Fastfission, Floodamanny, Fredrik, Furrykef, Gene Nygaard, Getcrunk, Gregz08, Gwernol, Hall Monitor, Headbomb, Icairns, Ikester8, Imjustmatthew, Iridescent, Jacj,JackSchitt, Jim Swenson, JohnI, Joseph Solis in Australia, KathyR@aol.com, Kieff, Kjkolb, Ksyrie, Layla27, Lethaniol, Ligar, Light current, Lightmouse, Little guru, Lomn, LovesMacs, LunaSantin, Martins, MassimoAr, Matveims, Mr Adequate, Mulad, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Nsaa, Oldnoah, Oxymoron83, Phearson, PhilKnight, Pstudier, Qwyrxian, R. fiend, Reconsider the static, Reyk,Rmhermen, Robofish, Rsabbatini, Rxnd, Sasquatch, Scottfisher, Serbianboy, Shaddack, Silverwizard, Simesa, Smartse, Sophus Bie, Stepa, Stephenchou0722, SueHay, Svgalbertian, Tareq84,Templationist, TexMurphy, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thue, Tide rolls, Tobias Bergemann, Tubbyspencer, Uruiamme, Utcursch, Vlad21263, Vsmith, Warpflyght, Wavelength,Willking1979, Ybbor, Zoicon5, 115 ,کشرز anonymous edits

Soil contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397579275  Contributors: Af38, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alucard 16, Anlace, BeGenderNeutral, Bencherlite,Betterusername, Biscuittin, Bobo192, Borgx, CUSENZA Mario, Cadmium, Celsea5, Circeus, ClamDip, Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll, Courcelles, Covalent, DRTllbrg, DancingMan, Darth Panda,DeadEyeArrow, Denihilonihil, Deville, Dghosh12, Dochimochi, Doniago, Drmies, Dumelow, Dycedarg, Edgar181, Epbr123, Favonian, Fieldmarshal Miyagi, Fratrep, GregorB, Gtg204y,Gwernol, Harshpatel5, Hbent, Headbomb, HiLo48, Hotchoco-heart, ImperfectlyInformed, Iridescent, J.delanoy, J04n, Jennavecia, Jwkpiano1, Kafziel, Kilonum, Knellotron, KudzuVine, Latka,LeaveSleaves, Leptosome, Ligulem, Longhair, Look2See1, LovesMacs, MBTuser1, MacsBug, Magioladitis, Manishearth, MarkSutton, Martynas Patasius, MassimoAr, Mattgirling, Mdwyer,Melweave, Michael Devore, MichaelS82, Milhaus, MisfitToys, Muuurk, Natsadler, Nia12877, Nihiltres, Noah Salzman, Nposs, Oil Treatment International, Oxymoron83, Paleorthid, PeterKaminski, Peter M Dodge, PhilKnight, Phoenix-wiki, Pinethicket, Pissant, Pixeltoo, Plumpurple, Pollinator, Poots.hearts, Rad-Man, Rawrimjaine, Remi0o, RexNL, Rjwilmsi, Rockfang, RoyBateman, Russman101, Sabregirl, Sam907, Sekolov, Shadowjams, Shiny green, Smartse, Smithbrenon, Smokizzy, Soliloquial, SomedumbSN, Steveozone, Tariqabjotu, Templationist, The HighMagus, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Tide rolls, Timrem, Tinkyourmagic, Tony Fox, Urjanhai, Velella, Vsmith, WLU, Warfreak, Xue hanyu, Yamamoto Ichiro, 294 anonymous edits

Article Sources and Contributors 136

Ship pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380851583  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alchimista, ArchonMagnus, Aroundaround, Biker Biker, Branlon, BryanFrazar,CSWarren, CalumH93, Cgingold, Chuck Sirloin, CoJaBo, Damien o'connell, Davidstrauss, Dean1970, Docu, Dr. Blofeld, Element16, Emmettco, Epipelagic, Haus, Hbent, Headbomb, JHunterJ,Jeandré du Toit, Jmiele3, KJS77, Kbjerring, Keith D, LizardJr8, MKoltnow, Mangostar, Matilda, Matthew Stannard, Meegs, Mel Etitis, Mkill, NCS2004, NJA, Nonox, Onceler, Otingocni, PhilPhree, PrincessofLlyr, Rami radwan, Rearete, RedBLACKandBURN, Reportpol, Rjwilmsi, Robinstocks, Ryanrs, Saint Midge, SkyWalker, SpuriousQ, Stephen, Taejo, Templationist,Tpbradbury, Tristanb, Uncle Dick, Velella, Vipinhari, Vsmith, W guice, Wavelength, Wipe, Woohookitty, 70 anonymous edits

Thermal pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397476694  Contributors: (jarbarf), Acalamari, AdjustShift, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Ajaxkroon, Alansohn,Alchimista, Anlace, Arubadude, Ayanoa, BazookaJoe, Blainster, Bobo192, Burn, CTZMSC3, Cgingold, Clarince63, Clicketyclack, Codman, Coin945, Cometstyles, Cupivistine Noscere?,DabMachine, Dadude3320, Danski14, Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Drunken Pirate, Duncan.france, Element16, Ellen Fawstvil, Emerson7, EncycloPetey, Enviroboy, Epipelagic, Evil Monkey, Geni,Gilliam, Glen, HEL, Headbomb, HistoryBA, HoodedMan, Hyperflux, Iridescent, J.delanoy, Jake Wartenberg, Javert, Jeffrey Mall, Jj137, Journalist, Juliancolton, Kanonkas, Kingpin13,Leafyplant, Loren.wilton, Lrreiche, Mackseem, Madbehemoth, Madhero88, Magioladitis, Mandoliniment, Mausy5043, Meno25, MindstormsKid, Moreau1, Mothmolevna, Mátyás, Natsirtguy,Nlu, P3Pp3r, Pearle, Peter Karlsen, Pichpich, Pollinator, Primacag, ProperManner, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rbanzai, Reinyday, Rnt20, Rocketere o1, Rodii, Rumbehant, Ruthushan,Sbierwagen, ShelfSkewed, Skizzik, Slakr, Specs112, Spiffy sperry, Spitfire, Srleffler, Srpnor, Stwalkerster, Tawker, Templationist, Thewhitebeaner, Thunk, Tommy2010, Tv316, Utcursch,Versus22, Vivio Testarossa, Waggers, Wikipelli, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zappa711, 337 anonymous edits

