Political Ecology: Political Ecology: Feminism and Feminism and

Postcolonial StrugglesPostcolonial Struggles

Erika BjurebyCentrum för Miljö-och Utvecklingsstudier

Lecture outlineLecture outline

1.1. Political Ecology- definitionPolitical Ecology- definition

2.2. An emerging research fieldAn emerging research field

3.3. A politicised environmentA politicised environment

4.4. Scale and powerScale and power

5.5. Postcolonial strugglesPostcolonial struggles

6.6. Access, livelihoods and enclosureAccess, livelihoods and enclosure

7.7. Feminist political ecologyFeminist political ecology

8.8. ConclusionConclusion

What is Political Ecology? What is Political Ecology? ““Political ecology examines the political Political ecology examines the political dynamics surrounding the material and dynamics surrounding the material and discursive struggles over the environment in discursive struggles over the environment in the ‘third world’” (Bryant 1998)the ‘third world’” (Bryant 1998)

““The phrase ‘political ecology’ combines the The phrase ‘political ecology’ combines the concerns of ecology and a broadly defined concerns of ecology and a broadly defined political economy. Together this encompasses political economy. Together this encompasses the constantly shifting dialect between society the constantly shifting dialect between society and land-based resources, and also within and land-based resources, and also within classes and groups within society itself” classes and groups within society itself” (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987:17) (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987:17) (Classic (Classic description)description)

The role of unequal power relations in The role of unequal power relations in constituting a politicised environment is a constituting a politicised environment is a central themecentral theme

An emerging research An emerging research fieldfield

The environment is focus of scholarly, The environment is focus of scholarly, policy-making and public concern policy-making and public concern social social and physical dimensions of environmental and physical dimensions of environmental changechange

The promotion of ‘sustainable The promotion of ‘sustainable development’ in the 1980s development’ in the 1980s integrate the integrate the environmental conservation with environmental conservation with economic development (Redclift 1987)economic development (Redclift 1987)

Yet, these initiatives have failed to alter Yet, these initiatives have failed to alter the policies and practices that are linked the policies and practices that are linked to various environmental problems to various environmental problems ‘business-as-usual’ approach‘business-as-usual’ approach

Calls for a detailed understanding of the Calls for a detailed understanding of the political and economic obstacles to political and economic obstacles to meaningful change meaningful change political ecology political ecology

Pressing need for an analytical approach Pressing need for an analytical approach integrating environmental and political integrating environmental and political understanding of environmental problemsunderstanding of environmental problems

Theoretical influences: Neo-Marxism Theoretical influences: Neo-Marxism 1970s, early 1980s; Post-Marxist mixture 1970s, early 1980s; Post-Marxist mixture of social movement theory, neo-of social movement theory, neo-Weberianism, feminist, poststructuralist, Weberianism, feminist, poststructuralist, postcolonial studies in the late 1980s and postcolonial studies in the late 1980s and 1990s1990s

1.1. The ‘radical’ perspective (grounded in neo-The ‘radical’ perspective (grounded in neo-Marxist and post-Marxist theories)Marxist and post-Marxist theories)

2.2. The only way to solve the environmental The only way to solve the environmental crises is to change the relationship upon crises is to change the relationship upon which the present system is based- which the present system is based- First/Third Worlds, rich/poor or rulers/ruledFirst/Third Worlds, rich/poor or rulers/ruled

3.3. Emphasis on the state’s role in Emphasis on the state’s role in environmental-destructive activities, often environmental-destructive activities, often related to those of capitalist enterpriserelated to those of capitalist enterprise

4.4. Sources of environmental problems are Sources of environmental problems are complex and deep-rooted so as to belie any complex and deep-rooted so as to belie any ‘technical’- policy solution is problematic‘technical’- policy solution is problematic

5.5. Political ecologists have yet to Political ecologists have yet to elaborate the contours of an elaborate the contours of an alternative political economyalternative political economy

6.6. The importance of putting politics The importance of putting politics first! Appreciate the ways in which first! Appreciate the ways in which the status quo is an outcome of the status quo is an outcome of political interests and strugglespolitical interests and struggles

→ → It is a It is a ’politicised environment’ in ’politicised environment’ in which power relations play a central which power relations play a central rolerole

