Political ideologies: Basics

A2 Politics Unit 3ContentsINTRODUCTION TO IDEOLOGIES (Background)..............................................3GLOSSARY..................................................................................................................6

LIBERALISM..............................................................................................................81. Summary of Key Themes...........................................................................................82. Introduction..............................................................................................................103. Elements of Liberalism............................................................................................11

(i) Human Nature.................................................................................................................................11(ii) Individualism.................................................................................................................................11(iii) Freedom........................................................................................................................................13(v) Justice (Equality)............................................................................................................................15

4. Development of Liberalism......................................................................................17(i) Introduction.....................................................................................................................................17(ii) Classic Liberalism..........................................................................................................................18(iii) Modern Liberal Ideas....................................................................................................................21(iv) Similarities and Difference between Classical and Modern Liberal Ideas...................................23

5. Liberal Views on the Government and the State.....................................................24(i) Social Contract Theory...................................................................................................................24(ii) Liberal Democracy.........................................................................................................................25

(a) Introduction..............................................................................................................................25(b) Constitutionalism.....................................................................................................................26(c) Consent (Democracy)...............................................................................................................29

(iii) Liberalism and Democracy...........................................................................................................29(a) Background...............................................................................................................................29(b) Reasons why liberals been concerned about democracy......................................................29(c) Reasons why liberals have supported democracy.................................................................30(d) Critics of Liberal Democracy..................................................................................................30

NEW A2 LIBERALISM QUESTIONS.......................................................................31OLD A2 LIBERALISM QUESTIONS.......................................................................31

CONSERVATISM.....................................................................................................341. Summary of Key Themes.........................................................................................342. Introduction..............................................................................................................363. CONSERVATISM – AN OVERVIEW...................................................................374. Elements of Conservatism........................................................................................38

(a) Human Nature................................................................................................................................38(b) View of society..............................................................................................................................39(c) History and Tradition.....................................................................................................................41(d) Property Ownership.......................................................................................................................43(e) Authority........................................................................................................................................44

5. Different Types of Conservatism.............................................................................45(a) Authoritarian Conservatism...........................................................................................................45(b) Paternalistic (or Traditional) Conservatism...................................................................................45(c) Libertarian Conservatism...............................................................................................................47(d) New Right (NR).............................................................................................................................47NEW A2 CONSERVATISM QUESTIONS.......................................................................................55Old A2 CONSERVATISM QUESTIONS..........................................................................................55

SOCIALISM...............................................................................................................581. Summary of Key Themes.........................................................................................582. Introduction..............................................................................................................603. Overview of Socialism............................................................................................614. Critique of Capitalism..............................................................................................62

[1]A2 Politics 2009/10 UNIT 3

5. Theory of Transition (Means)..................................................................................63(a) Revolutionary socialism...........................................................................................................63(b) Evolutionary socialism.............................................................................................................65

6. Alternative (Ends)....................................................................................................67(a) a positive view of human nature.............................................................................................67(c) Common ownership.................................................................................................................72(d) Equality of outcome.................................................................................................................73(e) Class Politics.............................................................................................................................74

7. Utopianism...............................................................................................................75

MARXISM..................................................................................................................75Introduction..........................................................................................................................................75Dialectic...............................................................................................................................................75Class.....................................................................................................................................................76Marxist Account of the Capitalism......................................................................................................77

(i) Introduction...............................................................................................................................77(ii) Classes Under Capitalism:......................................................................................................77(iii) The Laws of Capitalism..........................................................................................................78(iv) After the Revolution................................................................................................................78

20th CENTURY COMMUNISM...............................................................................791. LENIN......................................................................................................................792. STALINISM............................................................................................................82

REVISIONIST SOCIALISM....................................................................................831. Introduction..............................................................................................................832. Social Democracy....................................................................................................833. Neo-revisionism.......................................................................................................84

NEW A2 SOCIALISM QUESTIONS.................................................................................................90OLD A2 SOCIALISM QUESTIONS..................................................................................................90

ANARCHISM.............................................................................................................931. Utopianism.......................................................................................................................................952. Introduction to Anarchism...............................................................................................................953. Elements of Anarchism....................................................................................................................96

(a) Human Nature..........................................................................................................................96(b) Anti-Statism..............................................................................................................................96(c) Natural Order...........................................................................................................................98

4. Anarchism and Other Ideologies.....................................................................................................98(i) Anarchism and Conservatism..................................................................................................98(ii) Anarchism and Liberalism......................................................................................................99(iii) Anarchism and Marxism......................................................................................................100

5. Different Forms of Anarchism.......................................................................................................101(a) Individualist Anarchism........................................................................................................101(b) Collectivist Anarchism...........................................................................................................102

6. An Evaluation of Anarchism in Practice.......................................................................................1047. Anarchism and Change..................................................................................................................1058. The Significance of Anarchism.....................................................................................................106

NEW A2 ANARCHISM QUESTIONS.....................................................................107OLD A2 ANARCHISM QUESTIONS.....................................................................107OLD ‘A’ LEVEL ANARCHISM QUESTIONS.......................................................108


INTRODUCTION TO IDEOLOGIES (Background)1. DefinitionAn ideology is a coherent set of ideas that provide the basis for political action. Ideologies can be seen as practical theories – they tell us what to do and why we ought to do it. All ideologies contain the following elements:

a description and analysis of the existing system

goals based on the what is a good/best/better society

policies designed to achieve the above goals

a rejection of other ideas and/or explanation of why your view is right

IdeologyDescription/analysis of the existing system

GoalsPolicies to

achieve goals

TraditionalConservatism

Anarchism

Feminism

2. Use of the Term IdeologyThe term was first used in 1797 by the French philosopher de Tracy. He used it in a positive way to describe a new science - 'the science of ideas' (idea-ology).

However, term was soon used negatively. Napoleon attacked people such as de Tracy as ideologists, ie their ideas were divorced from practical politics.

Ideology is now generally viewed in this negative (or pejorative) way. Ideology is associated with extremism, authoritarianism, and violence


Because of this negative view, supporters of a particular view want to present it as realistic/practical and contrast with the 'ideological' views of their opponents.

Eg: H. M. Drucker, The Political Uses of Ideology - 'To Marxists, ideology is any theory which guides or acts in the interests

of the bourgeoisie.

To Liberals, any theory is ideological if it teaches intolerance of other theories.

To Conservatives, an ideology is an attempt to impose a rational systematic plan on society'

3. Looking at IdeologiesWhen looking at any ideology the following need to be remembered:

all ideologies have a core set of values or principles.

despite having these set of values or principles, ideologies are not a rigid set of beliefs; they adapt as society changes.

there is often conflict within ideologies about the meaning of the core values and how they can best be achieved in society.

the policies of political parties are not necessarily the reflection of one particular ideology; one set of ideas is at the centre, other ideologies have an influence.

4. Political Spectrums Using the ideas of left and right is the simplest way of classifying political ideologies and the ideological position of politicians, parties and movements.

(i) linear spectrum


(ii) horseshoe spectrum

(iii) two-dimensional spectrum

NB: some ideologies, eg feminism and ecologism do not easily fit into the left/right spectrum. Also New Labour ‘third way’ supporters reject the traditional left/right analysis is outdated. As a result some have claimed the left/right analysis is no longer relevant.


GLOSSARYAltruism: a concern for other people.

Aristocracy: literally means ‘rule of the best’, overtime it has come to mean an elite group whose status depends on hereditary decent

Atomism: an atomistic view of society is the idea that society is just a group of self-interested individuals (atoms) rather than an interconnected whole. It is often linked to the idea ‘there is no such thing as society.’

Authoritarianism: involves political rule being imposed from above without consent.

Bureaucracy: literally means rule by officials. In everyday use the term is used to describe pointless administration or ‘red tape’.

Capitalism: an economic system where most goods and services are produce by privately owned businesses which are driven by driven by the profit.

Civil Society: refers to the ‘private sphere’ of businesses, voluntary bodies, churches, clubs and families. Liberals generally argue that the state should not interfere with the freedom of these groups. Common Ownership: where the productive wealth of an economy (machines factories etc) is owned by the people. In practice this has usually resulted in the state running industries on behalf of the people, eg nationalisation of the rail industry in the UK in 1945.

Communism: a system based on the common ownership of wealth.

Divine Right of Kings: idea that the authority of a monarch to rule comes from God not the people. This gives the monarch unlimited authority.

Egoism: selfishness or a concern for your own interests.

Enlightenment: 18th century intellectual movement associated with support for reason, progress and equality and a rejection of feudal ideas

Feudalism: a hierarchical and rigid system associated with Europe in the middle ages, it is associated with ideas such as the Divine Right of Kings. It began to break up in the 17th century and was replace with capitalism and the growth of liberalism

Free Market: another name for capitalism.

Hierarchy: ranking of people. A hierarchical society is based on fixed social positions and wealth. A meritocracy is based on social mobility.

Keynesianism: economic theory based on the ideas of J. M. Keynes. Markets do not work efficiently and the government needs to intervene to deal with problems such as unemployment, eg in a recession the government can try and boost demand (and hence create jobs) by cutting taxes and thus give people more money to spend.


Lassiez-faire: another name for capitalism.

Libertarianism: a outlook which puts negative freedom ahead of other values such as equality.

Meritocracy: rule by the able or talented.

Mixed Economy: an economy where the government plays an important role. It can intervene by providing health, education etc.

Nationalisation: state ownership of industries. The focus is provision of the good or service rather than profit.

Permissiveness: a willingness to allow people to make their own moral choice rather than forcing them to conform to a shared set of moral values.

Private Realm: areas of life where the government does not get involved, it is associated with personal choice and responsibility, eg choice of religion. This is usually contrasted with the public realm.

Privatisation: the transfer of ownership of industries from the government to private companies. Nationalised industries become private companies.

Public Realm (or Sphere): non-private arena of social life, the area in which ‘political activity’ takes place, eg pressure group activity,

Supply Side Policies: a set of policies aimed at improving the economy by creating more efficiency and competition. Supply side economists believe that free markets work well. Policies associated with supply side policies include privatisation and reducing the power of trade unions.

Totalitarianism: refers to a system under which rulers attempt to control all aspects of public and private life of individuals. It can be seen an extreme as an extreme form of dictatorship. Examples include Nazi Germany and Soviet Union under Stalin.

Welfare State: a situation where the state plays a major a role in dealing with poverty, disease etc by providing services such as health care and education.


LIBERALISM1. Summary of Key ThemesIndividualism

nature of individualism; (separate and unique creatures, not social beings); methodological individualism and ethical individualism; egoistical individualism vs developmental individualism (pleasure seeking

vs human flourishing); implications for equality (foundational equality; formal equality; equality of

opportunity); implications for the state (state threat to individual/individual

responsibility/freedom, hence minimal state, but individualism can justify the state - social contract theory).

Freedom link between individualism and freedom; link between reason and freedom; freedom 'under the law' rather than absolute freedom; 'negative' freedom (absence of external constraints) vs 'positive' freedom

(personal growth/fulfilment); implications of 'negative' and 'positive' freedom for the state.

Classical liberalism egoistical/atomistic individualism (natural rights theory; utilitarianism;

pursuit of self-interest/pleasure, etc); 'negative' freedom (freedom of choice, privacy, harm principle); minimal/'nightwatchman' state (necessary evil; maintenance of domestic

order, etc); economic liberalism (laissez-faire, self-regulating market, etc); individual responsibility/self-help (moral and economic case for anti-

welfarism).

Modern liberalism developmental individualism (human flourishing; heightening of

sensibilities; 'higher" and 'lower' pleasures, etc); 'positive' freedom (realisation of individual potential); enabling state (enlarges freedom, not merely diminishes it); social reform and welfare (equality of opportunity; freedom from social

evils, etc); economic management (state rectifies imbalances of capitalism;

Keynesianism, etc); tensions within modern liberalism (qualified endorsement of rolled-forward

state - intervention can be 'excessive').

Power/Government corrupting nature of power (individualism plus power equals corruption); external/legal checks on government (constitutions, especially 'written'; bills

of rights, rule of law, etc); internal/institutional checks on government – (fragmentation/dispersal of

power creating checks and balances (separation of powers, parliamentary govt, cabinet govt, bi-cameral system, territorial divisions etc).


Liberalism and Democracy liberal arguments in favour of democracy (political equality; protection

against tyranny; personal development; builds consensus, etc); liberal concerns about democracy (collectivism; tyranny of the majority;

unequal political wisdom; over-government and economic stultification, etc); strengths of liberal democracy (political stability; freedom and prosperity;

democratization; 'democratic peace' thesis).

Likely Questions in the ExamThemes that will provide the basis for questions will include the following:

Nature and implications of individualism

Nature of freedom and differences within liberalism over freedom

Classical liberal theories and ideas

Modern liberal theories and ideas

Similarities and difference between classical and modern liberalism

Coherence of modern liberalism

Liberal views on power/government and how government power can be constrained

Advantages and disadvantages of democracy, from a liberal perspective

Nature of liberal democracy, and advantages of liberal-democratic rule

Information needed from other ideologies includes:Conservatism:

authority (conservative and liberal views of authority: page 43)

Socialism: collectivism (comparison with individualism and the role of the state: pages

60-62); equality (liberal criticism of socialist view of equality, socialist criticism of

liberal view of equality: pages 63 - 65)

Anarchism: power/government (anarchist views of the constitutionalism & consent and

the state: pages 89 - 90) individualist anarchism (as an extreme form of liberalism: pages 90-91)


2. Introduction The word ‘liberal’ is derived the Latin liber, meaning ‘free.’

Liberalism is an ideology whose central theme is a commitment to the individual and the construction of a society in which individuals are free to follow their own interests and fulfil their potential.

Key ideas and values associated with Liberalism are thus: Individualism Freedom Toleration and Diversity Justice (Equality)

A liberal political system is based on Constitutionalism and Consent.

The major division within liberalism is between Classical liberalism and Modern (or Social or Welfare) Liberalism

Liberalism began as a reaction against two aspects of medieval (or feudal) society: religious conformity (ie a lack of religious freedom)

fixed status in society(ie an absence of foundational/formal equality – your status in society was not based achievement but the social standing of your parents).

Liberalism has become the 'dominant ideology' in the capitalist world; its development is closely linked with the development of capitalism.

According to Fukuyama (1989) - collapse of communism and spread of liberal ideas in third world has led to triumph of liberal ideas and an end of struggle between political ideas or the 'end of history'

Several problems arise when looking at liberalism: because we absorb liberal ideas from an early age, liberalism appears as

'the truth', rather than one political ideology among many.

liberal ideas have influenced all main stream ideologies, eg post war consensus was based around modern liberal ideas; Keynes (economy) and Beveridge (welfare state). When the consensus was challenged it came from a resurgence of classic liberal ideas on the free market.

Robert Leach - the post war ideological debate can be seen not as a debate between left and right, but between old (classic) and new (modern) liberalism. Liberal ideas have conquered, while their political vehicle, the Liberal Party has faded.


3. Elements of Liberalism(i) Human NatureClassic Liberal views on human nature are based the ideas that people are:

Rational – people are driven by reason rather than instinct In making decisions, individuals make use of reason – people are capable of defining and pursuing their own interest (they can draw up plans and make choices).

Self-interested – driving force for human action is the pursuit of self-interest.This idea of people being rational creatures means liberals are generally optimistic about human nature, however humans are not perfect. Classic liberals believe that the driving force behind decision making is the pursuit of self-interest (egotistical individualism). This leads to the view society as simply a collection of individuals, it is nothing more than the sum of the individuals that make it up (Thatcher – there is no such thing as society)

Competitive – rational self-interested individuals will find themselves competing with each other in their attempts to promote their personal interests. This competition is seen as healthy, eg it creates a dynamic economy.

Self reliant – people are independent

Modern liberals, eg T.H. Green, tend to have a more optimistic view of human nature – our egoist tendencies are held in check by our concern for others/a sense of social responsibility (altruism). This outlook is influenced by socialist views on human nature which stress sociability and co-operation rather than competition.

(ii) IndividualismThe idea of the individual is at the core of western political thought. Individualism does not simply refer to a belief in the existence of individuals. Individualism is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any collective group or body, eg class or nation

The focus on the individual has two contrasting elements: uniqueness of individuals – each individual has distinctive qualities

equal of status of individuals – human beings deserve respect because we are human beings, hence the liberal hatred of slavery, violence, torture etc.

Heywood – ‘many of the tensions in liberal ideology can be traced back to these rival ideas’ (uniqueness and equality).


Methodological individualism puts the individual is at the core of any political theory or policy. Some theories, for example, are based on fixed human attributes; thus rational choice theory (which can be used to explain voting behaviour) and neo-classical economics are based on the idea that people are driven by self interest.

Ethical individualism is associated with the idea that individual rights and interests are paramount when constructing/developing society. However what this means in practice depends on your view of the individual and human nature. In this case two main forms of individualism tend to be highlighted: egoistical individualism and developmental individualism.

Egotistical individualism (or atomistic individualism or market individualism) stresses human self-interest and self-reliance. It is based on a Classic liberal view of human nature.

Egotistical individualism is associated with classical liberals, the New Right and individualist anarchists there is a focuses on negative freedom and individual choice.