Visual pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396078505  Contributors: 10ten, Abmac, Amplitude101, Andycjp, Andyjsmith, Brazzouk, BreathingMeat, Bus stop,Davidsmind, DeltaQuad, Dentren, Dmmaus, Dragomiloff, Ericoides, Ewlyahoocom, Firey man, Funandtrvl, Headbomb, Housecat Monkey, Jgov05, KConWiki, Ken Gallager, Kurieeto, LadyWeaxzezz, Lemonaid, Marek69, Miguel Andrade, Mkamara23, Nilfanion, Oda Mari, Onore Baka Sama, Oxymoron83, Piano non troppo, RG72, Sabarna, Shanoman, Signalhead, Stefanbcn,Stevenmitchell, Surv1v4l1st, Templationist, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tommy2010, Transity, Wavelength, WaysToEscape, Welsh, Wikipelli, 74 anonymous edits

Water pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=398022965  Contributors: 2D, 7, 88dude, A Softer Answer, A. B., A8UDI, ABCD, ABF, Aaroncrick, Abba12, Abeg92,Acroterion, Adamsapple4, Addihockey10, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akhileshvarma1996, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, Alex436, Alexgilbertstudios,AlexiusHoratius, Alloquep, Allstarecho, Alpha Quadrant (alt), AlphaAqua, Altenmann, Amis2007, AmosWolfe, Anand Karia, Andonic, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus,ApolloBoy, Apothecia, Applegate12345, Applegatee, Aremith, Armagecotto, Asenine, Asimepd, Asmaulai244, Astral highway, AstroHurricane001, AuburnPilot, Aude, Aukland, Avicennasis,Avillia, B-RREEZZYY, B. Wolterding, BD2412, Basar, Bbazinet, Beetstra, Bender235, Bennybp, Benzpilot, Berimbau1, Berkay0652, Betterusername, Bigafolazi, Bigtimepeace, Bigwer, Bihco,Bill37212, Binary TSO, Bioarchie1234, Biopresto, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bluezy, Bobo192, BocoROTH, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Borgx, Bork, Brianb824, Brianga, BrokenSegue,Bruce89, Brunton, Bryan Derksen, Bsece010, Bubulili, Burzmali, Butane Goddess, C.Fred, CDM2, CDN99, CLW, CUSENZA Mario, CUTKD, Cactus.man, Caknuck, Calliopejen1, Caltas,Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Captain-n00dle, CardinalDan, Catgut, Centrx,Cflm001, Chandra gupta, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, Chochopk, Chrisw404, Cjd614, Claush66, Clerks, Closedmouth, Cls14, Cocoma, Cohesion, Cometstyles, Connormah,Cooljdude90, Corpx, Courcelles, Cpicon92, Crazycomputers, Cryptic, Curps, Cyfal, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DGG, DVD R W, DabMachine, Dalcanale, Dan D. 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Waste  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397581648  Contributors: 16@r, 1q0p, 2D, 2T, 2over0, 6tate, A Softer Answer, ACM2, Abdulvahidv, Abhi240, Acather96, Addihockey10, AgentLewis, Ahmeds47, Aitias, Akerans, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alksub, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Altermike, Amerika, Amistry.mistry, AmyLouBird, Andor33, Andre Engels, Andreasd, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthoncf, Anthony Appleyard, Anxietycello, Aobaru, Aplomado, Aquilosion, Arctic Night, Arczy, Arielle03, Arig97, Art LaPella, Atif.t2, Atmar, Avihu, Azikala, B01H4XXORZ, B1link82, BHC, Backslash Forwardslash, BarretBonden, Battyboi123, Beemer69, Beetstra, Beland, Bharbara, BigFatBuddha, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bobieguy, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bootstoots, BorgQueen, Brandon888, Brian Sisco, Brianga, Buchanan-Hermit, Calmer Waters, Camille stevenson, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Captain Wikify, Careful Cowboy, Cctoide, Celarnor, Ceoil, Cgord, Chostovs, Circeus, Ckatz, ClaireSeaborn, Clairecannon97, Clarince63, Closedmouth, Coffee, ColCol34, Color probe, Cometstyles, Confiteordeo, Corpx, Courcelles, CrazyLegsKC, Cxz111, Cyrius, DDima, DJBullfish, DMacks, DVD R W, Da monster under your bed, Dancter, Dangerous Angel, Danielgrad, Danno uk, Davewho2, Daydreambeliever, Dbtbandit67, Dcutter, DeadEyeArrow, Deanb, Deb, Debresser, Decstuff, Deirdre, DeliriousYeti, Deor, Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Dittaeva, DivineAlpha, Dj Capricorn, DocWatson42, Dominic, Doodoobear1856, DragonofFire, Drummerwoman, Dubmill, Dusk shadow187, Dx2generation, Dysepsion, ERK, ERcheck, Ecozonz, Edcolins, Elfguy, Elipongo, Elkman, Emily Jensen, Emilyisaac, Enhaltapa, Environmentalservicesassociation, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Epsoul, Espoo, Everyking, Evice, Excirial, FF2010, Falcon8765, Fallenfromthesky, Faradayplank, Fir0002, Fnlayson, Foobar, Func, Furrykef, Fyyer, Fæ, Garfield226, Gengiskanhg, George