A politicised A politicised environmentenvironment

Environmental problems cannot be Environmental problems cannot be understood in isolation from the economic understood in isolation from the economic and political contexts within which they and political contexts within which they are createdare created

To describe environmental problems is to To describe environmental problems is to consider the political and economic consider the political and economic processes that generate those problemsprocesses that generate those problems

Putting politics first: ”All ecological Putting politics first: ”All ecological projects (and arguments) are projects (and arguments) are simultaneously political-economic projects simultaneously political-economic projects (and arguments) and vice versa” (Harvey (and arguments) and vice versa” (Harvey 1993)1993)

Mainstream understanding of environmental Mainstream understanding of environmental change change no reference to political and no reference to political and economic processeseconomic processes

Population growth and intensifying per capita Population growth and intensifying per capita human impact on the environment (Ehrlich human impact on the environment (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1990)and Ehrlich 1990)

Emphasis on ‘technical’ dimensions as a part Emphasis on ‘technical’ dimensions as a part of managerial ‘problem-solving approachof managerial ‘problem-solving approach

Yet, an emphasis on technical solutions leads Yet, an emphasis on technical solutions leads often to policy-failure and unwillingness to often to policy-failure and unwillingness to make explicit changes to the political and make explicit changes to the political and economic systemeconomic system

In contrast, political ecologists start from In contrast, political ecologists start from the premise that environmental change is the premise that environmental change is not a neutral process amenable to not a neutral process amenable to technical managementtechnical management

It has political sources, conditions and It has political sources, conditions and ramifications that impinge on existing ramifications that impinge on existing socio-economic inequalities and political socio-economic inequalities and political processes (Bryant 1992)processes (Bryant 1992)

Different actors contribute to, are affected Different actors contribute to, are affected by, or seek to resolve environmental by, or seek to resolve environmental problems at different scalesproblems at different scales

Distribution of the costs and benefits Distribution of the costs and benefits associated with environmental associated with environmental problems at different scalesproblems at different scales

The role of different actors in solving The role of different actors in solving environmental problems at a local, environmental problems at a local, regional or global scaleregional or global scale

The role of grassroots actors and The role of grassroots actors and NGOs in the evolution of NGOs in the evolution of environmental problems at various environmental problems at various scalesscales

PowerPower Unequal power relations between actors Unequal power relations between actors

are key factor in understanding patterns are key factor in understanding patterns of human-environment interaction and of human-environment interaction and associated environmental problemsassociated environmental problems

1.1. What are the various forms and ways in What are the various forms and ways in which one actors seeks to exert control which one actors seeks to exert control over the environment over other actors?over the environment over other actors?

2.2. How do power relations manifest How do power relations manifest themselves in terms of the physical themselves in terms of the physical environment?environment?

3.3. Why are weaker actors able to resist Why are weaker actors able to resist their more powerful counterparts?their more powerful counterparts?

Postcolonial strugglesPostcolonial struggles

Access, livelihoods and Access, livelihoods and enclosureenclosure

The environment in the ‘Third World’ is The environment in the ‘Third World’ is largely a livelihood issue largely a livelihood issue central issue in central issue in understanding the political implications of understanding the political implications of environmental changeenvironmental change

Link environmental change and grassroots Link environmental change and grassroots livelihoods livelihoods survival is the primary concern, survival is the primary concern, dependency on environmental resourcesdependency on environmental resources

It is in the interest of poor grassroots actors It is in the interest of poor grassroots actors to manage environment in a sustainable to manage environment in a sustainable mannermanner

Does the ‘Third World’s’ environmental Does the ‘Third World’s’ environmental crises reflect the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ crises reflect the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ (Hardin 1967) or the ‘Tragedy of enclosure’ (Hardin 1967) or the ‘Tragedy of enclosure’ (Ecologist 1983)(Ecologist 1983)

States, acting in conjunction with States, acting in conjunction with businesses, deny access to commons businesses, deny access to commons resources resources

Power over local environmental resources Power over local environmental resources shifted from grassroots actors to states, shifted from grassroots actors to states, businessesbusinesses

Further marginalisation of poor grassroots Further marginalisation of poor grassroots actors actors access to common resources were access to common resources were denied, forced to work in ecologically denied, forced to work in ecologically marginal lands elsewhere, displacementmarginal lands elsewhere, displacement