Developmental individualism focuses on the scope for personal development and fulfilment of potential.This is mainly associated with modern liberals, eg Green and Hobhouse. They saw the individual not as narrowly self-interested but as social beings capable of altruistic concern for fellow human beings.This approach has been used to argue for social welfare and state intervention.


WHAT IMPLICATIONS DOES INDIVIDUALISM HAVE FOR THE STATE?

(iii) Freedom(a) IntroductionFreedom is the ability to think or act as one wishes. Freedom is seen as the most important liberal value – it is the basis for happiness and well-being.Support for individual freedom flows from a belief in individualism

J. S. Mill (On Liberty) 'human beings should be free to form opinions and to express their opinions without reserve'.

Mill advocated freedom of speech, religion and thought etc. Freedom benefits both the individual and society, eg freedom results in a better understanding of the world and enables progress to take place (each generation can advance beyond the previous one).


SHOULD FREEDOM BE UNLIMITED?

(b) Negative and Positive Freedom In Two concepts of Liberty (1958), Isaiah Berlin distinguished between negative freedom and positive freedom.

Negative freedom – means non - intereference. A person is free if they are not subject to constraint; a person can make and act upon their own choices.

The case for negative freedom is based on ability of individuals to make rational choices; free from constraint individuals can make their own decisions and fashion their own lives.The role of state is minimal. Its main function is to provide law and order to protect these freedoms.

Negative freedom is associated with classic liberalism, the liberal strand of the New Right and individualist anarchism.

Negative freedom is associated with support for a: free market (laissez-faire) system which is associated with material

choice and the right to spend one's money as one wishes. Negative freedom has been used as justification for lowering direct taxes and maintaining public schools and private beds in hospitals.

large private realm. In religion, family life, personal relationships etc individuals should be ‘left alone’ to do, say and think what they want.

Positive freedom is linked to achievement of a certain goal, eg the opportunity to realise your full potential. It is associated with modern liberals and socialists.Berlin defined positive freedom as ‘the ability to be ones own master’T. H. Green: defined it as the ‘ability of people to make the most and best of themselves’. Although , the ability of people to reach their full potential might result from individual failing, it might be limited by social constraints. Eg, a free market produces poverty and as a result many individuals are not free in a positive sense. David McLellan: 'it is no use having the right of access to the Grill Room at the Ritz if you couldn't afford the bill.'

'Empowering people' may involve the state taking an active role, eg providing a welfare state to ‘free’ people from constraints such as poverty or ill health. Beveridge Report (1942), which led to the formation of the Welfare State in the UK, aimed to conquer the 'five giants' of want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness.


IS THERE A CONFLICT BETWEEN THE NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FREEDOM?

NB: negative freedom is often referred to as 'freedom from' and positive freedom as 'freedom to'. This can be misleading, eg freedom of speech can be seen as freedom from constraint or freedom to express ones views.

(iv) Tolerance and DiversityThe Liberal view on freedom results in an acceptance of tolerance and diversity.Tolerance is a willingness to allow people to act in ways of which we disapprove. Toleration has its roots in individualism. Toleration involves the acceptance of a wide variety of opinions.Summed up by Voltaire – ‘I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it’.

Pluralism is the belief that diversity is desirable/good.

Liberals support toleration and diversity for a variety of reasons:

- toleration benefits individuals. Rational individuals should be allowed to make choices. They know what is best for them. This implies that constraints on the individual should be minimal. This is important in order to promote individuality and personal development.

- toleration also benefits society at large. This happens because it ensures that ideas, theories and values are constantly tested against rival ideas and values. A 'free market of ideas' therefore promotes debate that contributes to the growth of understanding and therefore social progress.

Tolerance and Diversity will be studied in more detail in Unit 4 with Multiculturalism.

(v) Justice (Equality)The focus of the Liberal theory of justice is distributive justice, ie a fair distribution of something (liberty, rights, wealth etc). Social justice focuses on a fair distribution of income & wealth and benefits (eg health care, welfare payments).

The Liberal theory of justice is based on support for different types of equality. Liberals support:

(a) Foundational Equality(b) Formal equality(c) Equality of opportunity


(a) Foundational EqualityUntil the eighteenth century, it was assumed that human beings were naturally unequal i.e. there is a natural human hierarchy.

Liberals reject this view and put forward the idea of foundational equality - the idea that all people are of equal worth because they are human beings. People are equal in the sense that all human beings have certain natural rights (now usually referred to as human rights) These rights are seen as ‘inalienable’, ie they cannot be taken away.

The American Declaration of Independence states: ‘all men are born equal’

‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ are inalienable rights

Foundational equality is based on liberal views on individualism and is associated with the idea of universal human rights.

(b) Formal Equality Foundation equality implies formal equality which focuses on the status of individuals in society, particularly their legal and political rights.

Legal equality is the basis for the Rule of Law. It is associated with principles such as

everybody (including the government) is subject to the law.

everyone is equal before the law. Everyone should be treated equally and have the same access to the legal system. Procedures in every case should be fair and consistent.

Political equality is bases on the idea that those who are subject to the law of the state should have an equal right to participate in the operation of the system.Political authority is associated with principles such as:

universal suffrage one person one vote

(c) Equality of Opportunity Focuses on chances available to people, everyone should have an equal start in life.

Although individuals are formally equal, they have different levels skill, talent, and some are prepared to put in more effort.

Equality of opportunity = giving people an equal chance to make use of their unequal talents

As a result, in society there will be great material inequalities which reflect these personal differences. This unequal distribution of income and wealth is seen as socially just.


A society based around principle of equality of opportunity is referred to as a meritocracy, ie rule by the talented. This is socially just because people are judged according to talent etc not factors such as race or religion.

Liberals have tended to be critical of equality of outcome (or material equality or social equality). This is more usually associated with socialism, although some modern liberals, eg Rawls, have supported limited equality of outcome.

However, the liberal support for equality tends to be weaker than that found in socialism. Liberals believe there maybe a conflict between equality and freedom eg getting rid of public schools infringes the freedom of those that want to use them. In such conflicts they tend to favour freedom rather than equality. Jo Grimond - for liberals there something absolutely distasteful about too much inequality 'but given a decent minimum, they are not afraid of some resultant material inequality'.

Equality with be covered in more depth in the section on Socialism.

4. Development of Liberalism(i) Introduction

Liberalism emerged in Britain in 17th century and is associated with breakdown of feudalism and growth of capitalism (particularly interests of rising middle classes).

Liberal ideas were originally radical - they challenged the existing system, eg they questioned absolute power of the monarchy and promoted human rights and limited constitutional govt.

The American (1776) and French (1789) revolutions were strongly influenced by liberal ideas - can be seen in documents such as the Declaration of Independence.

Two main strands exist: Classical Liberalism

Modern (or Social) Liberalism

Classical Liberalism dominated much of the 19th century.

At end of 19th century, modern liberal ideas became more important. These ideas are associated with people such as T. H. Green and L. Hobhouse. Modern Liberals argued individual failure was NOT the cause of all human suffering/failings. Eg, the poverty and inequality associated with capitalism meant many people were unable to develop fully. Working class are mainly held back by poverty, unemployment, ignorance etc not lack of talent laziness etc.

The late 20th century saw the revival of Classical Liberal ideas – this is associated with the growth of New Right ideas and the policies of the Conservative Party in the UK and the Republican Party in the USA.


(ii) Classic LiberalismClassic liberalism is based on a belief in egoistical individualism and negative freedom, foundational equality, formal equality and equality of opportunity. These ideas:

are underpinned by natural rights theory and/or utilitarianism,

impact on classic liberal views on: society, the role of the state, the economy welfare.

Natural rights theory and/or utilitarianism natural rights theory – people are entitled to certain rights because they are

human beings, eg for Locke these rights were ‘life liberty, and property’.These fundamental rights are seen as universal and inalienable.

universal

inalienable

utilitarianism emerged as a supposedly scientific alternative to natural rights theories. It put forward objective grounds on which moral judgements can be made.It is based on:

the idea people can calculate the ‘quantity’ of pleasure and pain associated with a particular action

people are self interested utility maximisers (they aim to maximise happiness and limit pain).

Each rational individual should be free to define what is pleasurable and what is painful.

Utilitarian principles can be applied to society as a whole by applying Jeremy Bentham’s principle of the greatest happiness for the greatest number as a yardstick for actions by governments


Concept/Idea Classic Liberal View

Society

Role of the State


Concept/Idea Classic Liberal View

Economy

Welfare


(iii) Modern Liberal IdeasTowards the end of the 19th century, the high levels of poverty, disease etc led some liberals began to question the idea that free market capitalism would result in freedom and prosperity for all.

As a result a Modern Liberal ideas were developed. Modern liberalism is associated with:

developmental individualism

positive freedom

These ideas impact on moden liberal views on: the role of the state the economy welfare.

Concept/Idea Modern Liberal View

State


Concept/Idea Modern Liberal View

Economy

Welfare


(iv) Similarities and Difference between Classical and Modern Liberal Ideas

For some writers and classic liberals, eg Hayek, there is an unbridgeable gap between classic and modern liberalism, ie they do not see modern liberalism as ‘true’ liberalism

For people such as Hayek, the elements associated with Modern Liberalism (developmental individualism, positive freedom, enabling state, welfare provision and govt intervention in the economy) mean that is has closer links to collectivism (which is particularly associated with socialism and a greater role for the state) than individualism (which is at the core of liberalism)

Although some of the elements of Modern Liberalism have links with socialism, modern liberals reject idea they have abandoned liberal principles; they argue they have merely changed the way in which individual liberty can best be achieved, eg modern liberals do not believe that free market systems can deliver true freedom for everyone.For modern liberals, the Individual is still seen as supreme and the state is viewed with suspicion, eg their fear of creating a nanny state


5. Liberal Views on the Government and the State(i) Social Contract TheoryMost people accept the need for the state and government to prevent chaos and provide order. Liberals tend to see government as a necessary evil

Necessary - purpose of state is to protect individuals and their freedom, without a state there would be chaos

Evil - the state limits individual freedom, its role should thus be limited

The liberal argument for the state and govt is based on social contract theory. Social contract is an agreement among individuals to form a state order to avoid the chaos associated with a ‘state of nature’ In the 17th century, writers such as Hobbes and Locke looked at what life was like in a state of nature (time before govt was formed).

For Hobbes there would be a continuous war of every man against every man, life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. As a result, rational individuals recognised the need for strong govt with absolute powers.

Locke did not believe there would be a continual state of war, but individuals realised the advantage of a sovereign govt to act as a 'referee' (Locke, unlike Hobbes, believed that govt should be limited; it should just maintain order and protect rights).

[Prior to social contract theory the prevailing view was that society was a God-given (unequal) structure in which everyone had a duty to carry out the functions of their particular social rank. A rigid social hierarchy existed, where those at the top (monarchy and church) were responsible for maintaining political and religious unity.]

Social contract theory:

Implies that political authority thus comes from the people - state was created by individuals and is there to serve their needs.The only legitimate govt is that based on the consent of the people.Rulers are entrusted with power, if rulers betray this trust they can be

replaced.

Sees the state as neutral (the state is created as a result of a voluntary agreement among all people, it was not created by an elite group in order to exploit).


(ii) Liberal Democracy(a) IntroductionLiberal Democracy is the most common form of representative democracy. All advanced capitalist states are liberal democracies. For some, eg, Fukuyama (1989), the collapse of communism and spread of liberal democratic ideas in the 3rd world has led to triumph of Liberal Democracy over other forms of govt. This triumph has led to the 'end of history' (ie the struggle between political ideas)

Liberal Democracy is based on a fusion of two distinct elements: liberalism and democracy

The liberal element is based on constitutionalism

The democratic element is based on consent.

It is possible for the elements to exist independently. The liberal element in liberal democracy generally emerged before the democratic element. C. B. Macpherson – the liberal democratic state was liberal before it became democratic, eg: in 19th century Britain had there were features associated with constitutionalism, eg a bi-cameral system,but it was not a fully developed democracy, eg there was limited suffrage (male property owners)


(b) ConstitutionalismIntroductionThe individual and individual rights & freedoms are at the core of liberalism. Minority rights, in particular, should be protected. Although govt is necessary in order to protect these rights, liberals are wary of sovereign power given to govt.

Constitutionalism is a belief in limited government using external (legal) and internal (institutional) checks on the exercise of power.

Why are checks on govt needed? Because power corrupts If individuals/groups are given too much power they are likely to abuse it. This view is based on the idea that individuals are driven by self interest. Self-interested individuals will, if they have power over others, use their position to benefit themselves.

The greater the power, the greater the capacity for abuse, and therefore the greater the corruption. All systems of rule have the potential for oppression against the individual.This was summed up by Lord Acton - ‘Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.’

What form do checks on govt take? There are two types:

external constraints

internal constraints.

External constraintsExternal constraints are sometimes called legal constraints. These include:

codified (or written) constitutions

bills of rights (usually included as part of a codified constitution)

Most states have a codified constitution and bill of rights. They tend to be entrenched and rigid entrenched

rigid

Both act as a constraint on government and protect individual freedom, eg


Internal constraintsInternal constraints aim to spread power throughout system. Examples include:

separation of powers bicameralism federalism cabinet government parliamentary government

separation of powers, Idea that the three main functions of govt (making laws, implementing laws, and judging) should be carried out by separate institutions or branches of govt, ie the legislature, executive and judiciary.

The aim of this separation is to prevent abuse of power (govt policy can only be carried through if all 3 agree)

However the separation of power may result in gridlock

bicameralismMost liberal democracies have a bicameral system, ie a legislature made up of 2 chambers. However the balance of power between the two chambers varies from system, eg

Bicameralism act as a check and balance in the following ways: a second chamber can act as a check on the first chamber and/or

government. This can prevent majoritarian rule and protect minority/individual rights.

Two chambers ensure better legislation. Due to ‘friction and delay’, ie there may be arguments between the house in the legislature (friction) and the fact that legislation is looked at by each house allows more time for discussion and public debate (delay).

can result in a different type/basis of representation – eg Irish Senate is partly based on functional (rather than territorial) representation – members are chosen from different groups in society, eg education, agriculture, industry etc. This give power/influence to different groups within society.

The overall effect of a bicameral system is to create the need for consultation and compromise.


federalism/decentralisationFederalism results in sovereignty being shared (some powers are exercised at a regional level while others stay at a national level).

Federalism/decentralisation acts as a check on government by spreading power, eg

It also moves decision making closer to the people This can be important in ethnically diverse states which may otherwise development threats to unity

cabinet governmentThe Cabinet is a collective decision making body in which members (in theory) have equal influence; the PM is merely Primus Inter Pares (first amongst equals) and can be controlled by his/her cabinet.

Although the idea that the PM is first amongst equals is rejected by most commentators, supporters of Cabinet Govt believe there are still powerful constraints on the powers of the PM.

parliamentary governmentAlthough parliamentary govt violates the separation of powers (because the legislature and executive are fused), parliament can act as a check on the executive.

Day-to-day the government is held accountable through the use of question time, debates and select committees.

Parliament has the power to remove a government by defeating it on a vote of confidence.

However there is a danger that a system of parliament government can result in executive dominance – an elective dictatorship results.


(c) Consent (Democracy)IntroductionConsent is the idea that government power should be based on the agreement of the governed (democratic element of liberal democracy). The idea of consent arose out of social contract theory. The most popular way consent is expressed is through competitive elections. Democratic (or competitive) elections are based on the following principles:

universal adult suffrage

one person one vote, one vote one value

secret ballot

choice of parties

frequent elections

(iii) Liberalism and Democracy(a) BackgroundBefore the end of the 18th Century few liberals were democrats - liberals defended constitutional and representative govt but did not advocate universal suffrage.

It was argued democracy needed to be weighted in favour of the more enlightened members of society, eg Mill proposed a system of plural voting where professional and business groups would have more than one vote Mill, like many early liberals, saw economic success as a measure of enlightenment and competence).

By the 20th century support for democracy had become widespread. Universal suffrage is now an accepted principle among all mainstream ideologies.

(b) Reasons why liberals been concerned about democracy


(c) Reasons why liberals have supported democracy

(d) Critics of Liberal Democracy Elite theorists

Classic elite theorists, eg Michels argued democracy is impossible. ALL societies are characterised by a division between an elite (ruling minority) and the masses (majority of people) In all societies a ruling elite WILL emerge.

Modern elite theorists have developed the concept of democratic elitism. Rule by elites is still inevitable, but since democracy allows the people to choose which elite rules, elites have to respond to the will of the people if they want to stay in power.

Marxists Criticism is based on the fact that liberal democracies are capitalist. Marxists argue that true political equality cannot exist alongside the social and economic inequality associated with capitalism. The rich and poor do not have equal access to political power – those with economic power control government.