The Dragon, GeorgeLouis, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Giraffedata, Gjone936, Glane23, Gnipahellir, Gobonobo, Grafen, GrahamDo, Gromlakh, Grzegorz Wysocki, Guanaco, Guitarsora, Gurch, Gurko, Hadal, Happysailor, Harriv, Hashar, Haveapk, Hayabusa future, Headbomb, Henry W. Schmitt, Heron, HisSpaceResearch, Hoziron, Husond, Hyperonion, I dream of horses, Iamunknown, Ianbecerro, ImperfectlyInformed, Impy4ever, Inter, Iridescent, Iris92, IrisKawling, Isnow, It Is Me Here, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JNW, JRR Trollkien, Jakemizzo, JamesBWatson, Jauerback, Jaxl, Jay Gatsby, Jebus989, Jenny Wong, Jerzy, Jfwilkinson11, Joethedestroyer, John Lucas, John of Reading, John254, Jojhutton, Jojit fb, Josh Jorgensen, Joshua Scott, Jreconomy, Juha Raipola, Jusdafax, Justin1991, Justinfr, KF, KellyCoinGuy, Kendal Ozzel, KimiSan, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kisko, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knowmoore, Knulclunk, Korg, Korhan1, Korim, Kristof vt, Kukini, Kuru, Lankiveil, LedgendGamer, LeeG, Leithp, Leuko, Lilcatdog, Linkspamremover, Lizardman154, Logical Cowboy, Lord Jarrod, Luna Santin, Ly, Lykaestria, MER-C, Mac, Macintosh User, Macrakis, Madhero88, Maestrosync, Mahlum, Mani1, Manojmalviya, Manuel007, Marek69, Marshall Williams2, Martarius, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Mav, Max9173, Maxeepoo 999, Maxí, Mdwyer, Measure, Mee1988, Meestaplu, Mentifisto, Metodicar, Mihir vyas, Mike Rosoft, Minghong, Mintleaf, Miranda, Missingmaicheez, Mister Hilter, Monkeygra, Monkeyman, Monterey Bay, Moondyne, Moritz, Morrisneck, Muad, Mygerardromance, Nakon, Namazu-tron, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Neelix, Nemu, Neodop, NewEnglandYankee, Nicholiser, Nickersonl, Nilmerg, Nitromorrison, Norshah, NorwegianBlue, Notmetal, Numbo3, Nwbeeson, OPALO4, Ocaasi, Ohnoitsjamie, Omicronpersei8, Onofre Bouvila, Onorem, OverlordQ, PMDrive1061, Pan Dan, Party, Patrick-br, Paul Erik, Pcol714, Pearle, Pengo, Pgan002, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pikiwyn, Pinky sl, Pmlineditor, Poecilia Reticulata, Pollinator, Popezilla, Prof.glue, Prolog, Qawsedrftgyhujikol123454321, RJaguar3, RadioKirk, Radiocowboy, Rajkiandris, Ranveig, Recognizance, Reeco44, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Rjd0060, Rjpeterson, Roberta F., Rocketere o1, Roger657, Romanceor, Roodog2k, Ropable, Rotor DB, Rrburke, SBKT, SD5, Sam Hocevar, Scarian, Scarlet Lioness, SchnitzelMannGreek, Scientizzle, Sciurinæ, Scwlong, Seaphoto, SeeSchloss, Semperf, Shanes, Shoessss, Shoshonna, Sidonuke, Sietse Snel, SimonP, Sjakkalle, Skyezx, Snowolf, Soisaidiwasezra, Solidmongoose, Sonia, Special Cases, Specs112, Speer320,

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Environmental management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392759041  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, Alchimista, Alkazzi, Angela GP, Arthur Rubin,Auccl799, Bonbayel, Brastein, Carollaruba, Cassbeth, Clemifornia, Courcelles, Dbfirs, Dj Capricorn, E Wing, Esanih, EurekaLott, Fanghong, Feralfeline, Gabriel Kielland, Hdynes, JHunterJ,Joaquín Martínez Rosado, Johnfos, Jrecinto, Kadaniel, Kengbeng, Knutls, Kuru, MER-C, Magnetiks, Mahoff, Mdd, Meco, Mr Accountable, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Newell Post, Pearle, Polinizador,Prof C, Quaeler, RJP, Richard001, Robbiee 88, Robtrob, Samulili, Segobi, Shiftchange, Slakr, Spiffy sperry, Txuspe, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Wavelength, WereSpielChequers, Zheezhoul, 74anonymous edits

Regulation and monitoring of pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374286494  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Ground Zero, Headbomb, LilHelpa, Moreau1, Nopetro,R'n'B

Pollution prevention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397702353  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Andrewpmk, Bobo192, Bovineone, C777, Cactus.man, Carax,Ckatz, Clerks, Escape Orbit, Explicit, Fuzzywallaby, Headbomb, Hu Gadarn, Humbabba, Insaniac99, Kilo-Lima, MER-C, Moreau1, Mr3641, NeilN, NewEnglandYankee, Noah Salzman, Paste,Reengler, Rockfang, Sahale, Sinned, SmartyBoots, Sunray, Troy 07, Tuck1234, Tvinson, Walkerma, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wtfily, 63 anonymous edits