Feminist political Feminist political ecologyecology

1.1. EcofeministEcofeminist2.2. Feminist Feminist

environmentalistenvironmentalist3.3. Feminist socialistFeminist socialist4.4. Feminist Feminist

poststructuralist, poststructuralist, andand

5.5. EnvironmentalistEnvironmentalist

1.1. Ecofeminist…Ecofeminist…

Close connection btw women and nature Close connection btw women and nature based on a shared history of oppression based on a shared history of oppression by patriarchal institutions and dominant by patriarchal institutions and dominant Western cultureWestern culture

Some attribute this connection to Some attribute this connection to intrinsic biological attributes (an intrinsic biological attributes (an essentialist connection)essentialist connection)

Others see the women/nature link as a Others see the women/nature link as a social construct to be embraced and social construct to be embraced and fostererd (Shiva 1989; Shiva and Mies fostererd (Shiva 1989; Shiva and Mies 1994)1994)

2.2. Feminist environmentalists…Feminist environmentalists…

Gendered interests in particular Gendered interests in particular resources and ecological processes on resources and ecological processes on the basis of materially distinct daily work the basis of materially distinct daily work and responsibilities (Agarwal 1991)and responsibilities (Agarwal 1991)

3.3. Social feminists…Social feminists…

Incorporation of gender into the political Incorporation of gender into the political economy, women’s and men’s role in the economy, women’s and men’s role in the economic system economic system (production/reproduction)(production/reproduction)

4.4. Feminist poststructuralists…Feminist poststructuralists…

Gendered situated knowledges are shaped Gendered situated knowledges are shaped by many dimensions of identity and by many dimensions of identity and difference, incl. race, class, ethnicity, age difference, incl. race, class, ethnicity, age etc. (Harraway 1991). Critique of science etc. (Harraway 1991). Critique of science and development.and development.

5.5. Environmentalists…Environmentalists…

Women as partners and participants in Women as partners and participants in environmental protection and conservationenvironmental protection and conservation

Feminist political Feminist political ecologyecology

Concern of political ecology that emphasises Concern of political ecology that emphasises decision-making processes and the social, decision-making processes and the social, political and economic contexts that shapes political and economic contexts that shapes environmental politics and policiesenvironmental politics and policies

Political ecology’s strong focus on access to Political ecology’s strong focus on access to and control over resources on the basis of and control over resources on the basis of class and ethnicity (Peet and Watts 1993)class and ethnicity (Peet and Watts 1993)

Feminist political ecology – gender is critical Feminist political ecology – gender is critical in shaping resource access and control , in shaping resource access and control , interacting with class, race, culture and interacting with class, race, culture and ethnicity to shape the processes of ethnicity to shape the processes of ecological changeecological change

Women have borne a disproportionate Women have borne a disproportionate share of the costs associated with the share of the costs associated with the marginalisation of poor grassroots marginalisation of poor grassroots actorsactors

Most poor women in the ‘Third World’ Most poor women in the ‘Third World’ have a closer relationship than poor have a closer relationship than poor men with the environment (Shiva men with the environment (Shiva 1988; Agrawal 1992)1988; Agrawal 1992)

Essentialist argumentEssentialist argument Materialist viewpointsMaterialist viewpoints

Emphasise the plight of Emphasise the plight of women whose livelihood women whose livelihood strategies often rely on strategies often rely on the exploitation of the exploitation of resources to provide resources to provide food, fodder and fuel for food, fodder and fuel for their familiestheir families

Hard hit by the combined Hard hit by the combined

effects of enclosure of the effects of enclosure of the

commons and associated commons and associated

environmental environmental degradationdegradation

Mukucham Community Map

Shinkiatam Community Map

ConclusionConclusion The ability to control or resist other actors are The ability to control or resist other actors are

never permanent of fixed but is always in a fluxnever permanent of fixed but is always in a flux

Thus, power influences the topography of a Thus, power influences the topography of a politicised environment- the position of actors politicised environment- the position of actors can never be adduced exclusively from can never be adduced exclusively from material considerationsmaterial considerations

To appreciate the workings of a politicised To appreciate the workings of a politicised environment is to appreciate the complex ways environment is to appreciate the complex ways in which actors interact at the material and in which actors interact at the material and discursive levels over environmental questionsdiscursive levels over environmental questions