Radical democratsArgue that liberal democracy has reduced political participation to merely voting every few years. This is not real political participation. Radical democrats are associated with ideas such as e-democracy as a way of improving participation


NEW A2 LIBERALISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. On what grounds have liberals supported democracy? (Jan 10)

2. Why and how have liberals supported the fragmentation of political power? (June 10)

Essays1. To what extent does modern liberalism depart from the ideas of classical liberalism? (Jan 10)

2. To what extent do liberals support the principle of equality? (June 10)

OLD A2 LIBERALISM QUESTIONS

Short Answers1. Why do liberals support constitutionalism and consent? (Jan 02)

2. Distinguish between negative freedom and positive freedom, and explain the implications of each for the state. (Jun 02)

3. Outline a liberal defence of toleration and pluralism. (Jun 02)

4. What kind of equality do liberals support, and why? (Jan 03)

5. Distinguish between individualism and collectivism, and explain the implications of each for the state. (Jan 03)

6. On what grounds do liberals support democracy? (June 03)

7. Why do liberals fear concentrations of power? (Jan 04)

8. Why do modern liberals support social reform and welfare? (June 04)

9. Define individualism, and explain its implications for the state. (June 04)

10. Distinguish between socialist and liberal views of equality. (Jan 05)

11. Why do liberals emphasis the importance of constitutionalism and consent? (June 05)

12. Distinguish between positive freedom and negative freedom, and explain the implications of each for the state. (June 05)

13. Distinguish between economic liberalism and social liberalism. (Jan 06)

14. Why have liberals criticised the socialist view of equality? (June 06)


15. Define ‘positive freedom’, and explain its implication for the state. (June 06)

16. On what grounds have liberals raised concerns about democracy? (Jan 07)

17. How and why have conservatives and liberals disagreed over authority? (Jan 07)

18. Define individualism and explain its importance within liberal ideology (June 07)

19. Why have liberals feared the concentration of political power? (Jan 08)

20. Why have some liberals warned against the dangers of democracy? (Jun 08)

21. Using examples, distinguish between negative freedom and positive freedom. (Jun 08)

22. How do modern liberals justify welfare and social reform? (Jan 09)

23. Define individualism, and explain its implications for the state (Jan 09)

24. Why have some liberals warned against the dangers of democracy? (June 09)

25. Using examples, distinguish between negative freedom and positive freedom. (June 09)

Essays1. How, and to what extent, have modern liberals departed from the ideas of classical liberalism? (Jan 02)

2. To what extent is liberalism compatible with democracy? (Jun 02)

3. ‘Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.’ Why do liberals believe this, and what are its implications? (Jan 03)

4. Have modern liberals abandoned individualism and embraced collectivism?(June03)

5. To what extent are there tensions within modern liberalism over the role of the state? (Jan 04)

6. 'Liberal democracy is a contradiction in terms. ' Discuss. (June 04)

7. Analyse similarities and differences between classical liberalism and modern Liberalism. (Jan 05)

8. To what extent is liberalism compatible with democracy (June 05)

9. Why do liberals support toleration and diversity, and on what grounds would they limit toleration? (Jan 06)

10. ‘Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.’ Explain and discuss the implications of this view for liberalism. (June 06)


11. Modern liberals support state intervention, but only within limits. Discuss (Jan 07)

12. ‘The similarities between classical liberalism and modern liberalism are greater than the differences.’ Discuss (June 07)

13. ‘Liberals support equality, but only a qualified form of equality.’ Discuss (Jan 08)

14. Why, and to what extent, have liberals supported toleration and diversity? (Jun 08)

15. Why do liberals support the principle of limited government, and do they propose that it be achieved? (Jan 09)

16. Why, and to what extent, have liberals supported toleration and diversity? (June 09)


CONSERVATISM1. Summary of Key ThemesTradition

Conservative arguments in favour of tradition (natural law; accumulated wisdom of the past; stability and rootedness);

New Right departures from traditionalism (neo-liberal radicalism based on reasoned analysis; reactionary tendencies)

Neo-conservatism and traditional values.

Human imperfection psychological imperfection (limited, dependent and security-seeking

creatures; implications for tradition, authority etc) moral imperfection (base and non-rational urges and instincts; implications

for law and order, and sentencing policy); intellectually imperfect (world largely beyond human understanding;

implications for reason, tradition).

Property property supported because it provides security in an insecure/unstable

world; because it is the exteriorisation of individual personality; because it breeds positive social values (eg, respect for taw); property traditionally viewed as a duty (to preserve for the benefit of future

generations), but New Right advanced a liberal, rights-based justification.

Organic society the whole is more than a collection of its individual parts (clash between

organicism [organic communitarianism] and individualism); duty and obligation as social cement; hierarchy (rejection of social equality as undesirable and impossible); importance of shared values and a common culture (fear of diversity and

pluralism).

One Nation tradition Tory origins (neo-feudalism; tradition, hierarchy, organicism etc); reform is preferable to revolution (pragmatism; enlightened self-interest;

qualified case for welfare); paternalism - duty as the price of privilege (noblesse oblige; the 'deserving'

poor); 'middle way' stance (pragmatic rejection of free market and state control;

cautious social democracy).


Liberal New Right Classical liberal roots; free market economics (natural dynamism of market; anti-statism;

monetarism; rejection of Keynesianism; privatisation; deregulation and tax cuts; supply-side economics; 'trickle- down');

atomistic individualism as basis for libertarianism (individual/property rights; individual responsibility/self-help; anti-welfarism – dependency culture, impact on taxation, welfare as legalised theft).

Conservative New Right roots in pre-Disraelian conservatism; restoration of order and authority (social and state authoritarianism-

punishment works etc); moral revivalism (anti- permissiveness; 'new' puritanism;

traditional/family/Christian values); resurgent nationalism (national patriotism as a source of security and stability; insularity and xenophobia).


Nature and implications of tradition, and extent to which conservative support tradition

Conservatism and human nature, particularly belief in human imperfection

Conservative opposition to the politics of principle, and extent to which it has revised its opposition

Conservative view of property, authority and hierarchy Conservative view of society and rival organic and mechanical views of

society Distinctive theories and ideas of traditional conservatism/One Nation

tradition Distinctive theories and ideas of New Rights Similarities and difference between traditional conservatism and the New

right Coherence of New Right thinking

Information needed from other ideologies includes:

Socialism: human nature (comparison with socialist view and implications: page 63 );

Anarchism: human nature (comparison with anarchist view and implications: page 93);


2. IntroductionAs a political ideology, Conservatism emerged as reaction to Enlightenment ideas associated with the American and French revolutions. Conservatism is associated with concern about change and the need for stability.

Edmund Burke is seen as 'founding father' of British conservatism, ie first person to set down conservative ideas in a coherent form. In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) he supported cautious change and upheld traditional society.These themes can be linked to the main elements of conservatism, eg human imperfection, organic society, tradition etc.

Although these core elements can be identified as conservative, there are different divisions within conservatism. The major divisions are:

Authoritarian Conservatism

Traditional (or Paternalistic) Conservatism

Libertarian Conservatism /New Right


3. CONSERVATISM – AN OVERVIEW


CLASSIC LIBERALISMAIM:

IDEAS:

TORYISMAIM:

IDEAS:

NEW RIGHT(free economy and strong state) TRADITIONAL (or ONE NATION) CONSERVATISM

PATERNALISTIC CONSERVATISMFOCUS:

NEO – CONSERVATIVE STRANDFOCUS:

NEO – LIBERAL STRANDFOCUS:

4. Elements of Conservatism(a) View of Human Nature these are the foundation of conservative ideas other elements are linked to these beliefs(b) View of society

(c) History and Tradition

(d) Property Ownership

(e) Authority

(a) Human Nature

Traditional Conservative viewO’Sullivan describes conservatism as the ‘philosophy of imperfection’. Conservatives generally have a pessimistic view of human nature;Conservative views on human imperfection can be looked at in several ways:

humans are ‘limited, dependent and security seeking’ people are imperfect and corruptible human intellectual powers are limited

humans are ‘limited, dependent and security seeking’ – they desire safety, guidance, familiarity and a sense of belonging.

Social order and leadership are thus seen as more important than liberty.

people are imperfect and corruptible, conservatives tend to focus on weakness, selfishness etc.

Traits such as greed are natural; conservatives reject the idea that people are naturally good or can be 'made' good if their social circumstances are improved.

Hailsham - 'man is an imperfect creature with a streak of evil'

Thatcher - ' man is inherently sinful'.

This view has influence conservative views on what is achievable in politics and their view of crime & punishment.

human intellectual powers are limited – human rationality is unable to fully understand the highly complex world in which we live.

Conservatives are therefore wary of change, reject ‘rationalist’ ideologies, eg Marxism and prefer a pragmatic approach based on history and tradition

New Right View of Human Nature


Conservative strand of the New Right is associated with a pessimistic view of human nature

Neo-liberal strand is more closely linked with Classic Liberal views are human nature on based the idea that people are:

Rational

Naturally Self-interested

Self –reliant

Naturally Competitive

(b) View of society Traditional Conservative view:For traditional Conservatives, society is organic - more like a living organism than a machine.

Individuals cannot be separated from society (family, friends, community), they are part of an entity which Allison argues gives their ‘lives meaning, place and purpose’. Society is interconnected and bound together by a network of reciprocal rights and duties.

History and tradition provide the linkages that bind us together.

Organic society and the individualSociety is more important than the individuals (or groups) who make it up, because society is more than the sum of its individual parts.

This influences traditional conservative view of freedom – they are wary of negative freedom (freedom in terms of being left alone). Individuals are not rational and self-reliant but dependent and security seeking. Traditional conservatives tend to see freedom in terms of an acceptance of duties and obligations – this is what holds society together.

Organic society and Change

An organic view of society (and a pessimistic view of human nature), leads to caution about change (unlike a machine, you cannot take a living organism apart and put it back together in order to suit some theory about improving it). The 'cure may be worse than the disease' (Oakeshott)

For Conservatives, certain institutions and practices are the lynchpins of society – if these come under attack then society itself is under threat.


Although conservatives view change with caution (Oakeshott - They, 'prefer the familiar to the unknown...the tried to the untried'), they realise change is necessary and is taking place all the time.

Burke argued you need to ‘change in order to conserve’ – the resistance of the French monarchy to change partly caused of the revolution; the English monarchy survived because it was prepared to accept constitutional constraints on its power.

For Conservatives, change needs to be: gradual

based on history and tradition, not an ideological blueprint, eg Marxism. According to Burke, reform should grow organically out of the past and be based on ‘precedent, authority and example’ rather than abstract reason.

However, at times, Conservatives have been associated with radical change, egDisraeli – had to deal with problems associated with rapid industrialisation

Thatcher - decline associated with social democracy.

Organic society and hierarchySociety is naturally hierarchical, this is an inevitable feature of an organic society – the different organs of the body have different functions and some are more important than others, this is no different to society. There must be leader and followers, workers and managers etc. Society is thus made up of unequal but mutually dependent classes – hierarchy is thus inevitable and social equality impossible.

Burke talked of society operating according to a fixed compact (contract) ….which holds all…..in their appointed place. Conservatives in the pre-democratic era, are associated with the belief in a ‘natural aristocracy’. For some conservatives this society is divinely ordained (god given)

Within this system the wealthy/privileged have a responsibility for the common welfare of society. This was expressed in the doctrine of noblesse oblige – the rich have a duty to protect the poor.

New Right View of Society


The Conservative Strand is associated with an organic view of society and is thus similar to the traditional conservative view, although the new right conservative strand tends to focus more on strong law and order and less on social reform as a way of maintaining stability.

The Liberal Strand is associated with an atomistic/mechanical view of societySociety is nothing more than a collection of self-interested individuals. It is constructed by rational individuals to satisfy their personal interests.

This has had an impact on how conservatives: View the relationship between the individual and society

Thatcher – there is no such thing as society only individuals and families.

View change

View hierarchy – since early 19th century the idea of a natural hierarchy/aristocracy have progressively become less important in conservative thinking. Libertarian conservative ideas on meritocracy now dominate.

(c) History and TraditionTraditional Conservative view:

History is experience. The 'wisdom of the past' gives indications of what is the best that can be achieved. Judgements based on historical experience are more reliable than those based on abstract theory.

Tradition refers to ideas, practices or institutions that have been inherited from an earlier period

Conservatives use their vision of history and tradition to justify the maintenance of the social system. Eg, institutions such as the family, church, the constitution provide stability and should thus be maintained.

How have traditional conservatives justified tradition?


original justification was based on idea of a ‘natural order’ and is associated with ideas such as the ‘divine right of kings’. This view has been abandoned.

now justification is now based on two elements tradition reflects the ‘accumulated wisdom of the past’

tradition gives an understanding and sense of history, it provides continuity, stability and a sense of belonging.

‘accumulated wisdom of the past’. Traditional institutions and practices have ‘stood the test of time’ and should be preserved for present and future generations.Burke – society is a partnership between ‘those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born’.

Hailsham - 'Function of conservatism is to protect, apply and revere what is best in the old'. Hailsham sees society as an organism - it must change, grow and evolve. 'One should not begin anew each time, one should carry on from where their forefather left off'. He uses the example of a forest – trees grow then die, but dead trees provide the conditions for new trees to grow.

it provide continuity, stability and a sense of belonging. History and tradition encourages social cohesion by creating the moral and cultural foundations of society. Conservatives are thus wary of multiculturalism (positive support for a diverse society).

A multicultural society is one characterised by cultural diversity (based on race, religion, language), usually resulting from immigration. The conservative concern over multiculturalism is based on their view of human nature and the nature of an organic society.Humans are ‘limited, dependent and security seeking’ – they desire safety, guidance, familiarity and a sense of belonging and society is complex and fragile.

Multicultural societies are:

likely to be conflict ridden (focus is what divides people not what unites them)

and a threat to the fabric of society (which is based on shared values)


New Right View of history and tradition The conservative New Right re-emphasises the importance of tradition and

traditional values.

The roots of the liberal New Right views of tradition can be found in classic liberalism. Liberals have been critical of tradition, eg J. S. Mill described tradition as the ‘despotism of custom’ - tradition limits progress and serves the interests of the ruling class. The liberal new right has thus been associated with a rejection tradition in that it believes in reason and is less concerned with radical change.

(d) Property Ownership Ownership of property is important for Conservatives. It:

Promotes social values such as respect for the law – property owners have a ‘stake in society’ and are therefore more likely to be law abiding and respect the views of others.

'It [property] is not just a possession. It is an education. It enlightens the citizen in the value of stability and shows that the security of small property depends on the security of all property’ (Norton & Aughey)

Provides personal benefits such as security and a source of personal fulfilment – property provides enjoyment, satisfaction.

Promotes political values such as individual liberty and self relianceProperty provides: security for individuals and families (they have ‘something to fall back

on’ at times of difficultly in an uncertain world)

some independence from govt (‘people can stand on their own two feet’).

NB: this view is also associated with the liberal strand of the New Right.

Provides economic benefits People have a right to own what their labour has produced. The unequal distribution of is a reflection of hard work and talent.The desire to own property acts as an incentive to work harder. This results in greater economic efficiency and growth.

NB: this view is particularly associated with the liberal strand of the New Right.


This general support for property ownership has resulted in Conservatism being associated with ideas such as support for thrift (being cautious with regard to spending) and belief in a property owning democracy.

(e) AuthorityIntroductionAuthority is the right to command or make a decision. It is based on a widespread acceptance within a community of the right of certain people and/or institutions to issue orders and, if necessary, impose sanctions.

A comparison can be made between a Liberal view of authority and a conservative view of authority.

Liberal ViewThe liberal view of authority based on social contract theory [ie authority arises from below and is based on the consent of the governed. Rational individuals accept authority because it establishes order.Authority, however, limits liberty. Liberal believe that authority should be constrained within clearly defined legal/constitutional boundaries (legal-rational authority)]

Conservative ViewConservatives are sceptical about the liberal view. Traditionally, Conservatives have tended to focus less on consent and more on what Scruton calls ‘natural necessity’. Authority is exercised ‘from above’ for the benefit of those below, parental authority is not based on consent but comes from natural necessity, it comes from a desire for parents to do what is best for their children.

Conservatives extend this view of authority to society as a whole. Scruton – ‘the state’s relation to the citizen is not ….contractual…..The state has the authority …of parenthood.’For conservatives, authority reflects a basic need for leadership and guidance; it also promotes social cohesion and strengthens the fabric of society.

This is why conservatives have been critical of the spread of permissiveness (attitude in society that allows people to act as they want). This has lead to an undermining of the authority of parents, police, teachers etc and is associated with crime, delinquency and general discourtesy.


5. Different Types of ConservatismAs an ideology, Conservatism developed in reaction to the upheavals during the late 18th (eg the French Revolution) and the 19th century (eg rapid industrialisation and urbanisation).

As with other ideologies, different interpretations of Conservatism have developed, eg in the UK a pragmatic form of Conservatism (Paternalistic or Traditional Conservatism) emerged while in continental Europe a more reactionary form of Conservatism emerged (Authoritarian Conservatism)

The main types of Conservatism are:(a) Authoritarian Conservatism(b) Paternalistic (or Traditional) Conservatism(c) Libertarian Conservatism(d) New Right

(a) Authoritarian ConservatismThis form of conservatism is mainly associated with continental Europe, and s associated with resistance to change and authoritarian rule (unquestioning obedience). It has become less important due to the rise of liberal democratic ideas and the fall of fascism (with which it often collaborated).

(b) Paternalistic (or Traditional) ConservatismIntroductionThis is a more pragmatic form of conservatism than authoritarian conservatism. It is called paternalistic conservatism because of way it supposedly mirrors the relationship between father and child.

It is accepted that change has to take place but it should be slow and gradual. Burke wrote about the need to ‘change in order to conserve’, this allows conservatives to adapt values and traditions to take account of changing conditions, eg growth of mass democracy and the development of conservative nationalism.