Waste management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397862820  Contributors: - ), -Majestic-, -Midorihana-, 7, A8UDI, Aaron Schulz, Abraham, B.S., Absolutecaliber,Accuruss, AdamWalker, Aetb, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Alex.muller, AllanWaller, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, Amakuha, Andrij Kursetsky, Angela, AnnaLincoln, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthony Appleyard, Arshak93, Arthurlo, Atripodi, Avalokiteshvara777, Avoided, Baa, Bbpen, Beineix, BeverlyCrusher, Bharbara, Bill.matthews, Bit Lordy,BjörnF, Blah3, Blathnaid, Bobo192, Bonadea, Bookandcoffee, BozMo, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, CSumit, Camille stevenson, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7,Captainamerica90, Carchuleta, Casper2k3, Catgut, Cgd8d, Challenge me, Chefallen, Chrisdab, Chumribbidychum, Chuunen Baka, Cmcnicoll, Correogsk, Courcelles, Creativninnovativ,Creidieki, DAJF, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMahalko, Daedelus, Darkildor, Darkwind, Davelane, David from Downunder, Dbtbandit67, Deashunboi, Denis, Devilinhell, DiggyG, Discospinster, DjCapricorn, Docu, Download, DrDeke, Drstuey, E8, ESkog, Eddie tejeda, Eeee, Eekerz, Egmontaz, Elite782, Enviro Services, Enviroboy, Environmentalservicesassociation, EoGuy, Euchiasmus,Evil Monkey, Excirial, Excite the Living, FT2, Falcon8765, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Flewis, Fuzheado, G.A.S, GTZ-44-ecosan, Gail, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gingerlard, Giri pop, Gobstopperdesigns, GogoDodo, GrahamDo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Grenavitar, Grim23, Grumpyyoungman01, Guanaco, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hard Raspy Sci, Harry the Dirty Dog, Harsh.bill, Haveapk,Hawesinsky, Headbomb, Heimstern, Heracles31, Hfcom, Hut 8.5, Ibsilliyas, Icairns, Immunize, Incinerator2.0, Infrogmation, Intershark, Iridescent, Iris lorain, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal,JRN Pigpen, JRR Trollkien, Jackelfive, Jackloko1092, Jake Wartenberg, Jamiemgbell, Jayc, Jeremy12201986, Jjustinjj77, John Foley, JohnnyRush10, Joostvandeputte, Jorfer, Jp347, Jujutacular,Juliancolton, Justin W Smith, KGV, Karakas-design, Katanada, Katoa, KellyCoinGuy, Kendal Ozzel, Kennyquator, Khalid hassani, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kjkolb, Knowledge Seeker,Knulclunk, Kodi.robertson, Krash, Kungfuadam, LWV Roadrunner, La goutte de pluie, Landon1980, Lateg, Lawrence Waterhouse, LeaveSleaves, Lensi, Leoghanta2002, Linkspamremover,Longhair, Loren.wilton, Luna Santin, MECU, MER-C, MJCdetroit, Malcolm123321, Marek69, MarshallKe, Martin451, Master William On Carlton, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Materialscientist,Maxí, Mbeychok, Micahmn, Mifter, Mike Dillon, Mikeo, Millere08, Mindmatrix, Mion, Mitchandkayla, MonoAV, MrOllie, Mrs Trellis, Mysekurity, NJA, NVPBIOCR, Narym, Nasnema,NawlinWiki, Nburden, NeilN, Neo139, Nistra, Novacatz, ORDIFcommunication, Odie5533, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Openstrings, Orian71, Oxymoron83,PMDrive1061, Pakaraki, Parutakupiu, Pearle, Pedant, Peruvianllama, Petersam, Pgan002, Phanly, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Phynicen, PianOmega47, Pinethicket, Pinhoeman, Pinkadelica,Pinky sl, Pmlineditor, Poopilot, Possum, Postmortemjapan, Prachi ag, Proton44, QuantumEleven, Quintote, Raijinryu, RainbowOfLight, Ray Van De Walker, Red58bill, Regancy42, Remi0o,RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rhobite, RicDod, Riccardo.fabris, Richard001, RichardF, Rlsheehan, Roberta F., Ronz, Ropable, Rrburke, Rtdrury, Ruralgirl, Rvogt0505, Ryan Roos, SCEhardt, SEWilco,SWAdair, Saberwyn, Sanguinity, Schutz, Schzmo, Sdeshmukh7656, Sean Whitton, Seanplunkett, Secretlondon, Shanes, Sherool, Silvermarbles, SimonP, Sinus, Sjakkalle, Skraz,Somethingvacant, Sonett72, South Bay, Spiffy sperry, SpuriousQ, Stannered, Student7, SunCreator, SupaStarGirl, Superzohar, Supposed, Susvolans, Svetovid, T Clems, THEN WHO WASPHONE?, Template namespace initialisation script, Thaagenson, The Thing That Should Not Be, The pen man, Theda, Thingg, Thisisjonathanchan, Thorpe, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Tinton5,Tom007, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Tresiden, Troglodyto, Turq, Twirligig, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick, User27091, VCA, Valenciano, ValerioC, Varpsaari, VasilievVV, Vegaswikian, Velella, VerneEquinox, Vespristiano, Vilerage, Vince, Viriditas, Vortexrealm, Vsb, Vsmith, W, Wanless.enviro, Wasteuni, Wavelength, WhereAmI, Wik, Willking1979, Winchelsea, Xezbeth, Xkcwlx,Xochipilli BE, Yidisheryid, Zacktheman95, Zigger, Zotel, Zro, Zzuuzz, 802 ,تاكرب لامج anonymous edits

Waste minimisation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397447698  Contributors: ACR+ pmn, Alan Liefting, Andrewpmk, AnthonyPA, Arichnad, Beland, Betterusername,Bkell, Bob, Canjth, Chendy, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Diannaa, Drstuey, Ebyabe, ElliotThomas, Gzkn, Headbomb, Hectorthebat, ImperfectlyInformed, Intershark, JTURI, January2007, JaredPreston, Jarry1250, Jimjamjak, Jorcoga, Kathleen.wright5, L Kensington, Letsplaydrums, LilHelpa, Mceder, Melchoir, MichaelBillington, Misterx2000, Mr3641, Mrs Trellis, Nimbulan,Openstrings, Orphan Wiki, Outlook, Pgan002, Psml bhor, R'n'B, Radagast83, Razorflame, Rifleman 82, Rintrah, SCEhardt, Safemariner, Skaterdoode93, Stannered, Supposed, Tbmum, TheStrategist, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Trulystand700, Vortexrealm, Wavelength, Winhunter, Zharradan.angelfire, 45 anonymous edits

Montreal Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395156984  Contributors: 2over0, Aboalbiss, Addshore, Agradman, Alansohn, Alexwcovington, Ali'i, Ali@gwc.org.uk,Alinor, Anomalocaris, Anton Sri Probiyantono, Arthur Rubin, Astrofreak92, Az1568, Bbold, Bearcat, Beland, Bentaboo, Bento00, Bletch, Bobo192, Borgx, Bovineone, Bracodbk, Brian0918,Bryan Derksen, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalElll, Chadlupkes, Chromega, Cl br, Cmp don, Conversion script, CortalUX, Crazycomputers, Cst17, Danny, Dave6, David Kernow,Deglr6328, Digital paintball, Docu, Dori, Duncharris, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Ellywa, Error792, Fanra, Firsfron, Fitzhugh, Fyyer, Good Olfactory, Graham87, Grim23, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru, GuusHoekman, Heavyweight Gamer, Hede2000, Houshuang, Immunize, Information Ecologist, Iridescent, Jiang, Jonathunder, Jonel, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh the Nerd, Julesd, JustAGal,Ketiltrout, Khitomer, Kinema, Kruusamägi, Light618, Littlenuccio, Mandarax, MangoChicken, Matthewmayer, Matty16894, Mb1000, Melicans, Mister.bryan.kelley, Montrealais, Montrealers,NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nils Simon, Nsaa, Nuno Tavares, Nuttycoconut, Oneac, Ovideon, OzTruth, Party, Paul A, Pinkunicorn, Pinky sl, Polonium, Poltair, QEDquid, RJFJR, Ramble4hours,Rick Block, RockMFR, Rory096, Rparson, Rsduhamel, Ruscientist, SEWilco, SHIMONSHA, Sam Hocevar, Sbharris, Scalethinker, Schaddm, Scienceman123, Shimmin, SimonP, Slightsmile,Spearhead, Stahnkethedonkey, Syndicate, Template namespace initialisation script, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Theme97, Themightyquill, Tide rolls,Time3000, TomTheHand, Travelbird, Tronno, UninvitedCompany, Uusitunnus, Wackywace, Warfreak, Wavelength, Wcfios, Wik, Will Beback, William M. Connolley, WookieInHeat,Xaosflux, Xrchz, Yanksox, 295 anonymous edits