One Nation ConservatismThe dominant form of Paternalistic Conservatism in the UK is One Nation Conservatism.

In the late 19th century this was associated with Disraeli, in the post-war period it is associated with Macmillan's 'Middle Way'. This form of conservatism dominated in the UK until the emergence of the New Right in the 1970s.

Although the roots of the ideas are found in the feudal structures of the middle ages, Tory paternalism is particularly associated with Disraeli (1804 -81). He is credited with transforming and saving the Tory Party during a period of enormous change, eg the Industrial Revolution.


Disraeli highlighted the danger of the existence of two nations in Britain – the rich and the poor. The growing inequality between the two groups created tension within society and revolution was seen as a possibility. Also if the Conservative Party was to succeed it would need to be able to appeal to all groups in society – One Nation Conservatism.

One Nation Conservatism is associated with:

a stress on the idea of an organic society and the concept of Noblesse Oblige - the fortunate in society - the wealthy and privileged - have an obligation to help the less fortunate (nobility imposes obligations). Although the roots of this idea can be found in the middle ages, eg the paternal responsibility of a lord over his peasants, Disraeli argued they did not have to be abandoned in an increasingly industrialised world, the state could become involved in social reform/welfare.

The fear that poverty/deprevation could lead to civil unrest and possibility revolution was also a reason why one nation conservatives became associated with social reform, eg better housing conditions and public health, in order to provide ordinary people with decent living conditions.

NB: this approach to welfare is still compatible with the survival of hierarchy – the privileged need look after the less fortunate not to bring them up to their level. The condition of the working class only needs to be improved up to the point where there is no threat of civil unrest and possibility revolution.

A pragmatic approach towards the state and the individual. Cons argue their views are pragmatic (derived from the knowledge of past experience) rather than ideological or dogmatic (idealistic and based on utopian visions). For most conservatives, Conservatism is thus not an ideology.

Pragmatic conservatives focus on what works - how can social harmony be achieved given human nature. They thus stress the importance of leadership, respect for authority, and the importance of existing institutions.

a focus on national identity /conservative nationalism. In the early 19th century nationalism was seen by conservatives a destabilising force, towards the end of the 19th it was viewed by conservatives in a more positive light – it could be used to maintain social order and traditional institutions.


Macmillan's 'Middle Way'From 1945 to the 1970s post-war conservatism was dominated by Macmillan's 'middle way' expression of One Nation conservatism. The 1950's and early 1960's was the age of Butskellism, in which there was a general consensus between the main parties.This was an interventionist 'middle way' between laissez-faire (or free market) capitalism and socialist state planning. It included:

Support for the welfare state,

Keeping nationalised industries (mainly on pragmatic ground that you cannot 'unscramble eggs'),

Use of Keynesian demand management policies to regulate the economy.

In the 1970s this consensus began to break up and the within conservatism the libertarian strand became more influential.

(c) Libertarian ConservatismMany conservative ideas are associated with feudal ideas on obligation, hierarchy etc, but since 18th century conservatives have taken on board some classic liberal ideas, eg free enterprise, self help and limited government. Burke, for example, supported Adam Smith’s ideas on free market despite his views on tradition and change.

Liberal conservatives, are not, however, consistent in their support for liberal ideas, eg they believe in economic liberalism, but do not tend to extend this principle of individual liberalism to other aspects of social life.

(d) New Right (NR)DefinitionThe New Right is a blend of market individualism which draws on classic liberal ideas and is associated with

a belief in a minimal state, particularly in the economic sphere, it is pro free market.This usually referred to as neo-liberalism or the liberal strand.

and

social authoritarianism (which wants to restore respect for authority and tradition and draws on pre-Disraelian conservative ideas). This usually referred to as the neo-conservatism or the conservative strand.

Andrew Gamble sums up the New Right as - The Free Economy (liberal strand) and the Strong State (conservative strand)


The Liberal StrandMain ideas

atomistic/mechanical view of society

Strong support for free markets and limited governmentThis involves a revival of classic liberal ideas on the economy.

Markets are seen as superior to any other way of organising societies. Aim of government is to create conditions in which markets can function properly. This is associated with minimal government or ‘rolling back the state’.

Policies associated with the Liberal Strand include:

- Limiting govt spending

- Reduction of trade union powers. This allows markets to operate more efficiently.

- Privatisation. This results in a more competition and as a result consumers get better quality services at lower prices.

- Reduction of income tax. This results in greater incentives and gives people more choice over how their money should be spent.

- Private health insurance in place of the NHS. This results in a more efficient use of resources and reduces govt spending.

- A smaller welfare state.The welfare state should just be a safety net. A more comprehensive welfare system (nanny state) creates: a dependency culture

The welfare state weakens individual initiative and creates a welfare dependent underclass, eg Charles Murray has argued that welfare relieves women of dependency on men as breadwinners and is thus a major cause of family break-up. It creates an underclass of single mothers and fatherless children.

economic problemsThe welfare state has been blamed for declining levels of economic growth, eg higher spending needs to be paid for out of higher taxation and this reduces incentives to take risks such as expanding/setting up businesses, and higher inflation, eg governments print more money in order to pay for increased spending and this causes inflation.


Why do the New Right want to 'roll back the state'?The function of government is limited to basically the provision of law and order.

The following arguments are put forward to defend limited government:

so much wealth is generated by unregulated competition, that even the poor are better off in a free market system.

free markets encourage self discipline and self reliance This strengthens the ‘moral fibre of individuals’. Thatcher, for example, believed in the principle of self help and wanted the nation to return to the Victorian values of thrift and self reliance.

success or failure in a capitalist system is a fair measure of individual merit. Society would be an open and fluid system where inequalities of wealth and status reflect natural human differences (meritocracy).

Keith Joseph wanted 'an infinitely mobile society - an infinite number of snakes and ladders' in which lazy people slither into poverty while skilful and energetic individuals are rewarded with wealth and social status. This is the basis of Major's 'classless society'.

The Conservative Strand

Main Ideas an Organic view of society

importance/restoration of social orderThis involves a reassertion of conservative principles such as authority, history & tradition with a focus on the family, religion and the nation.

The main problems faced by society are; rising crime levels/anti-social behaviour declining moral standards threats to national identity

rising crime levels/anti-social behaviourThis requires a tough stance on law and order – give the imperfection of human nature the only thing that will reduce crime levels/anti-social behaviour is the fear of strong punishment.


declining moral standardsThis is linked t the growth in permissiveness since the 1960s. This is associated with a rejection of Christian values and a weakened of the fabric of society.

threats to national identity After the end of WW2 the threat was seen as the Soviet Union and international communism. These views have led to strong defence policies.

The collapse of communism in E. Europe in the late 1980s has led to greater emphasis:

- on the impact of greater European integration. This undermines UK sovereignty and traditions & institutions

- the impact of multiculturalism

NB: Although the conservative strand of the New Right draws ideas associated with paternalistic conservatism such as respect for authority and an organic society, it also draws on authoritarian conservative ideas.

This gives the conservative strand of the New Right a different focus to paternalistic conservatism. Both wish to maintain stability and order.

However, whereas paternalistic conservatives believe this is best achieved by using social reform to reduce poverty, the conservative strand of the New Right focuses on the need to restore authority and impose discipline through strong law and order.

Links and Tensions between the Liberal and Conservative strandsNot all supporters of the New Right subscribe to both neo-liberal and neo-conservative views, eg, Scruton is a neo-conservative who rejects a dogmatic approach to the market, neo-liberals, eg Nozick rejects conservative social theory.

However both strands tend to trace Britain’s economic decline (linked to trade unions with too much power, high tax rates, etc) and moral decline (linked to permissiveness) both back to social democratic/liberal values associated with the post-war consensus.

Gamble: 'idea that social democracy was a Trojan Horse for communism has long been popular in right-wing rhetoric'.


There are, however tensions within the New Right, eg:

Over the Role of the stateGamble summaries NR approach as: free economy/strong state For some this involves a paradox - the state is to be simultaneously rolled back and rolled forward.

This paradox arises because of the two different strands within the New Right liberal tendency argues for a free/competitive economy (less govt).

cons tendency wants to restore social/political authority in society (more govt).

NB: for some people, including most New Right supporters, there is NO paradox – to work properly free markets require less government but strong government is needed to police the market, eg need for laws restricting union power and deal with problems thrown up by the free market, eg greater inequality

Conflicting IdeasThe liberal strand is associated with things such as individualism, freedom, atomistic view of society, competition etc.

The conservative strand is associated with ideas such as authority, organic society, tradition etc

This can lead to conflict over policies, eg- Sunday Trading

- Closing down mines


Is the New Right a break with Conservative tradition? Traditional conservatives (Wets), eg Pym, Walker, Gilmour argue the NR

is a break with conservative tradition in terms of:

its ideas, particularly those associated with the liberal strand eg Friedman 'Thatcher is not in terms of belief a Tory. She is a 19th century liberal'

its dogmatic/ideological approach. Thatcher’s approach seen by many as dogmatic and thus in complete contrast to the traditional pragmatic approach.

Thatcher rejected consensus - 'Old Testament prophets didn't say "Brothers I want a consensus". They said "This is my faith...what I passionately believe. If you believe it too, then come with me"' (Thatcher).

Thatcher also said that her wish was to 'kill off socialism'. This can contrasted with Gilmour’s view in his book Inside Right that, ‘there is much in British Social Democracy which is admirable and which Conservatives can accept’.

Most New Right Conservatives do not see themselves as a breaking with

tory tradition.There has always been a libertarian strand within Conservatism.

Keith Joseph argued that post-war Cons govts, in the interest of promoting stability and continuity, generally accepted the measures of Labour govts. As socialist govts moved to the left, so did the middle ground and also the conservatives. As a result Conservative Govts rejected true conservative principles.

Keith Joseph (1975), 'it was only in April 1974 that I was converted to Conservatism. I had thought I was a Conservative but I now see I was not really one at all'.


Conservatism under Cameron After 2005 General election, the Conservatives had suffered 3 election defeats

in a row – by 2009 the Conservative Party will have been in opposition for 12 years, its longest uninterrupted period out of office since 1832.

After losing 3 elections in a row (’79, ’83 and ’87), the Labour Party began a fundamental re-think; the Conservatives have been doing something similar.

Cameron describes himself as a ‘modern compassionate conservative’.After becoming leader Cameron set up a number of policy groups, eg the Social Justice Policy Group chaired by Iain Duncan Smith.

In Feb 2006, Cameron outlined his aims and values - To improve the quality of life for everyone through a:

(i) dynamic economy(ii) strong society(iii) sustainable environment

(i) dynamic economy, where thriving firms create jobs, wealth and opportunity. This support for a free market has an obvious Thatcherite theme.

However there are aspects of his views on the economy which are much closer to One Nation (and New labour views), eg: Cameron says he will put economic stability before tax cuts, Tax cuts

were an important aspect of Thatcherite economic policy.

Agreeing to match Labour’s massive spending on education and health and dropping policies such as support for the Patient’s Charter and expansion of grammar schools.Cameron has however shown a Thatcherite distrust of greater state intervention - public services will be guaranteed by the state, not necessarily run by the state. Voluntary organisations will play a greater role (eg state schools judged by Ofsted to be "failing" should be freed from local authority control and run by charities and parents) and generally schools and hospitals will be given greater freedom from central government.

(ii) strong society, in his policy statement ‘Our Society, Your Life’, Cameron rejected the Thatcherite view there is no such thing as society. This acceptance of the importance of society has clear links with One nation Conservatism.

Cameron has said mending Britain's "broken society" is the biggest challenge facing the UK.


Mending Britain's "broken society would involve: the promotion of marriage, eg re-introducing the marriage tax allowance

which was abolished in 1999

dealing with anti-social behaviour/crime. Although being tough on crime is important for Cameron, he has suggested that sometimes offenders need ‘sympathy as well as punishment’ – this led the ‘hug a hoodie’ quote in the press. Stable family background and voluntary groups, eg scout troops and youth clubs are important.

(iii) sustainable environmentThis not an area traditionally associated with conservatives.Cameron introduced the slogan – Vote Blue, Go Green.

According to Cameron ‘The right test for our policies is how they help the most disadvantaged in society, not the rich’.

David Cameron has been criticised for failing to map out a clear set of policies for the new Conservative Party. Opponents claim that is a weakness, showing he believes in little and is driven by no coherent ideology.Eg, many of the reports were so detailed, eg the Quality of Life policy group’s report was around 550 pages, that the leadership could choose policies it liked and drop others, eg Cameron came out in support of increased taxes on short-haul flights but rejected paying to park at out-of-town supermarkets.

The Labour Party characterised Cameron as Dave the Chameleon - saying only what people want to hear and turning their respective colour.

Some on the right have criticised Cameron. Eg: Peter Hitchens (right wing journalist) - "Cameron has abandoned the last

significant difference between his party and the established left", by making public services Britain's priority.

Norman Tebbit has likened Cameron to Pol Pot "intent on purging even the memory of Thatcherism before building a New Modern Compassionate Green Globally Aware Party”. Tebbit also argues that Conservative Party members are still Thatcherite.Although Cameron’s Built to Last policy document was supported by 93 % of the party memers, only 27% of the membership voted, ie only a fifth actively supported him.

Some people do see Cameron’s view having an ideological consistency, eg Richard Kelly argues that Cameron have come up with a new third way – this seeks to reconcile conservative ideals (both One Nation and Thatcherite) with the effects of New Labour. By its nature this approach has an element of pragmatism – a key element of One Nation Conservatism


NEW A2 CONSERVATISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. To what extents do traditional conservatives and the New Right differ in their views of society? (Jan 10)

2. How have conservatives justified private property? (June 10)

Essays1. ‘Conservatives favour pragmatism over principle.’ Discuss (Jan 10)

2. To what extent do conservatives supported tradition and continuity? (June 10)

Old A2 CONSERVATISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. How do traditional conservatives and the New Right differ in their views of society? (Jan 02)

2. Why, and to what extent, do conservatives value tradition? (Jun 02)

3. Why have conservatives feared moral and cultural diversity? (Jan 03)

4. Distinguish between a socialist and a conservative view of human nature. (June 03)

5. Why has the New Right advocated rolling back the state? (June 03)

6. Why do conservatives believe that human nature is imperfect? (Jan 04)

7. How have conservatives justified private property? (Jun04)

8. On what grounds have conservatives supported authority? (Jan 05)

9. Distinguish between a traditional conservative and a New Right view of society? (Jun 05)

10. In what sense is conservatism a philosophy of human imperfection? (Jan 06)

11. Why do traditional conservatives and the New Right disagree in their view of the individual? (June 06)

12. Why have conservatives often feared cultural diversity and pluralism? (Jan 07)

13. How and why have conservatives and liberals disagreed over authority? (Jan 07)

14. Distinguish between the liberal New Right and the conservative New Right.


(June 07)

15. Distinguish between a socialist and a conservative view of human nature. (June 07)

16. On what grounds have conservatives defended private property? (Jan 08)

17. How, and why, have conservatives objected to social equality? (Jun 08)

18. Why have conservatives been concerned about moral and cultural diversity? (Jan 09)

19. How do the New Right and traditional conservative views of society differ? (June 09)

Essays1. To what extent is conservatism a philosophy of human imperfection? (Jan 02)

2. To what extent is there tension in conservatism between its commitment to the individual and its support for community? (Jun 02)

3. ‘Conservatism is defined by its defence of tradition and continuity.’ Explain, and discuss the extent to which this remains true. (Jan 03)

4. Has conservatism been more concerned with social stability than with economic freedom? (June 03)

5. To what extent have conservatives preferred pragmatism to principle? (Jan 04)

6. 'Conservatism has always been characterised by tension between paternalism and libertarianism. ' Discuss. (Jun 04)

7. Why, and to what extent, have conservatives supported 'One Nation' principles? (Jan 05)

8. Why, and to what extent, have conservatives been committed to tradition and continuity? (June 05)

9. To what extent is there continuity between traditional conservatism and the New Right? (Jan 06)

10. ‘Conservatism is merely ruling class ideology.’ Discuss. (June 06)

11. To what extent are there tensions within conservatism over its support for the individual and its commitment to community? (Jan 07)

12. Why, and to what extent, have conservatives placed faith in pragmatism rather than principle? (June 07)


13. To what extent have conservatives supported ‘free market’ capitalism? (Jan 08)

14. Why have conservatives supported tradition and continuity, and to what extent do they continue to do so? (June 08)

15. ‘Conservatism is a philosophy of human imperfection.’ Discuss. (Jan 09)

16. Why, and to what extent, have conservatives supported One Nation principles? (June 09)


SOCIALISM 1. Summary of Key ThemesCollectivism

social basis of human nature (common humanity); 'nurture' emphasised over 'nature' (implications for person/social

development; utopianism, etc); cooperation (moral and economic benefits); collectivism in practice (statism; common ownership; economic management

welfarism); collectivism vs individualism.

Equality Socialist view of equality (equality of outcome/reward; social equality) divisions over desirable extent of equality (absolute vs relative social

equality; common ownership vs redistribution); arguments in favour of social equality (social stability and cohesion: social

justice; happiness and personal development); liberal equality vs socialist equality (liberal critique of socialist view;

socialist critique of liberal view).