Kyoto Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397696911  Contributors: 0zymandias, 101090ABC, 159753, 1dragon, 2over0, A-giau, A. Parrot, A3r0, A8UDI, ABF, ADM, AOL account, Aaronantrim, Abc518, Ablative, Academic Challenger, Acastanares, Acegikmo1, Acterbahnmeister, Acu8509, Adamatkin, Adambro, Adashiel, Adballer30, Addihockey10, Adjoas, Admn404, AdnanSa, Aemurphy, Aerotheque, Aewheeless, Agentbla, Agentscott00, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aknorals, Alaexis, Alai, Alan Liefting, Alan McBeth, Alansohn, Alasdair, Aldeby, Aldie, Alex.muller, AlexL, AlexiusHoratius, Alexpidgeon, Alexxandros, Alinor, Allenc28, Alokprasad84, Alsandro, Altermike, AmericanCentury21, Ams80, Amwyll Rwden, Anand Karia, Andareed, Andjam, Andre Engels, Andrewcalvin, Andrewpmk, Andy Marchbanks, Andyp114, Anewpester, Angela, Angst72, Aniras, Anlace, AnnaFrance, AnnuitSophia, Antandrus, Antonio10neopia, Aperiodic, Apoivre, Arakunem, Arcenciel, Arekku, ArielGold, Armeria, Arthur Rubin, Asabbagh, Asbl, Ashlux, Ashwinr, Asplode, Assaadrazzouk, Asskikr1001, Aston09mv, Atmoz, AubreyEllenShomo, Aude, Auroranorth, Avoided, Axon, Ayden is cool, Ayla, AzaToth, Backalleyscrapper, Bart133, Bartledan, Baseballnum5, Battoe19, Bbatsell, Bdesham, Bejnar, Beland, Ben1220, Bender235, Bendzh, Benjgibbs, Bezthespaniard, Bgerrits, Bgpaulus, Bhadani, Bicester, Bihco, Bill37212, Binabik80, Binks, Bistromathic, Bizhaoqi, Bjelleklang, Bkonrad, BlackHades, Blah42, Blobby123456, Blow of Light, Bluezy, Bob Burton, BobG, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobw15, Bogey97, Bongwarrior, Bookofjude, Borateen, Bosniak, Bouncingmolar, BrOnXbOmBr21, Brainsphere, Brandon, Brendan Moody, Brian0918, Brookie, Brougham96, Brusegadi, Bryan Derksen, Bryancoe, Butros, CO2Neutral, CSumit, Cahk, Caltas, Camcom, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Capefeather, Captain Disdain, Carbonconsultant, Carbuncle, CardinalDan, Catgut, Catholic Met, Catskul, Caulde, Cdc, Centrx, Chaddesch, Chanakal, Chapiown, CharlotteWebb, Chensiyuan, Chewy m, Chopchopwhitey, Chovain, Chris 73, Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Christopher Parham, Chuckiesdad, Chwyatt, Ciphers, Ckatz, CleanGreen, Clt510, Cmbant, Cn3909, Cnwb, Cobus.w, Cold Light, Colin Kimbrell, ColinJF, Color probe, Cometstyles, Commandant101, Conversion script, Coreypieper, CorpDan, Correogsk, Cortonin, CorvetteZ51, Cosmic Latte, Courcelles, Cph3992, CreateSomeNoise, Cst17, Curps, Custodiet ipsos custodes, CyclePat, CydeSwype, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DDerby, DGaw, DJDonegal, DMG413, DS1953, DVD R W, Dacium, Dalizandii, Dan Pangburn, Dan100, Daniel, DarkHorizon, Darkildor, Darkverse, Darth Mike, DaveDixon, David Schaich, DavidA, DavidJ710, DavidMSA, Dbenbenn, Dead, DeadEyeArrow, Decrypt3, Deeksha einstien, Deepak, Deglr6328, Dejvid, Delirium, DelphinidaeZeta, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, Deucalionite, Devahn58, Dharmabum420, Diegusjaimes, Digital paintball, Dimi juve, Dionisiofranca, Discospinster, Dispenser, Dj245, Dlae, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmhaglund, Donarreiskoffer, Donniewan75, Dorkdork777, DoubleBlue, DougRWms, Dpaulat, Dr Enviro, Dr. B. R. Lang, Dr. JJ, DrPhweebleschnepter, Dragons flight, Dreadstar, Drewk, Drfreid, Drkdawg, Drumguy8800, Dubc0724, Dukakis, Dusko, Dust Filter, Dycedarg, E Pluribus Anthony, E Wing, ECWAGuru, Earl Andrew, Earth, Ed Poor, EdJohnston, Edgar181, Edward, Edward gurry, Einzelheit, Eisnel, ElKevbo, Elfguy, Elian, Ellmist, Eloquence, Emc2, Emilyisawsumeees, Emre D., Emsherm, Emturan, Ender3057, Enemenemu, Enescot, Enitime, Enjoisk8ingac, Enquire, Enuja, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Ephebi, Epktsang, Equinox137, Eric kennedy, Ericminikel, Eskovitz, EsperantoStand, Estel, Eteq, Eternalsexy, Etip, Evan Robidoux, Everyking, Evil saltine, Ewawer, Ezeu, FERN EU, FF2010, FWBOarticle, Fanghong, Favian44, Fedallah, Feedyourfeet, Feinoha, FeloniousMonk, Fic-in, Fitzhugh, Flcelloguy, Flewis, FocalPoint, Fonzy, Fosnez, Fox, Fpaudon, Fraxinus Croat, Frecklefoot, Fredrik, Freeky89, Frip1000, Frogman333, Frymaster, Fudoreaper, Fvw, GD, GHe, Gabbe, Gael, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galahaad, Gardevior, Gdo01, Gekritzl, General Wesc, Geni, GenkiNeko, GerryWolff, Ghostalker, Giftlite, Giggy, Ginsengbomb, GirasoleDE, Gnuosphere, Gobonobo, Godardesque, Gogo Dodo, Good Olfactory, Goutham91, Graft, Graham87, Grahamec, Gralo, Great Scott, Green Giant, GreenReaper, Greenman, GregorB, Grouf, Ground Zero, Grundle2600, Grunt, Gtadoc, Gtstricky, Guaka, Guettarda, Gugilymugily, Gunnar Larsson, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gwernol, Gyndanya, Gökhan, H.al-shawaf, Hadal, Hagedis, Haha169, HalfShadow, Haljackey, Hall Monitor, Hamiltonian, Hanzo2050, Harel, Harland1, Harryzilber, Hasan en, Hayabusa future, Headbomb, Hectard, Hede2000, Helixblue, Helixweb, Helldjinn, Henry Flower, Hilosoph, HistoryBA, Hmains, Hmrox, Hor-he george, House1630, Hrvoje Simic,