Roads to socialism revolutionary socialism (theory of class state; rejection of bourgeois

parliamentarianism); revolution as modernisation project (pre-democratic origins; links to under-

development; modernisation 'from above'); implications of revolutionary 'road' (violence/force as a political means,

etc); evolutionary socialism (state neutrality; interventionism as means of social

change/reform); socialism and democracy (the inevitability of gradualism); implications of 'ballot-box' socialism (electoratism; 'catch-all' socialist

parties; corruption of power/bourgeois state, etc).

Fundamentalist socialismMarxist/communist analysis;

historical materialism ('base/superstructure'; scientific theory of history/society);

dialectical change (internal contradictions in society; historical inevitability); class analysis (class conflict as motor of history; surplus value; class

consciousness); stages of history; collapse of capitalism (proletarian revolution); transition from capitalism to communism (dictatorship of proletariat;

'withering away' of state); nature of communism (politics of ownership; abolition of private

property/capitalism; absolute equality); 20th-century communism (vanguard party; state collectivisation; central

planning).


Revisionist socialism revisionist Marxism (failure of Marx's predictions; resilience of capitalism); ethical socialism (absence of theoretical 'baggage'); Keynesian social democracy (politics of social justice; 'humanise' capitalism;

mixed economy; Keynesian economic management; welfare state and redistributive mechanism; Croslandism);

social democratic compromise (tension between equality and efficiency; highlighted during recession of 1970s; 'collapse' of traditional social democracy in the UK and elsewhere).

Neo-revisionist social democracy retreat from social democracy (globalization and end of national

Keynesianism; shrinking working class; collapse of communism); Third Way (rejection of 'top-down' socialism/social democracy and market

fundamentalism; liberal communitarianism); neo-revisionism and socialism (modernised social democracy or post-

socialism?).

Themes that will provide the basis for questions will include the following: Nature and implications of collectivism Socialist view of equality and contrasts between socialism and liberalism

over equality Socialist view of human nature; contrasts between socialist and

conservative views of human nature Socialist support for common ownership and extent to which this defines

socialism Distinctive theories and ideas of fundamentalist socialism Distinctive theories and ideas of revisionist socialism Similarities and difference between revolutionary and reformist socialism Similarities and difference between fundamentalist and revisionist

socialism Nature of social democracy and coherence of 'new' social

democracy/Third Way

Information needed from other ideologies includes:Liberalism:

equality (liberal criticism of socialist view of equality, socialist criticism of liberal view of equality: pages 16 - 17)

Conservatism: human nature (conservative and socialist views of human nature: page 38-

39)


Anarchism: anarchism and Marxism (views on revolution, rejection of the dictatorship

of the proletariat, withering away of the state: page 96). anarcho-communism (links with Marxism: pages 99)

2. IntroductionAlthough socialist ideas can be traced back to Plato and early Christian ideas, socialism is seen as a product of the modern world. The earliest know use of the term is in 1827 issue of the Co-operative Magazine.

The emergence of socialism is associated with the growth of industrial capitalism in the 19th century. Socialism can be seen as the ideology of the new urban working class who were facing enormous deprivation and exploitation. Socialism involves a reaction against this suffering and involves proposing a radical alternative. Socialism can thus be seen as an ideology of optimism, it focuses creating a better society – more humane and fulfilling.

Since the 19th socialism has developed into the broadest of all ideologies. However, all forms of socialism have three basic components:

a CRITIQUE (critical analysis) of capitalism

theory of TRANSITION

an ALTERNATIVE to free market capitalism

a CRITIQUE (critical analysis) of capitalism All socialists are critical of capitalism to some degree. Your critique of capitalism influences both your theory of TRANSITION and your view of an ALTERNATIVE society.

theory of TRANSITION This is usually referred to as MEANS – how do get from capitalism to your alternative society? Your means are influence by your analysis of capitalism, eg Marx analysed capitalism and came to the conclusion revolution was inevitable.

an ALTERNATIVE Socialists believe that it is possible to create a society which is superior to capitalism. This is usually referred to as ENDS – what is your alternative society like?

Fundamentalist socialists (e.g., Marxists and anarcho-communists) view capitalism as a deeply flawed system. It, therefore, needs to be abolished and replaced with a society based on common ownership.


Revisionist socialists (e.g., social democrats) are less critical of capitalism. Since capitalism is not fundamentally flawed, it can be reformed rather than abolished, eg support for Keynesianism, introduction of a minimum wage, limited nationalisation etc

3. Overview of Socialism


Revolution

Theorists/Ideas:

Aim:

Theorists:

Practice:

Aim:

Ideas/Theories:

Practice:

Parliamentary Road

Theorists/Ideas:

Practice:

ominant/traditional strands within

Less important strands within socialism

Critique

Theory of Transition(MEANS)

Alternative Society(ENDS)

4. Critique of Capitalism Ethical socialism puts forward a moral critique of capitalism which tends to

focus a positive view of human nature which implies a superior alternative is possible, ie socialism should replace capitalism.

Scientific socialism undertakes a scientific analysis of historical and social development. Marx looked for historical patterns of development and used these to understand and comment on the capitalist system. According to Marx, not only is socialism desirable but it is inevitable. Capitalism internal contradictions mean it will be replaced by communism.

A socialist critique of capitalism is based on:(i) the inequality associated with capitalism(ii) attitudes created by capitalism(iii) inefficiency associated with capitalism

(i) the inequality associated with capitalismCapitalism is seen as fundamentally unequal, it concentrates wealth and power in the hands of the few, eg UK, the top 1% of the population owns 23% of the wealth; the bottom 50% owned 5% of the wealth

For socialist much of this inequality results from exploitation. Workers have to sell their labour in order to survive. Workers are paid less than the value their labour generates, this surplus value is taken by the capitalist, eg a worker works for 10 hours. In 6 hours they produce goods whose value is equal to the wages they earn that day, the amount produced in the next 4 hours is ‘taken’ by the capitalist.

This inequality also has a negative impact on the quality of the life of most people. Ideas such as formal equality, equality of opportunity and freedom are thus meaningless for the majority. (see section on equality on page )

(ii) attitudes created by capitalismMarx argued that under capitalism workers become mere commodities who are forced to be self interested and are therefore alienated from their fellow human beings.

Personal gain/profit, is the driving force behind capitalism - under capitalism success is measured purely in material terms. This encourages greed and selfishness which stifles the true human traits of sociability and co-operation.

For some, eg William Morris the automation associated with the development of capitalism has turned workers into mindless factory workers.


(iii) inefficiency associated with capitalismFundamentalist socialists, in particular, focus on the booms and slumps associated capitalism, eg the unemployment associated with capitalism is an inefficient use of resources.Marx predicted that these fundamental flaws (internal contradictions) within capitalism would cause the system to destroy itself.5. Theory of Transition (Means)In the late 19th century, debates within socialism tended to focus on means rather than ends. Most socialists wanted to abolish capitalism (ie they had the same ends); the focus was on how to move from capitalism to alternative (ie the means of achieving socialism). This involved either the revolutionary road (revolutionary socialism) or the parliamentary road (evolutionary socialism)

For much of the 19th century revolutionary ideas dominated.

During the 20th century the ‘parliamentary road’ came to dominate in the West. This led to a change in focus, from means to ends.

(a) Revolutionary socialismThis is particularly associated with Marxism. Socialism will come about as a result of a revolution. Revolutionary socialism is associated with support for fundamentalist socialism, ie abolishing capitalism. Because the existing social structure is being overturned, it is easier to start from scratch and build a new society, eg after the Khmer Rouge seized power in Cambodia in 1975 they began again with Year ZeroIn practice, most successful revolutionary socialists have followed the Soviet model of collectivisation.

Revolution has been supported for a variety of reasons: Massive inequality and exploitation no other means of bring about change. nature of the state

Massive inequality and exploitation create the conditions necessary for revolution.In the 19th century the mass unemployment, poverty etc associated with capitalism meant the working class were ready for revolution.

Marxist argue the proletariat develop a 'self-consciousness' - ie an understanding of the reality of the capitalist system, and they take action such as forming trade unions to better wages and conditions. They eventually see that there is a limit to what they can achieve, and the only way forward is a revolution. The working class would become a revolutionary force and there would be a spontaneous revolution.


It can be argued that these conditions still exists in the developing world, the area where there has been the greatest support revolutionary socialism in the 20th century.

However, rising living standards in Europe in the late 19th century have weakened the support for revolution.

no other means of bring about change. In the 19th century, many societies were autocratic monarchies, the working class were thus excluded from political life. Even where systems had become more democratic the right to vote had usually only been extended to property owners (ie middle class).

20th century revolutionary socialists had to deal with similar problems in the developing world. Colonial powers tended to control the political system and did not want to give up their territories.

However, the 20th century has seen a mass extension of the franchise – universal adult suffrage is now common.

the nature of the state. For revolutionary socialists the state is seen as working in the interests of the ruling class. 'The state is but the executive committee of the whole bourgeoisie.' - Communist Manifesto.True socialism cannot be introduced from within the system.

However the revolutionary road faced difficulties the impact of rising living standards and the spread of democracy

systems associated achieved through revolution have been associated dictatorship and oppression which results in long term instability.

This was due to several factors, eg: revolutionary socialists use force/violence to achieve their aims and

are prepared to use it to maintain their position.

most revolutionary parties are run along military line and thus tend to be associated with strong leadership and strict discipline.

This has resulted in systems being based on repression rather than popular support. For some this created long term instability, these regimes did not respond to popular demands as result when ‘cracks’ have appeared the systems have collapse quickly, eg rapid collapse of communists regimes in E. Europe after 1989.


(b) Evolutionary socialism This is sometimes called, reformist or parliamentary or democratic

socialism). It believes in 'socialism through the ballot box'. At the end of the 19th century, these ideas became more important. This was because:

revolution in the west seemed less likely due to rising living standards among the working class.

Also class system was becoming more complex and there was no polarisation between a small wealthy bourgeoisie and a large impoverished/exploited proletariat which Marx had predicted in his ideas on revolution.

the extension of the franchise and the growth of mass membership socialist parties meant the parliamentary road was a possibility.

In the UK, the parliamentary road was taken on board by the Fabian Society which was formed in 1844. The Fabian Society attracted liberal intellectuals, eg Sydney & Beatrice Webb, G. B. Shaw, H. G. Wells.Fabians took their name from a Roman general Fabius, who was associated with a cautious approach to military tactics. Fabians believed in a gradualist non-revolutionary approach

They believed socialism would develop naturally and peacefully out of capitalism. This became associated with the inevitability of gradualism.

These ideas also had an impact in continental Europe. For example, the German socialist Eduard Bernstein had close links with Fabians in the UK. In Evolutionary Socialism (1899), he set out a revisionist critique of Marxism.This rejected the Marxist view that capitalism was going to collapse. This work had a huge impact on European socialism.

The inevitability of gradualism?This is the belief that the success of socialism is inevitable. The Fabians believed gradual reform using constitutional methods would lead to socialism without the upheavals associated with revolution.

The inevitability of gradualism approach is based on the following ideas:

The extension of the franchise would lead to universal adult suffrage. This along with ‘one person one vote’ would result in political equality.

This political equality would put power into the hands of the biggest group in society, ie the working class


The working class would see that their best interests would be looked after by socialist parties. These socialist parties would be guaranteed electoral success.

Once in power these socialist governments would be able to carry out the reforms necessary to bring about socialism. This process would be inevitable because once started the working class realise that they benefit from reforms and would not elect a govt opposed to them.The Fabians also believed elite groups, eg civil servants could be converted to socialism through education.

NB: Marx also believed in the inevitable success of socialism – but this was a revolutionary process driven by historical materialism.

Why has gradualism/evolutionary socialism failed?

The working class no longer constitute the majority of the electorate.We now have a ‘two-thirds, one-third society’

Galbraith (The Culture of Contentment) argued we now have a contented majority who are not likely to vote for traditional socialist policies (even if they or their parents benefited from them earlier in their lives, eg grants to go to university).

Socialist parties thus have to appeal to a wider sector of the electorate and/or consider coalition with ‘middle class parties. This results in a watering down of socialist principles.

Capitalism and rising living standardsCapitalism has been able to produce economic growth and increased living standards. As a result a more affluent working class exists. This has led to:- the working class to become supportive of capitalism.

(Some have questioned whether the working class is socialist at heart, eg approx one-third of the working class tend to vote conservative in the UK)

- socialist parties having to revise their policies to take account of this

NB: Marxists argue that bourgeois ideology (ideas and theories which disguise the contradictions of capitalism) permeates through society.

Marcuse (One Dimensional Man), for example, argued that consumerism had turned people into unquestioning and unthinking consumers.


Lenin thought the working class would develop a 'sub-socialist trade union consciousness'. They would achieve things such as better working conditions and believe that this was true socialism.

A naive view of the stateEven if socialist parties were able to win power, critics argue they would be prevented from achieving any meaningful socialist reforms. People such as Miliband believe the important personnel in state institutions (civil service, military, courts etc) have the same background as people running big business and are therefore likely to side with to prevent radical reform. The state is the tool of the ruling class, the parliamentary road can therefore never succeed.Kautsky – ‘the capitalist class rules but it does not govern, it contents itself with ruling the government’

NB: some have argued that gradualism has, in some respects, been successful. The development of a welfare state and a redistributive tax system could be seen to reflect the success of gradualist socialism.

6. Alternative (Ends) Socialists believe a better society is possible. Fundamentalist socialists believe this requires the abolition of capitalism and

its replacement with a totally different system. Fundamentalist socialists, such as Marxists and communists, generally equate socialism with common ownership of some form.

Revisionist socialists believe a better society can be achieved by reforming capitalism not to abolishing it. Elements of capitalism would still be found within the system. The aim is to get a balance between the efficiency of the market and socialist values.

Socialist alternatives are associated with the following views and ideas:(a) A positive view of human nature (b) Collectivism. (c) Common ownership (d) Equality of Outcome(e) Class Politics

(a) a positive view of human nature

All ideologies are underpinned by a view of human nature, each outlook is associated with different vision of what is possible in politics. Debates on human nature have tended to focus on:

Nature vs Nurture


Instinct vs Reason

Competition vs Co-operation


COMMENT SOCIALIST VIEW CONSERVATIVE VIEW

Nature vs Nurture

The ‘nurture/nature’ debate is at the core of many arguments on human nature. Is human nature: fixed by genetic/biological factors

(formed by nature). When human nature is fixed the possibility for progress is limited.

or

moulded by social environment and experience (result of nurture).Ideologies that stress nurture, eg socialism and anarchism are much more optimistic about what is possible in politics.

Socialists believe that human nature is not ‘fixed’ but is ‘plastic’ – it is moulded by social circumstances.

Human behaviour tells us more about more about the society in which people live than any unalterable human traits.It follows that the creation of a better economic and social environment will result in a better society.

This has led socialists to put forward utopian visions of a better society. Evils such as poverty and exploitation can be overcome because their origins are social not biological

Instinct vs Reason

This debates focuses on the degree to which rational thought and analysis, as opposed to impulse or instinct, influences human actions.

Rationalism often underpins radical ideologies. If humans have the capacity to understand their world they have the ability to improve/reform it.

Socialism is based on rationalism.This is most obvious within Marxism. Marx developed the idea of scientific socialism. He looked for historical patterns of development and used these to understand and comment on the capitalist system. According to Marx, not only is socialism desirable but it is inevitable. Capitalism internal contradictions mean it will be replaced by communism.



COMMENT SOCIALIST VIEW CONSERVATIVE VIEW

Competition vsCo-operation

This centres around whether people are self-centred and egoistical or sociable and cooperative. These different viewpoints result in different view of social and economic organisation.

Humans beings are seen as social animals – we identify with other human beings and are bound together by a collective identity. People, thus have the capacity to live peacefully and co-operatively with each other.

Selfishness and greed are not natural traits but are encouraged within the capitalist system.

If are sociable and cooperative, people can be motivated by altruism and a sense of social responsibility (a moral incentive to work for the common good) not merely by material incentives (which underpin capitalism)

Fundamentalist socialists tend to put more faith in moral incentives than revisionist socialists, Revisionist socialists try to achieve a balance between moral incentives and material incentives (which are needed to generate economic growth).

Cooperation has both moral and social benefits (see then next section on collectivism)


(b) Collectivism Collectivism is the belief that collective human action (co-operation) is

morally and practically superior to individual self-striving (competition between individuals). The group is more important than the individual.

NB: Although collectivism is mainly associated with socialism, other forms can be found in other ideologies, eg nationalism, feminism, racialism. The group (class, gender, nation or race) is vitally important in any analysis of society.

Socialist collectivism is linked to the belief that human beings are social animals – we identify with other human beings and are bound together by a collective identity. This collective identity creates the basis for collective action.

For socialists collective identity is based on: common humanity (humans are bound together by a sense of

friendship and fellow feeling [fraternity or comradeship])

or

a belief in social class (working class are bound together by shared experiences).

Because human beings are social creatures co-operation is natural and benefits both the individual and society.

The above views lead to lead to socialists putting forward both moral and economic arguments in favour of collectivism.

Moral arguments emphasise the social basis of human natureCo-operation creates a sense of social solidarity, belonging and greater fulfilment – people want to work in order to contribute to the common good.

Marx envisaged a society based on the principle of ‘from each according to their ability to each according to their needs.

(Egoistical individualism focuses too much ownership of material goods as being a measure of well being. Also Competition pits one individual against another, encouraging them them to deny their social nature).

Economic arguments focus on the benefits of collective effort as opposed to wasteful competition.Collective action is more effective than competition which is inefficient because energy is wasted as people struggle against one another.


Examples of collectivism in practice:The importance collective interests of society and can be seen in:

social welfare provision

support for trade unionism

common ownership.

Collectivism and the State

Collectivism is often linked to the state – it is usually seen as the best agency through which collective action can be organised, eg

NB: not all forms of collectivism see the state as important, eg collectivist anarchists believe that natural order will emerge in the absence of the state. This is based on the sociability and co-operation of people.

Collectivism and IndividualismIndividualism is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any collective group or body. Individualism is thus usually seen as the opposite of collectivism. (See Liberalism notes for more detail on individualism)


Critics of collectivism focus on: the way it restricts individuality/diversity due to its focus on common social

identity and shared interests. Egotistical individualism stresses emphasises self-interest and self-reliance – individuals know what is best for them.

the restriction of freedom associated with greater state intervention. Individualism is often associated with attempts to 'roll back' the state. Collectivism is commonly associated with 'rolling forward' the state,

Egotistical individualism is associated with a minimal state.

Developmental individualism is linked to human flourishing and the realisation of individual potential. Thus, if the state helps individual self development, eg by providing education or a welfare state, collectivism can be seen as compatible with individualismThis is one of the reasons modem liberals support some state intervention.

(c) Common ownershipPrivate property = the means of production (goods used in the production and distribution process, eg factories machinery, shops etc)

Private possessions = our own goods, eg TVs, not used in the production process.

For some socialists, the common ownership of the means of production is necessary for true socialism to exist.

Although common ownership can involve the setting up of workers co-operatives, in most cases, common ownership has meant state ownership (collectivisation or nationalisation).

Although support for common ownership is a feature of socialism, there are a variety of views, eg:

Marxist commitment to the abolition of private property and the establishment of a classless communist society.NB: in practice in Communist states this became collectivisation

Social democracy is associated with a support for a mixed economy – a free market system and limited nationalisation of strategic industries (commanding heights of the economy)

Neo – revisionists, eg New Labour have moved away from support for common ownership, eg removal of clause 4 to a greater acceptance of free markets, eg support for privatisation and globalisation


Reasons for support of common ownership include:

inequality in society can be traced back to ownership of private property. If you want to deal with inequality (because it is based on exploitation and limits freedom) you need common ownership.

ownership of private property is a source of conflict in society, eg between workers and owners

the ownership of private property encourages people to be too materialistic – human fulfilment is not just about material wealth.

(d) Equality of outcomeThere are different ways of looking at equality:

Foundational equality

Formal equality

Equality of opportunity

Equality of outcome

Socialism is characterised by support for equality of outcome (or social equality or material equality). For many people this is the defining feature of socialism - it is what distinguishes it from other mainstream ideologies.Although support for equality of outcome is a common theme within socialism there are debates about its nature:

Marxist believe in absolute social equality (achieved by abolition of private property)

Social democracy believe in relative equality, ie reducing the degree of inequality (achieved by redistribution using a welfare state and a progressive tax system)

New Labour revisionists have tended to focus more on equality of opportunity.


Why do liberals criticise socialist support for equality of outcome? equality of opportunity is socially just. The resulting inequality of outcome is

a reflection of an unequal distribution of talent, ability and effort.

material inequality acts as an incentive, this leads to economic growth and development.

equality of outcome can only be achieved with greater state intervention. This infringes on freedom and choice.

Why do socialist support equality of outcome? it strengthens social cohesion/stability and a sense of community

it is socially just – inequality tends to result from unequal treatment within society rather than an unequal distribution of talent, ability and effort.

without equality of outcome other forms of equality are meaningless.

equality of outcome is necessary for true freedom to exist

(e) Class PoliticsSocialist see social class (a group of people facing a similar social and economic situation) as the most important of all divisions within society.

For Marxists, class divisions are linked to economic power – a division exists between those who own the means of production (bourgeoisie) and those who survive by selling their labour power (proletariat)

Non-Marxist definitions of class are usually based on income and status differences between occupational groups.

Socialists use social class as an analytical tool. Classes are the driving force of economic and social change, eg for Marxists historical change results from class conflict.

All forms of socialism are characterised by the desire to reduce or overthrow class divisions. For Marxists, the overthrow of capitalism via a proletarian revolution will lead to the creation of a classless communist society.

Social democracy is associated with narrowing of divisions between the middle class and the working class brought about through economic and social intervention. This leads to improvement in living conditions of the working class and creates greater class harmony.


7. UtopianismRelates to theorising about an ideal society. In Utopia (1516), Thomas More wrote of a place which was both good and nowhere. He contrasted an imaginary island based on economic equality and everyone working for common good, with the evils (class division, poverty, crime etc) of society based on property ownership.

Utopianism has been viewed in two ways:

pejoratively (negatively); Utopias are dismissed as impossible form of society based on unrealistic ideas. In modern world this has become dominant way of viewing Utopianism

positively; Utopias, even though they may be unachievable they, are a goal to try and aim for, or an ideal type against which to measure existing society.

Marx used the term utopian socialist to criticise all no scientific socialists.Conservatives see all socialism as utopian.

MARXISMIntroductionAt the core of Marxism is a view of history that explains why capitalism is doomed and why a classless communist society is inevitable. This position is based on historical materialism – the belief that economic factors are the driving force behind human history.

History is driven by a dialectic process – contradictions within each mode of production (economic system) are reflected in class conflict.

This approach allowed Marx to present his socialism as scientific socialism. Marx called other socialists utopian.

Dialectic Marx claimed to have identified a general pattern (or mechanism) of change.

Change is dialectical – the result of a process of interaction between competing forces. All societies contain two opposing forces – a thesis and an antithesis. Eventually the internal contradictions (which take the form of class conflict) created by these opposing forces will intensify until a breaking point is reached and a radical transformation takes place - a synthesis.

Eventually this synthesis breaks down into its opposites - a new thesis and antithesis - and so on.


Marx explains his dialectic process in terms of economic (or material) factors.In reviewing history Marx distinguished between 5 modes of production (economic arrangements of a society).

primitive communism (or tribal society) slave society feudalism capitalism communism

Eg, feudalism emerged from breakdown of slave societies. Feudalism then broke down into opposing forces (lords and serfs); out of this struggle capitalism emerged. This broke down into two opposites (bourgeoisie & proletariat). From this a new synthesis will be formed - communism.

Human history thus involves a continual struggle between the exploited and the exploiter. However, Marx argued each new form of society is superior to the previous one. The end of history would occur when a classless communist society existed – in this case there would be no class conflict.

Class When a society is able to produce more than the minimum needed for survival,

it is possible for classes to emerge. One class (majority) does productive work and is exploited, while a minority class rules and seizes the surplus produced. All non-communist societies are class societies. Wealth, political power and status all flow from the class structure.

Conflict is inherent in the class system and cannot be solved within that system. It can only be solved under the final mode of production, communism, which will result in a classless society.

'The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.' (The Communist Manifesto)

Marxists claim they do not create class struggle - they merely show its existence. They recognise other kinds of conflict, eg ethnic or religious, but these conflicts are based on class conflict.

Economic relations shape all other aspects of the society (the superstructure).The state, laws and religion come to reflect and justify the basic class relations that exist. The 'superstructure' of ideas and social institutions support the economic base.

‘The ideas of the ruling class are the ruling ideas in every epoch' - eg, ideas of hierarchy under feudalism and free market economics under capitalism.


The state is the tool of the ruling class. 'The state is but the executive committee of the whole bourgeoisie.'

(Communist Manifesto)This means that any attempt to achieve socialism via the parliamentary road is bound to fail.This differs from the liberal view of the state – they see the state as neutral.

Marxist Account of the Capitalism(i) IntroductionIn Capital, Marx says his aim is 'to understand the laws of motion of capitalism.'He used his ideas:

show what is wrong with capitalism

to explain why capitalism is doomed and communism is inevitable

(ii) Classes Under Capitalism:Two key classes exist: bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (working class or landless wage labourers). Marx recognises there are other classes, but this is the fundamental class division.

Bourgeoisie: derive their class position from ownership the means of production (machines, factories etc) - it is not high income that makes them capitalists. The capitalist pockets the difference between the value of labour and the value of the product (surplus value).

Proletariat: Under capitalism workers are landless. They have to sell their labour-power to survive - they become a marketable commodity. Unless there is a temporary skills shortage, there's a tendency for wages to stick at a general subsistence level.

It may seem workers get their 'just reward' under capitalism - they are free to work for whom they like, and to bargain for a wage. However, this is never a free and equal contest - exploitation continues because the individual worker must work to survive, while the capitalist (though needing workers) can employ or sack any individual he/she chooses.

NB: This is different from the exploitation found in other modes of production, eg under feudalism physical force was often used.

The bourgeoisie and proletariat are: dependent on each other for their existence,

but are also antagonistic towards each other because the existence of the bourgeoisie as a class depends on the exploitation of the proletariat.

Marx described the proletariat as the ‘grave digger of capitalism’.


(iii) The Laws of Capitalism Law of Capital Accumulation

Competition forces capitalists to use more labour saving machinery in order to increase productivity and hence surplus value. Machinery reduces the proportion of the working day which is taken up paying for labour (necessary labour time).More machinery leads to increased production, unemployment, and less purchasing power – this result gluts, crises, and a fall in profit.

Purchasing power of workers is less than value of their product so a surplus of production exists. One way of getting rid of this surplus is to find new markets - hence the drive to set up colonies.

Law of the Concentration of Capital The fall in profits leads to the disappearance of smaller businesses and the emergence of monopolies and cartels.

Law of Increasing Misery More machinery and the concentration of capital leads to unemployment 'a reserve army of labour' subject to misery, oppression, exploitation etc is created.

As crises become more frequent the proletariat develop a 'self-consciousness' - ie an understanding of the reality of the capitalist system, and they take action such as forming trade unions to better wages and conditions.

They eventually see that there is a limit to what they can achieve, and the only way forward is a revolution that brings about fundamental social change The working class would become a revolutionary force and there would be a spontaneous revolution.

Marx believed that the revolution would spread to all industrial nations. This would guarantee the success of the revolution.

(iv) After the Revolution A 'dictatorship of the proletariat' exists during the transition from capitalism to communism. This involves the creation of a proletarian (workers) state.

It is needed to prevent a counter revolution by the defeated bourgeoisie. During this time state power is wielded in the interests of the working class This is not a dictatorship in normal sense because it involves rule in interests of majority rather than the interest of the minority.

After this period class tensions will lessen and the state will wither away - this is because the state only exists because an exploiting class exists – (in a classless communist society the state in not needed; there are no classes to be exploited).


The resulting communist society would be characterised by: no state

no class conflict

common ownership

production according to human need

absolute equality

People will be fulfilled and experience true freedom which is only possible in a communist society.

NB: Marx did not considered what would happen if the revolution did not spread and what the dictatorship of the proletariat would be in such a situation, ie a communist state, being surrounded by capitalist countries.

20th CENTURY COMMUNISM 1. LENINLeninism - interpretation of Marxism offered by Lenin, stressing the importance of the party in creating a revolutionary working class.

In What Is To Be Done (1902), Lenin stressed the need for a tightly disciplined elite party of professional revolutionaries to bringing 'socialist consciousness' to the working class. This is the idea of a Vanguard Party.

Lenin thought that, left to their own devices, the working class would develop a 'sub-socialist trade union consciousness'. They would achieve things such as better working conditions and believe that this was true socialism.

This seemed to go against the views of Marx - 'the emancipation of the working class is the work of the working class itself' - ie working class does not need help to become revolutionary, it will happen automatically because of its experiences under capitalism. It was on this basis that Marxists had distinguished their scientific socialism and the inevitability of revolution from utopian socialism.

Lenin's theory of the party had 3 main features which became distinctive of communist parties everywhere:

Support for Marxist ideas

The party was an elite organisation

Party was highly centralised organisation run on quasi-military lines


Support for Marxist ideas. Marxism-Leninism became official ideology of the USSR and all other communist regimes (although there were national variations, eg China). No opposition to these ideas was permitted and private ends were subordinate to the ends of the organisation.

Party was an elite organisation never designed to be based on mass membership.

Party was highly centralised organisation run on quasi-military lines - subjecting rank and file members to strict discipline and leaders to a hierarchical chain of authority from the top down.Since, in Lenin's theory, the party is the vanguard of the proletariat, the party has the right to rule on the behalf of the rest of the workers.

This type of organisation is usually referred as Democratic Centralism. The centralism refers to the concentration of all power in the central party

organisation. It is responsible for the development of every institution in which political influence may arise, from the school to the work place, and from the family to the police.

This centralism is democratic because:- the organisation works in the interests of the people

- of the internal democracy in the party. Each level of members is filled by representatives elected from the level below.

(c) Critics of Lenin

Trotsky, in Our Political Tasks (1904), attacked Lenin's view of the party. He predicted it would lead to the establishment of a dictatorship.'Lenin's methods lead to this: the party organisation at first substitutes its self for the party as a whole; then the central committee substitutes itself for the organisation; and finally a single dictator substitutes himself for the central committee'.

Rosa Luxemburg attacked Lenin's idea on the vanguard party because she believed in the revolutionary instincts of the masses.


(d) ImperialismImperialism - the expansion of power by a state with the effect that it achieves sovereignty over other states or societies. This can take the form of military conquest, eg British colonialism in 19th century, or external economic control, eg US economic imperialism of the 1960's.

Lenin claimed to have updated Marx with his theory of imperialism. It was an attempted to explain why revolution had not occurred as predicted by Marx.

Lenin put forward his ideas in, Imperialism, The Highest Form of Capitalism (1916).During the late 19th century the main industrial nations competed to carve up Africa and the rest of the un-colonised world. Lenin argued that this process constituted a higher stage of capitalism which Marx could not have foreseen.

Although, as Marx predicted, there would be a fall in profitability within capitalist countries, what he had failed to see was that imperialism would allow this process to be countered.

Capital would be used in the colonies 'for the purpose of increasing profits...In these countries profits are usually high for capital is scarce, the price of land is relatively low, wages are low, raw materials are cheap' (Lenin).

Capitalists used these profits to buy off the domestic working class with a higher standard of living. The exploited masses in the colonies were the new proletariat.As a result of these developments, the revolution would not take place in the advanced west, but in the 'weakest link' within capitalism. This was Russia.

Colonialism had given the advanced industrialised countries an advantage over non-colonial countries such as Russia. In order to compete against the cheap labour and raw materials available to the colonial powers, non-colonial countries would have to exploit their workers even more. This increased exploitation pushed less advanced countries towards revolution, whereas in advanced countries the working class had been 'bought off'.

NB: Lenin's theory is not the only theory of imperialism. Fascists, for example, explain it in terms of states being organisms - they need to grow and conquest is a sign of national virility etc. British colonialism, on the other hand, was defended in terms of the 'whiteman's burden' of the civilising the world.


2. STALINISM(a) Socialism in One Country Stalin did not believe with Trotsky that Europe was ripe for revolution and the revolution should spread. Stalin's aim was to consolidate the revolution in Russia: - Russia needed to make itself save from any capitalist attack

- once established Soviet system would become a model for others to follow.

Economic change was an immediate priority. USSR needed to be transformed into an industrial super power.1929 - Lenin's New Economic Policy, which allowed some private enterprise was abandoned (Lenin had seen this as temporary measure). Stalin termed this the 'great turn'.

In its place Stalin introduced: full state planning in industry. Five Year Plans were introduced. Areas of

success were in heavy industry, eg 1828-41 steel and coal production increased four times.

collectivisation of agriculture. This happened rapidly and resulted in up to 10 million people being deported and millions dying as a result of famine.

(b) Totalitarian dictatorship During the 1930s, Stalin turned the USSR into a totalitarian dictatorship by, Stalin squeezing democracy out of the party, eliminated rivals and strengthened his own personal position.

Eg, a series of purges were carried out against; members of the armed forces (75 of 80 members of the Supreme Military Council were executed. Also all 8 of the navy's admirals were also executed.), managers and those in industry, (75% of plant managers were eliminated in the early 1930s, main rivals, (eg, Kirov was assassinated)

(c) Trotsky’s Criticisms of StalinBy late 1920's, Trotsky believed revolution in Russia had been betrayed.Stalin had:

focused on 'socialism in one country'Trotsky believed the revolution must become world-wide. A national revolution is only 'a link in the international chain'. In order to succeed, the revolution must spread to the advanced industrial nations. 'Socialism in one country' was seen as a narrow and reactionary view.

created a dictatorship in which the democratic element of democratic centralism had been removed


REVISIONIST SOCIALISM1. IntroductionMost evolutionary socialists are also revisionists, ie they believe that it is possible to achieve a socialist society by managing or reforming capitalism; there is no need to abolish it.

The main form of revisionist socialism has been social democracy. In the UK these ideas became the basis of the post war consensus.

Since the early 1990s further revisionist developments have take place with the development of neo-revisionism or the third way.

2. Social DemocracyRevisionist ideas have dominated British socialism - it is often said that British socialism owes more to the Methodist church than it does to Marxism.