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Hsuiahfsahfuihauif, Hu12, Hullo exclamation mark, Husond, Hut 8.5, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, IE, IMpbt, IRP, IWhisky, Ias2008, Icairns, IceKarma, IceUnshattered, Icseaturtles, Iddri,Ideogram, Immunize, Indefatigable, Indosauros, Informed counsel, Inkjet360, Insanephantom, Int21h, Interscan, Iridescent, Irishguy, Iupolisci, Ixfd64, J Di, J. Matthew Bailey, J.delanoy, JForget,JJIG, JLaTondre, JRR Trollkien, JYolkowski, JaGa, JackofOz, Jackson744, Jacob Birk, Jacob.vankley, Jadeoshi, Jaganath, Jahiegel, Jake Wartenberg, Jaked122, JamesMLane, Jameycob,JamieS93, Jason Cherniak, Java13690, JavierMC, Jayanta Sen, Jaybird vt, Jc-S0CO, Jcc1, Jdt2858, Jeandré du Toit, Jeffbowman, Jehandz, Jellyandjam, JeremyA, JesseGarrett, Jezuit, Jfg284,Jiang, Jimbo Wales, Jinwei1019, Jj137, Jjron, Jkmccrann, Jodie44, Jon Awbrey, JonGwynne, Jonathan Hall, Jones McAnthony, Jonpin, Joostvandeputte, Jordan Timmins, Jorfer, Jose77, JosephSolis in Australia, JosephKing, Josh Parris, JoshG, JoshuaZ, Jovianeye, Joyous!, Jp347, Jpeob, Jsklad, Jumbuck, Junes, Jw94, Jwc58, Jwissick, KVDP, Kaicarver, Kaisershatner, Kardrak,Karlhendrikse, Kasaalan, Kbdank71, Kcordina, Ke4roh, Keilana, KeithB, KeithH, Keithh, Ken Arromdee, Kgashok, Kgrr, Killiondude, Kilrothi, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Kingandpharoh,Kingpin13, KlausH, Klo, Knipper, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kofiannansrevenge, Kokiri, Kornfan71, Kozuch, Kransky, Krich, Kshofu, Kungfuadam, Kunstsalon-wittenberg, Kurykh,Kylstoman, L Kensington, LFaraone, Landon1980, Lathrop1885, LeadSongDog, Lebite, Legend, LeilaniLad, Lejman, Leki, Lemmey, Leondoneit, Levineps, Lexor, Liamscollen, Life of Riley,Light current, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Likwidshoe, LilHelpa, LittleOldMe, Livedevilslivedevil, LizardJr8, Llort, Lonelydodger, Looxix, Lowellian, Lowerarchy, Lozeldafan, Ltfhenry,Lucid-dream, Ludalutka, Lumidek, Luna Santin, Luohan, Lyght, MBlume, MDCore, MER-C, MLeamy, MONGO, MPF, MSTCrow, Mac, Maddie!, Madsdk, Magister Mathematicae, Maikeda,Mailer diablo, Male1979, Malekhanif, Malkinann, Mansoor.siddiqi, Maple546, Marc A. 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CLRTAP  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=346873306  Contributors: AndrewRT, Angrense, Avala, Bryan Derksen, Conversion script, Docu, Good Olfactory, Hu Gadarn,Jonathunder, Lalalalaaaaaa, Mbeychok, NJA, Paul A, Pinkadelica, Qertis, Rich Farmbrough, Ronline, Sumivec, Sysin, Vasil, Wavelength, Wik, 10 anonymous edits

OSPAR Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379692318  Contributors: Anilocra, Cgingold, Dthomsen8, Gilliam, Good Olfactory, Headbomb, InspectorTiger, Ospar,Smallman12q, Sting-fr, Sumivec, 4 anonymous edits

Stockholm Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386898598  Contributors: 4v4l0n42, A.Ou, Alan Liefting, Aldo L, Andrewrp, Antandrus, Art LaPella, BorgQueen,Cícero, Dancter, Decltype, Delirium, Dreadlady, Envepidoc, Feministo, Gabbe, Good Olfactory, H Padleckas, Headlessness, HenkBouwman, Ilnyckyj, Kbrose, LeadSongDog, Leyo, Lofor,Magioladitis, McSly, Mikael Häggström, Nwbeeson, Oldfox2003, Pganas, Physchim62, Plumbago, Punchi, RHaworth, Rjwilmsi, Stone, Stormy56, Sumivec, Terrace4, The Thing That ShouldNot Be, Trevor MacInnis, Wtmitchell, Yerpo, Yilloslime, 32 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 139

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alfred PalmerImage:Canal-pollution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal-pollution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AarchibaFile:Health effects of pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Health_effects_of_pollution.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mikael HäggströmImage:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (original uploader)File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Runoff_of_soil_&_fertilizer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lynn BettsFile:Santiago30std.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santiago30std.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AFBorchert, Fred J, Saperaud,Schaengel89, 1 anonymous editsImage:Air .pollution 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air_.pollution_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: High Contrast, Quadell, SCEhardtFile:Luftverschmutzung-Ursachen&Auswirkungen.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luftverschmutzung-Ursachen&Auswirkungen.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: User:ChrklImage:Dust Storm Texas 1935.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Storm_Texas_1935.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA George E. MarshAlbum, theb1365, Historic C&GS CollectionImage:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Liftarn, Paul Erik, Richardelainechambers, Suffusion of Yellow, 4 anonymous editsImage:Cairo in smog.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairo_in_smog.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Sturm58at en.wikipediaFile:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zscout370File:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VariousFile:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Madden, User:Pumbaa80, User:SKoppFile:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:MzajacFile:Flag of South Korea.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VariousFile:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see belowFile:Flag of Qatar.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code)File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnimeAddict AA, Avala, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, Fukaumi, Gryffindor, Guanaco, Homo lupus, Kacir, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Madden, Neq00, Nightstallion, Piccadilly Circus,Pmsyyz, RamzyAbueita, 4 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Kuwait.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of Bahrain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Zscout370File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos,Boricuaeddie, Duduziq, Enbéká, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Madden, Mattes, Nagy, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, SKopp, Tomia, 9 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of the Netherlands Antilles.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denelson83,Duduziq, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Mattes, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, TFCforever, Zscout370, 1 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Aruba.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Aruba.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime Addict AA, ChongDae, Drieskamp, Duduziq,Enbéká, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Mattes, Moipaulochon, Neq00, Vzb83, Zscout370File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ian FieggenImage:Gaussian Plume.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaussian_Plume.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader wasMbeychok at en.wikipediaFile:Empire State Building Night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empire_State_Building_Night.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Charliebrown7034, Duesentrieb, Fred J, Lamiot, Man vyi, Quasipalm, Skeezix1000, TwoWings, Wst, Xnatedawgx, Überraschungsbilder, 1 anonymous editsFile:Light pollution country versus city.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_country_versus_city.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Jeremy StanleyFile:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Skatebiker, 1anonymous editsFile:HPS-lamps.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPS-lamps.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: KlaasFile:Earthlights dmsp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earthlights_dmsp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Data courtesy Marc Imhoff of NASA GSFC andChristopher Elvidge of NOAA NGDC. Image by Craig Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA GSFC.File:Flat earth night.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat_earth_night.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ScientificVisualization StudioFile:Las Vegas Strip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Las_Vegas_Strip.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was BrendelSignature at en.wikipediaLater version(s) were uploaded by Pavuk94 at en.wikipedia.File:México City at Night 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:México_City_at_Night_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, MECU, Mitrush, Ruberyuka, Spangineer, Steschke, Zaqarbal, 2 anonymous editsFile:Light pollution europe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_europe.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Albester, Hertz1888, Ma Baker, 2anonymous editsFile:Christmas in Dublin, CA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christmas_in_Dublin,_CA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: V SmootheFile:Light pollution It's not pretty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_It's_not_pretty.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:Jeremy StanleyFile:LED Droplight.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_Droplight.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:RintojiangFile:Flat-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Man vyi, SolipsistFile:Drop-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drop-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: HuBar, Man vyi, Solipsist,TintazulFile:090101 Wiki LightPollutionItaly BillStatus.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:090101_Wiki_LightPollutionItaly_BillStatus.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:GiancarloGottaImage:Obvious water pollution.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obvious_water_pollution.jpeg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jrockley, Juliancolton,Komencanto, 3 anonymous editsImage:MARPOL 73-78 signatories.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MARPOL_73-78_signatories.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jrockley