In the 1950s Crosland gave a theoretical basis for policies associated with Keynesian Social Democracy in his book The Future of Socialism (1956) He wrote; 'I am revising Marxism and will emerge as a modern Bernstein' and 'the means most suitable in one generation may be wholly irrelevant in the next'.

He argued capitalism in its 19th century form no longer existed, ie we no longer lived in a free market capitalist economy; eg the govt was able to control the economy using Keynesian demand management policies and a welfare state existed to provide health care, pensions etc.

For Crosland, modern socialism was about promoting social equality, ie a more equal distribution of wealth. This could be achieved through the introduction of a Welfare State (funded by a progressive tax system).

Socialism was thus no longer about ownership of the means of production. Clause 4 was therefore no longer relevant.

From 1945- early 1970s, ‘Keynesian Social Democracy’ dominated, these ideas became the basis of consensus politics.The main policies associated with this approach were:

mixed economy

management of the economy based on Keynesian demand management

a comprehensive welfare system funded by a progressive tax system


a mixed economy with limited nationalisation (nationalisation focused on the ‘commanding heights of the economy’, eg rail, coal)

management of the economy based on Keynesian demand management (the government takes an active role in controlling levels of demand, eg by spending on projects such as road building in order to keep employment levels high)

a comprehensive welfare system funded by a progressive tax system. This is associated with universal provision (rather than means testing)

The ‘Keynesian Social Democratic’ approach involved a very active role for the state and has been associated with phrases such as:

- ‘tax and spend’

- ‘cradle to the grave welfare system’

3. Neo-revisionism Since the 1980/90s, a further process of revisionism has taken place. This has been described as neo-revisionism is often described as the Third Way. In the UK it has been referred to as Blairism or New Labour.

In the UK, the main academic associated with this movement has been Anthony Giddens. His book The Third Way is sub-titled, the renewal of social democracy.

(i) Why was an alternative needed?Huge changes have been taking place and therefore a new approach is needed. The main changes are:

Globalisation

problems with Keynesian economics

the changing class structure

the collapse of communism


Globalisation: the greater integration and interdependence of the world economy, ie the development of the world into one market place. This has increased dramatically in the last 20 years and has affected the ability of national economies to take decisions on their own, eg, Blair argues that increasing the top rate of income tax to 50% would result in the rich moving their resources abroad.

Problems with Keynesian economics. For most of the post-war period, low unemployment and economic growth meant that governments could easily increase welfare provision. Recessions in the 1970s and 1980s caused problems, eg should you increase welfare spending at a time of failing tax revenues, also the increased spending associated with Keynesian demand management had become associated with inflation (making the UK less competitive) and ‘tax and spend’ (unpopular with voters).

the changing class structure: the Labour Party was faced with a decline in their traditional support base Only 20% of workers are in manufacturing; most people are in white collar jobs.Prosperity, home ownership etc have risen significantly. The poor and manual workers are a minority. John Smith called this as a two-thirds/one third society.In order to win, the party has to appeal to middle England

the collapse of communism.This resulted in a loss in faith in a socialist model where the state played a central role. This had knock-on effect on the perception of social democracy which was seen as a variant of this form of ‘top-down’ state socialism.

(ii) Neo-revisionist Ideas/Views Third WayThe third way as is an alternative to Keynesian social democracy (which needs modernising due to the above reasons) and neo-liberalism (Thatcherism in the UK) For supporters, The Third Way is modernised social democracy. It puts forward centre-left values using policies that reflect modern circumstances.

Neo-revisionism is associated with: a pragmatic approach

a greater acceptance of the market

community and responsibility (communitarianism)

equality of opportunity & social inclusion rather than equality of outcome

consensus view of society


a pragmatic approach The Third Way tends to be pragmatic in terms of methods (or means). Blair - ‘what matters is what works to give effect to our values.

There is no automatic commitment to either the public sector (associated with Keynesian Social Democracy) or the private sector (associated with the New Right), eg New Labour has developed public-private partnerships in areas such as hospital building and management of failing schools

a greater acceptance of the marketThis can be seen in the changing of Clause 4 in 1995 – the commitment to common ownership was replaced with support for a dynamic market economy

Support for a dynamic market economy shows a greater acceptance of the market. In the UK, for example, the Labour Party has generally accepted the privatisation that took place in the 1980s under Thatcher.

New Labour accepts a market economy and many of the inequalities associated with it – inequality acts as an incentive and differences in wealth are often a reflection of hard work/talent.

The Third Way is about achieving ‘economic efficiency and social justice’. (eg lower corporation tax encouraging economic efficiency and introducing a minimum wage helping with social justice)

community and responsibility (communitarianism)Communitarianism is a belief in the importance of community (or society) – individuals are shaped by their community and owe a duty to society, ie they have responsibilities.

For New Labour, a sense of community is important to the health of society; the modern era has seen the bonds which hold community together weaken.

According to Heywood, New Labour communitarianism, has distanced itself from the socialist focus on equality and the conservative emphasis on tradition and focused on a modern liberal outlook (liberal communitarianism) which focuses on rights and responsibilities.

They have been influenced by work such as Bowling Alone by Robert Putman – he argued that people no longer engaged in their communities (more people go ten-pin bowling in the USA than in the 1950s, but they goes with family/friends. The number of leagues and teams has decreased massively) and the government should actively get people to join community organisations.


equality of opportunity & social inclusion rather than equality of outcomeThe Third Way is more concerned with providing opportunities for those who are socially excluded rather than equality of outcome.

One consequence of globalisation has been a need to rethink the role of the state. People such as Philip Bobbitt argue that globalisation means the end of the traditional social democratic state or welfare state (ie a system where the state takes the main responsibility for providing social welfare)Increased global competition, means that the main role of the state in now to create a situation where an economy can deal with increased global competition, ie a market or competition state.

Government should focus more on social investment, particularly improving the skills and knowledge of the workforce. Education and training are more important than social security.

In relation to welfare, neo-revisionists reject the neoliberal emphasis on 'standing on your own two feet' and the social-democratic commitment to 'cradle to grave' welfare. They are associated with the modern liberal approach of helping people to help themselves or what Clinton: described as 'a hand up, not a hand out'.

New Labour supports the universal provision of health and education.However, some of its policies are more selective and targeted - the focus is on providing chances for those excluded from basic minimum opportunities, eg with welfare reform they favour of an essentially modern liberal belief in 'help people to help themselves'.

This has led to support for a 'workfare state', in which govt support in terms of benefits or education is conditional on individuals seeking work and becoming self- reliant.

consensus view of societyThird Way supporters have tended to have a consensus view of society (focusing on the bonds that bind us together) rather than accepting the socialist view of society which focus on class differences and conflict.

Problems/Criticisms of Evolutionary Socialism.

Fundamentalist socialists disagree with revisionists. They argue the state is biased

revisionist policies do not deal with the primary problems.

revisionist reforms become part of the problem.


the state is biasedFundamentalist socialists argue the state is biased in favour of the ruling class, it is not neutral. This means that:

the parliamentary road is ineffective. Lenin – parliamentary elections do nothing more than decide ‘every few years which member of the ruling class is to repress and crush the people’.

Also parties will need to water down their policies in order attract from the middle classes (the working class no long make up the majority of the electorate)

The state will not allow radical reform to take place

Revisionist policies, eg setting up a welfare state, extending trade union power, do not deal with the primary problems. Oppression and exploitation are the result the capitalism system itself. True socialism can only be achieved by the abolition of private property whioch involves the destruction of the capitalist system.Revisionist reforms leave the capitalist system intact.

Not only do revisionist reforms not go far enough, they become part of the problem.Reforms, eg introduction of a welfare state, extending the franchise, have:

strengthened capitalism, making it easier to deal with any crises.

removed any revolutionary instinct in the working class by convincing them that they live in a fair and just society.

The Third Way has particularly come under attack.

Orthodox view – ‘New’ Labour has watered down/rejected so many of the policies/ideas associated with ‘Old’ Labour that they are no longer socialist, eg rewriting of Clause 4.

New Labour is seen either as 'Thatcherism mark 2’ or a marketing/election strategy with no distinctive ideological core.

Neo-revisionism it has no distinctive ideological core, it is no more than a marketing strategy aimed at winning votes in 'middle England'.Third way ideas are an incoherent mixture of neo-liberalism (eg, support for a dynamic market economy), social democracy (eg support for increased spending on health and education) and modern liberalism communitarianism (eg focus on rights and responsibilities). This can cause problems implementing policies.


Reid and Pelling (A Short History of the Labour Party) argue the Third Way is ‘remarkably fluid’ and lacks a solid ideological basis. New Labour has become ‘an increasingly opportunistic and unstable mix of individualism and intervention.’They also argue that since 2001 General Election there has been a ‘discontinuation of discussions’ on the nature of the Third Way – giving New Labour an ideological/intellectual basis was seen as important early on but after big election victories this is seen as less important.

However, some on the Left, eg Coates argue that there is continuity between ‘New’ Labour and ‘Old’ Labour. Labour Party has always been revisionist – all Labour Governments have been associated with moderate reforms (although in opposition they may make more radical promises), eg after 1945 Labour never pushed on with greater nationalisation, ‘New’ Labour has introduced a minimum wage but supports a ‘dynamic market economy.

Supporters of the above would agree with writers such as Robert Leach claim that the Labour Party has never been a true socialist party. He described its ideology as labourism because it has sought to improve conditions of organised labour within the system rather than seek to radically transform it. Eg, Leach argues that people who say that New Labour has abandoned true socialism often make comparisons between the 1983 manifesto (‘true’ socialism) and the 1997 manifesto (abandonment of true socialism). Leach believes it is the 1983 manifesto that is out of line with the history of the Labour Party (‘Blair’s moderate pragmatic leadership has much in common with past leaders……New Labour is highly consistent with the ideas of Labour ..over most of its history’)


NEW A2 SOCIALISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. Why have democratic socialists believed in the ‘inevitability of gradualism’? (Jan 10)

2. Why has socialism been viewed as a form of class politics? (June 10)

3. Why did Marx believe that capitalism was doomed to collapse? (June 10)

Essays1. ‘Socialism is defined by its opposition to capitalism.’ Discuss. (Jan 10)

OLD A2 SOCIALISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. What kind of equality do socialists support, and why? (Jan 02)

2. Why, and in what ways, have socialists supported collectivism? (Jun 02)

3. Distinguish between fundamentalist socialism and revisionist socialism. (Jan 03)

4. Distinguish between individualism and collectivism, and explain the implications of each for the state. (Jan 03) 5. Distinguish between a socialist and a conservative view of human nature. (June 03)

6. Why did Marx proclaim the need for a dictatorship of the proletariat? (June 03)

8. Why, and to what extent, have socialists favoured common ownership? (Jan 04) 9. Why did Marx believe that the state would 'wither away'? (Jan 04)

10. How did Lenin's theory of the party revise the ideas of Marx? (June 04)

11. Using examples, distinguish between individualism and collectivism. (Jan 05)

13. Why have socialists supported collectivism, and how have they sought to promote it? (June 05)

14. Define collectivism, and explain its implications for the state. (Jan 06)

15. Why did Marx believe that a proletarian revolution was inevitable? (Jan 06)

16. Why have liberals criticised the socialist view of equality? (June 06)

17. Distinguish between fundamentalist socialism and revisionist socialism. (June 06)18. Why did Marx predict the ‘withering away’ of the state? (Jan 07)


19. How did Lenin’s theory of the party revise the ideas of Marx (June 07)

20. Distinguish between a socialist and a conservative view of human nature. (June 07)21. How, and why, has collectivism been associated with a wider role for the state? (Jan 08)22. What is the dictatorship of the proletariat, and why have Marxists thought it is necessary? (Jan 08)

23. Why did Marx believe that capitalism was doomed to collapse, and how would this occur? (June 08)

24. Why have socialists favoured cooperation over competition? (Jan 09)

25. Why have socialists criticised the liberal view of equality? (June 09)

26. Why have Marxists predicted that the state would ‘wither away’? (June 09)

Essays1. ‘Evolutionary and revolutionary socialists disagree about both ends and means.’ Discuss. (Jan 02)

2. Explain the main features of Marx’s theory of history. (Jun 02)

3. To what extent did 20th century communism depart from the ideas of Marx? (Jan 03) 4. 'The history of socialism has been marked by a retreat from traditional principles.' Discuss. (June 03)

5. 'A commitment to equality is the core feature of socialism.' Discuss. (Jan 04)

6. To what extent has socialism been defined by its opposition to capitalism? (June 04)

7. Why did socialists believe in gradualism, and why has gradualism failed? (Jan 05)

8. 'Socialists have disagreed about both the means and ends of socialism.' Discuss. (June 05)

9. ‘All socialists have supported equality but they have supported different kinds of equality.’ Discuss. (Jan 06)

10. To what extent did twentieth-century communism depart from the classical ideas of Marx? (June 06)

11. Why, and to what extent, have socialists supported the common ownership of wealth? (Jan 07)


12. ‘A retreat from core values and goals has been a continuing feature of the history of socialism.’ Discuss (June 07)

13. Why did democratic socialists believe in the ‘inevitability of gradualism’, and why did gradualism fail? (Jan 08)

14. ‘Communism and social democracy offer starkly different models of socialism.’ Discuss. (Jun 08)

15. Is socialism defined by the rejection of private property? (Jan 09)

23. Why have some socialists advocated revolution, and what difficulties has revolutionary socialism encountered? (June 09)


ANARCHISM

1. Summary of Key Themes:

Anti-statism moral basis of anarchism (absolute freedom, potitical equality, personal

autonomy); state as concentrated evil (absolute corruptibitity of human nature); all states are evil (rejection of the protetarian state); government power cannot be tamed (constitutionalism and consent (liberal

democracy)as tools used by ruling class to render masses quiescent).

Stateless society utopian themes in anarchism (absolute freedom can co-exist with social

order/harmony; perfectibility of human nature); collectivist basis for spontaneous social harmony (nurture not nature;

sociability and cooperation; role of common ownership); individualist basis for social harmony (individual rationality; self-regulating

markets); rival views of future stateless society (collectivist versus individualist

models, eg, anarcho-communism versus anarcho-capitalism).

Political practice Political failure of anarchism; rejection of conventional means of political activism (winning state power

is corrupt and corrupting; opposition to hierarchical organisation (eg, political parties); spontaneous revolution (popular thirst for freedom/autonomy; viability?); terror/violence ('propaganda of the deed'; revolutionary justice); direct action; moral example and graduatism.

Individualist anarchism Roots in liberal individualism (parallels with classical liberalism; 'ultra-

liberalism'); egoism (moral autonomy of individual); libertarianism (reconciling individualism with natural order - consistent

Manchesterism); anarcho-capitatism (laissez-faire economics taken to its extreme; privatising

the minimal state) differences between liberalism and anarchism (minimal statism vs

statelessness; constitutional government vs anarchy).


Collectivist anarchism roots in socialist collectivism (human sociability; mutual aid; 'ultra-

socialism'); self-management and decentralisation (direct/participatory democracy); mutualism (possessions as independence from the state; fair and equitable

exchange); anarcho-syndicalism (revolutionary trade unionism); anarcho-communism (parallels with Marxism; class system and state as

interlocking enemies); differences between anarchism and Marxism (over proletarianism,

vanguardism; proletarian dictatorship, 'withering away', etc).


Anarchist critique of the state

Grounds on which anarchists support a stateless society

The link between anarchism and utopianism

Anarchism as an extreme form of individualism

Anarchism as an extreme form of collectivism

Relationship between anarchism and socialism

Relationship between anarchism and liberalism

Similarities and difference within anarchist ideology

Practical difficulties of achieving anarchism

Information needed from other ideologies includes:Liberalism:

classic liberal views on individual (roots of individualist anarchism in classic liberalism: pages 11-12)

power/government (liberal views of the constitutionalism & consent and the state: pages 25-29)

Conservatism: human nature (conservative and anarchist views of human nature: page 38-

39)

Socialism: communism (links with anarcho-communism: pages 79) Marxism and revolution (anarchist views on revolution, rejection of the

dictatorship of the proletariat, withering away of the state: page 78-79).


1. UtopianismA utopia is an ideal or perfect society. In Utopia (1516), Thomas More wrote of a place which was both good and nowhere. He contrasted an imaginary island based on economic equality and everyone working for common good, with the evils (class division, poverty, crime etc) of society based on property ownership.

Utopianism relates to theorising about an ideal society. Utopianism has been viewed in two ways:

pejoratively (negatively); Utopias are dismissed as impossible form of society based on unrealistic ideas. In modern world this has become the dominant way of viewing Utopianism

positively; Utopias, even though they may be unachievable they, are a goal to try and aim for, or an ideal type against which to measure existing society.

2. Introduction to Anarchism Anarchism emerged as a coherent theory around time of French Revolution.

The term anarchism is Greek in origin meaning 'without a ruler'.

Anarchism can viewed in a negative way - to imply chaos resulting from a lack of rule or in a positive way – that rule in not necessary for the preservation of order.

For Anarchists, state is an unnecessary evil - society can and should be organised without the need for the state, ie anarchism is both possible and desirable.

The goal of Anarchism is thus the over throw of the state and the removal of political authority

The means of achieving their goal involves a rejection of conventional political means (forming political parties, fighting elections etc) and a belief in alternative methods, eg revolution.

The goals and means associated with Anarchism have led to it being described as Utopian.

When looking at anarchism, four major writers tend to dominate: Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin and Kropotkin.


3. Elements of Anarchism(a) Human NatureAnarchists generally have a positive view of human nature; humans are capable of living without imposed authority or coercion ( punishments and rewards are not needed to shape behaviour and rulers are not needed to organise society)

Although most anarchists believe human beings are the product of their environment, there are a range of views on human nature eg:

Godwin: humans are neither born good nor bad, they are made what they are by the environment. Reason and education play an important role in human development; later generations would have a better understanding of the world. Change would be gradual.

Bakunin felt man is ‘born’ a ‘ferocious beast’ but has gradually been ‘humanized’ himself by living in society, Without society man would remain a ferocious beast and would not have developed into a social being.

Kropotkin also argued sociability/co-operation is not inherent but evolvesHe attempted to develop a scientific theory of human nature byre-examining Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. He argued science proved evolution was governed not by the survival of the fittest but by solidarity within species, ie successful species are those that work together co-operatively.

Anarcho - capitalists: people are driven by self interest, if they are allowed to pursue this within a free market, the 'natural order of the market' will result. The pursuit of self interest will still exist even in an anarchist society.

Very few anarchists, therefore, believe that humans are naturally good. In the right environment they have the potential to be ‘good’, in the wrong environment they are likely to be corrupted.

(b) Anti-StatismAnarchists want a society where individual freedom is at a maximum (same as liberals but not same views on how to achieve it).

Anarchists see state and society as completely separable: society is a natural formation

the state is artificial and oppressive.

destruction of state will not, therefore, harm society.

Kropotkin - 'men have lived in societies for thousands of years before knowing the state'. For European nations the state 'hardly dates from the 16th century'.


Anarchists oppose all kinds of states - dictatorships as well as parliamentary democracies.

Why do anarchists reject the state?

Authority limits the freedom of individual by making them conform, anarchists therefore reject authority. The state has ultimate authority - the state is most powerful agency which interferes with freedom of individual and reduces liberty. Faure (19th century French anarchist): 'whoever denies authority and fights against it is an anarchist'.

NB: Anarchists reject not only the authority of the state but also the authority of other institutions, family, church, etc. They may however, recognise the authority of some experts, eg doctors.

The state corrupts those in positions of authority - anarchists (like liberals) believe the act of governing itself is corrupting (power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely). Those who come into government will become exploiters. Bakunin – even those of the ‘best character’ are inevitably corrupted by the state.

If the state is so repressive, why does it survive?

use of force; police, prisons, armies etc.

uses 'trick' of convincing people that the state is necessary, without it there would be chaos. The Church and education play an important role. State relies on 'the trader in lies, be he priest or schoolmaster' (Malatesta). State education is propaganda and indoctrination. The church encourages subservience and submission.

Life will be happier and more fulfilling without state. Without state, a natural order will develop. This would be superior to order based on authority (political order)


(c) Natural OrderPolitical order refers to social control that is imposed ‘from above’ and is maintained by a system of law and government.

Natural order comes ‘from below’ and is result of ‘voluntary and spontaneous action’ by individuals.

Although all Anarchists believe that natural order will emerge in the absence of the state, they base this on different outlooks and models:

Some individualists, eg Warren, Tucker, believe that the ‘natural order of the market’ will prevail. The market is self-regulating. It is controlled by what Adam Smith described as the ‘invisible hand’ (competition and the forces of supply and demand).Thus when people all follow their own self-interest you do not get chaos but a self-regulating system

Tucker - ‘Genuine Anarchism is consistent Manchesterism’ (Manchesterism refers to the ideas of free market supporters such as Cobden and Bright who wanted to abolish the Corn Laws in 19th century Britain)

Other individualists, eg Godwin, have stressed the importance of reason and universal moral laws. Through education and enlightenment, people would come to recognise universal truth and act accordingly.

Collectivist Anarchists focus on the sociability and co-operation of people. Human beings according to Kropotkin have evolved natural instincts of co-operation etc and in a free society they will re-emerge.

4. Anarchism and Other Ideologies

(i) Anarchism and Conservatism Conservatives see anarchism as utopian in the sense that removal of the state will result in chaos. Conservative views on the need for a strong state, respect for authority, strong law & order etc are based on a pessimistic view of human nature. Conservatives believe humans are:

dependent and security seeking;

corruptible,

intellectually limited (human rationality is unable to fully understand the highly complex world in which we live).

Anarchists reject this conservative view of human nature.


(ii) Anarchism and Liberalism Anarchism derives from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. Individualist forms of anarchism can be seen as classic liberalism taken to its

logical conclusion. Anarchism themes such as the dislike of govt and concern for individual liberty can be found in the works of liberals such as Mill.

However, there are important differences between Liberals and Anarchists: Liberals support a minimal state

Liberals believe abuse of power can be controlled by constitutionalism

Liberals believe authority of the state is legitimised by consent

Liberals support a minimal state, Anarchists reject the need for a state.Social contract theory is the basis for the conventional defence of state. Thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke argued the state has arose out of a voluntary agreement (or social contract) made by individuals who realised that a state was needed to protect them – it provides law & order and thus allows individuals to prosper in peace. Liberals see the need for govt but prefer it to be minimal.

Modern liberals have also defended the state on the grounds that it is the best agency for extending positive freedom.

Anarchists reject need for the state – it is an unnecessary evil (see pages 96 – 98 on anti-statism and natural order).

Liberals believe abuse of power can be controlled by constitutionalismAbuse of power by the govt and state can be controlled by constitutional limits, eg federalism, codified constitution, bi-cameral system (see pages 26 – 28)

Anarchists argue these limits are established by the state to provide protection against the state. This self-regulation will not work.

Liberals believe authority of the state is legitimised by consent Consent is the idea that the right to govern derives from the agreement of the governed, usually expressed through elections. (see pages 29 – 30).Elections also act as a check on govt (because they need to be re-elected)

Anarchists reject this, elections/representative governments are a fraud – the ‘will of the people’ will never be represented, eg elections are a means by which the people are tricked into supporting one or other member of the ruling class.

Even if ‘representatives of the people’ could be elected, they would become corrupted by power.


(iii) Anarchism and Marxism Most anarchists agree with Marxists that existing system exploits and is oppressive and should be destroyed and replaced with a system based on collective ownership

However anarchists reject the view that all forms of oppression are class based

idea that revolution is inevitable.

reject need for Dictatorship of the Proletariat and belief the state would 'wither away'.


5. Different Forms of AnarchismAll anarchists oppose authority and state, but often disagree about nature of anarchist society. Main division is between individualist and collectivists.

(a) Individualist AnarchismThe roots of this form of anarchism lie in classic liberalism. In many ways it is a logical development of classic liberalism. Classic liberals believe:

- in the central importance of the individual

- in an atomistic view of society

- in negative freedom

- the state restricts freedom

When individualism is taken to its extreme it implies individual sovereignty (ie absolute and unlimited sovereignty resides within each human being). An individual cannot be sovereign within a system ruled by law and government. Since the individual and individual freedom is of supreme importance, any constraint on the individual is evil. The state because of its sovereign power is the most evil of all.

However, there are differences between anarchists and liberals. Liberals believe the state is a necessary evil – without a state you get chaos, Liberals also believe the power of the state can be checked (constitutionalism)

Although this form anarchism is associated with intellectuals, artists and eccentrics, eg the poet Shelley, and poet and art critic Herbert Read, it is usually associated with:

the ownership of private property

the support for a free market economy (which creates order via the invisible hand)

Individualist anarchism has also been influential in USA, particularly in 19th century with people such as Warren and Tucker.

In the USA Josiah Warren set up the 'Utopia' community in 1847. This was different from other communities because: - there was no formal system of authority

- goods were sold at cost price (measured in labour time using labour notes)

The system was not based on complete equality – people would be rewarded for hard work, superior talent etc.

The community appeared to have functioned relatively successfully, although it gradually lost members as cheap land became available in the west.


During the latter part of the 20th century there has been revival in free market economics, eg ideas of the New Right. Most of the people associated with this revival want to see less govt involvement, particularly in the economic sphere, but still see a role for the state, eg it should provide defence and law and order

Anarcho-capitalists eg Murray Rothbard and David Friedman, go beyond this and reject the need for any state interference. Everything can be provided via the market.

(b) Collectivist AnarchismCollectivist anarchism is based on the view that humans are social animals.

It is social solidarity which links people and means that they do not need to be regulated by govt. The focus tend to be on development of the individual within society (this is closer to a positive view of freedom; individualist anarchism is linked with a negative view of freedom)

(i) mutualismAnarchist proposals range from completely free markets to systems (individualist) based on common ownership (collectivist).

Mutualism can be seen as mid-point between theses individualist and collectivist ideas. Mutualism is mainly associated with Proudhon. His influence was particularly strong in France during the later 19th century.

The system tried to reconcile property ownership and equality.

Each person would possess his/her means of production (tools, land etc). Each producer would sell their products. This would be based on the cost of producing the article (labour time) not market competition.

Labour notes -valued according to the average working time it took to make a product - would be issued by a People’s Bank.Being rewarded only for his/her labour, makes the exchange fair and eliminates profit.

System would create greater equality but would not be one of complete equality - hard work would be rewarded. System tended to appeal to skilled craftsmen, small farmers and shopkeepers


(ii) Anarcho-CommunismThis became the dominant strand in the anarchist movement in mid-19th Century.

Man is seen as a social animal who can only realise his full potential in society, there is therefore a focus on co-operation and solidarity.

Anarcho-Communism is based on:

No state

common ownership,

production according to human need

absolute equality

Distribution would be a collective decision based on principle 'from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs'.

Communist anarchists believe that people will work without material incentive, and that the absence of property will virtually eliminate the problem of crime. The few offenders that do exist can be dealt with informally - is no need for a legal system.

Examples of collectivist anarchism in practice Clousden Hill colony, near Newcastle. Set up by some disciples of Kropotkin in

1895. Was relatively successful in the beginning, but led to its break up in 1900.

Spain during the Civil War.Over 1000 collectives were formed. Ranging in size from under 100 to several thousand members. All moved towards the communist ideal of distribution according to need, but there were differences in detail.

In some all goods were placed in a central warehouse and each member as allowed to take whatever s/he wanted. In others only basics were provided in this way.

Some rationed according to family size. Decisions were shared by a general assembly of the committee and a political committee. Day-to-day running of the commune was in the hands of the committee. Work was undertaken by teams of around 10 workers, who would choose a delegate on the committee.

The internal economy of the communities appears to have worked fairly well. Eg, there does not seem to have been a problem with slackers. Figures suggests that agricultural production increased between 1936 and 1937.


Collectivisation also took place in the cities, particularly Barcelona. According to an eye-witness account by Borkenau, a sensible balance was found between industrial democracy and economic efficiency. After visiting the Barcelona bus company, he wrote, 'it is an extraordinary achievement for a group of workers to take over a factory..... and within a few days make it run with complete regularity...For one must not forget that this firm has lost it whole managing staff.'

Growth of the counter-culture in the 1960's This saw an expansion of experiments in alternative life styles. eg hippies believed in 'dropping out', and had very liberal attitudes towards drugs and sex etc. The punk movement has contained elements of anarchism.Evaluation of these experiments is difficult due to the turnover of members and the fact that many were short lived. Many were not successful in an economic sense - members having to live of past savings, social security payments or jobs out side the commune.

NB: although there are elements of individualist anarchism within this ‘counter culture’, it is usually classed collectivist because most people associated with it are anti-capitalist.

6. An Evaluation of Anarchism in PracticeAnarchists have often looked back in history - to early stateless societies and the village communities of the middle ages - to find support for their views. According to David Miller, this approach is flawed because of the complexity of modern society. To evaluate anarchism it is necessary to look at anarchist experiments under modern conditions.

Miller has argued that: individualist experiments (ie those based on property ownership) have

often been more successful than those base on communist lines. This could be because they broke less radically with existing practices.

although often internally successful, problems often arise with inter-community relationships, eg the problem of exchange and the difficulty associated with barter.

most experiments were short lived and are therefore difficult to evaluate.

success in Spanish communes was in part due to the people 'pulling together' in adverse conditions. Would they have been as successful during peace time?


7. Anarchism and Change Attitudes towards the state and rejection of parliamentary system, eg

political parties are rejected because of their bureaucratic and hierarchical structures, means that anarchists have to look to alternative methods of achieving their goals.

Bakunin and Kropotkin, for example, believed that revolution was the only way. The role of intellectual anarchists was mainly one of education - to generate a spirit of revolution by pointing out injustice and instilling anti-authoritarian ideas in the masses.The idea of educating the masses was not particularly successful. this led to the idea of 'propaganda by deed' - showing anarchism in action .

The late 19th century is associated with acts of terror; anarchists assassinated several leaders, eg President Carnot (France), Empress Elizabeth (Austria).

More recently anarchist violence has been undertaken by groups such as the Baader-Meinhof group in W. Germany, Red Brigade in Italy, and Angry Brigade in UK.

These attempts were not very successful; they often led to suppression of anarchist groups by the police and no spontaneous revolutions followed.

Anarcho-syndicalism looked to the trade union movement as a means of organising the masses for revolt. They favour the use of the general strike to bring about change – a total stoppage of work would lead to a collapse of the economic and political system.

Pre 1914, anarchists played key role in French syndicalist movement, the CGT. Later were important in Spanish equivalent, the CNT. These ideas were important in some areas during Spanish Civil War. Many villages and factories were collectivised. Some abolished money, and communal production and direct democracy was set up.

Anarchists played an important role in the civil disturbances in France in 1968 which led to the resignation of De Gaulle.

Revolution not been endorsed by all anarchists. Individualists, eg Godwin, were concerned about threat to freedom revolutionary organisation poses. Godwin believed in the power of reasoned argument and education.


8. The Significance of Anarchism Anarchism has not received much attention from political writers. Reasons:

it does not appear to deal with most traditional political concerns, eg organisation of parties, parliamentary systems;

there is no outstanding theoretical exponent of anarchism;

no large long-term anarchist societies have existed;

its aims seem unachievable

David Miller believes Anarchism can be assessed from 2 standpoints: as a self contained ideology - been a failure, it has never attracted large

numbers of supporters and has had a small impact on world history.

as a source of ideas for other political movements. Here it has been more successful, eg

- socialism: anarchist ideas have helped to counter the bureaucratic ideas of some socialists

- pacifism: influenced by anarchist strand which opposes all violence.

- animal rights: influenced by anarchist ideas on direct action.


NEW A2 ANARCHISM QUESTIONS Short Answers1. Explain the link between anarchism and collectivism. (Jan 10)

2. Why have anarchists viewed the state as inherently evil and oppressive? (Jan 10)

3. On what grounds do anarchists believe in the possibility of a stateless society? (June 10)

Essays1. ‘Anarchism is closer to liberalism than it is to socialism.’ Discuss. (June 10)

OLD A2 ANARCHISM QUESTIONS Short Answers 1. Outline how the anarchist view of the state differs from the Marxist view. (Jun 02)

2. Explain the link between anarchism and collectivism. (June 03)

3. Why do anarchists object to constitutionalism and consent? (June 04)

4. Why have anarchists believed that the state is unnecessary? (June 05)

5. Explain the link between anarchism and utopianism. (June 06)

6. Why have anarchists viewed the state as evil and oppressive? (June 07)

7. How do the anarchist and Marxist views of the state differ? (June 08)

8. How has anarchism been linked to ‘free market’ capitalism? (June 09)

Essays1. Is anarchism an example of individualism or collectivism? (Jun 02)

2. To what extent is anarchism a utopian creed? (June 03)

3. To what extent do anarchists agree about the nature of the future stateless society? (June 04)

4. Is anarchism closer to socialism or liberalism? (June 05)

5. Is anarchism merely an extreme form of free-market liberalism? (June 06)

6. Is anarchism closer to individualism than collectivism? (June 08)

7. Why, and to what extent, has anarchism been associated with utopianism? (June 09)


OLD ‘A’ LEVEL ANARCHISM QUESTIONS

Short Answers1. (a) Define utopianism (b) Why is anarchism considered to be utopian? (Jun 01)

2. Outline differences between the anarchist and conservative views of human nature. (Jun 00)

3. How do conservative and anarchist views of human nature differ? (Jan 99)

4. (a) Why do anarchists reject the state? (b) What kind of state have Marxists been prepared to endorse? (Jun 98)

5. (a) Why do conservatives value authority? (b) Why do anarchists reject authority? (Jan 98)

6. (a) Define utopianism (b) Why is anarchism often described as utopian? (Jun 97)

Essays1. ‘Anarchism has offered many visions of the future stateless society.’ Discuss (Jun 01)

2. To what extent is anarchism a utopian political creed? (Jun 00)

3. (a) Why do anarchists oppose all forms of political authority? (b) Explain and critically assess their belief that a stateless society would be peaceful and orderly. (Jan 00)

4. ‘Anarchism is strong on moral principles but weak on political analysis.’ Discuss (Jun 99)

5. Is anarchism merely collectivism taken to its logical extreme? (Jan 99)

6. Do anarchists demand the impossible? (Jun 98)

7. ‘Anarchism is merely nineteenth-century liberalism taken to its extreme.’ Discuss (Jan 98)

8. Is anarchism an example of collectivism or individualism? (Jun 97)


Documents

Political ideologies: Basics