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 140

Image:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: CNRCFile:Rio tinto river CarolStoker NASA Ames Research Center.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was SeanMack at en.wikipediaImage:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ship_pumping_ballast_water.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Coast GuardImage:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MECU, ThegreatdrFile:Maldives - Kurumba Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PalawanOzImage:Aguas del lago de Maracaibo 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ganges_river_at_Varanasi_2008.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: JM SuarezFile:Jacuecanga Angra dos Reis Rio de Janeiro Brazil Brasfels.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jacuecanga_Angra_dos_Reis_Rio_de_Janeiro_Brazil_Brasfels.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Alex Rio BrazilImage:Sewer overflow RI EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sewer_overflow_RI_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgencyImage:muddy USGS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muddy_USGS.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moreau1Image:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Cls14Image:Research- water sampling equipment.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Research-_water_sampling_equipment.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Adrignola, AlloquepImage:Deer Island MA.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deer_Island_MA.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Fletcher6Image:REDOX DAF unit 225 m3-h-1000 GPM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:REDOX_DAF_unit_225_m3-h-1000_GPM.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:user:SmileJohn (enWP)Image:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: USDAImage:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originaluploader was SlimVirgin at en.wikipediaImage:Silt fence EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silt_fence_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)Image:Trounce Pond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trounce_Pond.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Drm310Image:Vuilnis.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vuilnis.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Art-top, Dodo, Fruggo, Jarekt, Pengo, Ziko, ŠJůImage:Charette poubelle in Ouagadougou.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charette_poubelle_in_Ouagadougou.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: RomanceorFile:European legal definition of waste.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:European_legal_definition_of_waste.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Cmdrjameson, Rotor DB, Zidane2k1, 1 anonymous editsImage:Polluted Ditch by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polluted_Ditch_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: DavidShankboneFile:Bin.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bin.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:JoolzFile:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:SeeteufelImage:Landfill Hawaii.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_Hawaii.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Eric GuintherImage:Landfill compactor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_compactor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:RopableImage:District heating plant spittelau ssw crop1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:District_heating_plant_spittelau_ssw_crop1.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Contributor, User:GraloImage:Steel recycling bales.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_recycling_bales.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: blahedoImage:Compost Heap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compost_Heap.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: FredB, Ies, Man vyi, SolipsistImage:Haase Lubeck MBT.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haase_Lubeck_MBT.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Alex Marshall(Clarke Energy)Image:US Garbage Truck.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Garbage_Truck.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: G®iffen, HighContrast, Ies, MB-one, Trg, VIGNERON, 1 anonymous editsImage:Waste hierarchy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waste_hierarchy.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:StanneredImage:160658main2 OZONE large 350.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:160658main2_OZONE_large_350.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gms, Kyro,Nils Simon, Telim tor, 7 anonymous editsFile:Ozone cfc trends.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ozone_cfc_trends.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Liftarn, Maksim, Robert Skyhawk, Skamon, 5anonymous editsImage:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 141

Image:Kyoto Protocol participation map 2009.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyoto_Protocol_participation_map_2009.png  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: User:EmturanImage:NOAA-greenhouse-gases.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NOAA-greenhouse-gases.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The Global MonitoringDivision of NOAA's Earth System Research LaboratoryImage:Carbon Emission by Region.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carbon_Emission_by_Region.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Cory, Dragons flight,Manuelt15, Mats Halldin, Pflatau, Shizhao, 3 anonymous editsImage:Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution.png License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AndrewRTImage:OSPAR logo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OSPAR_logo.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Anilocra, User:CydebotImage:OSPAR Commission area map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OSPAR_Commission_area_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:StingImage:Stockholm Convention Secretariat.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stockholm_Convention_Secretariat.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Physchim62File:Map of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.svg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Canuckguy, User:Gabbe

License 142

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/