Poh Yi Chua Thesis

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore: A framework for a Dance Elective Programme in secondary schools

Submitted by

Joey Chua Poh Yi, B.A. (DANCE)

A thesis submitted in fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts (Research)

Creative Industries Research Arts Centre (CIRAC)

Queensland University of Technology

Kelvin Grove Campus

2003

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Key words/abstract

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Key words Curricular Dance education Secondary school Singapore Short abstract Within the social, cultural and political contexts for arts education in Singapore

today, this thesis describes a framework for the development of a dance curriculum

for 13 to 16 years old secondary school students. This study considers the question:

What kind of Dance Elective Programme will address the needs of the diverse

communities in Singapore? The framework for the Dance Elective Programme that

emerges from the research describes rationale, content, and approaches as identified

by the research participants. Research data collected includes dance syllabi; dance

journals; questionnaires and interviews with various individuals in Singapore. The

significance of dance in the school curriculum is accentuated by several Singapore

government reports where the issue of the promotion of arts education is raised.

Currently in the secondary school curriculum in Singapore, the arts subjects offered

are visual art and music; dance has yet to be offered as an academic subject. A

comprehensive arts education should encompass other disciplines, so as to provide a

holistic learning environment in schools. It is hoped that this suggested framework

will provide an impetus for further development and implementation of dance

curriculum in Singapore schools in the near future.

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore A Statement of original authorship

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The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and

belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another

person except where due reference is made.

Signed: __________________ Date: 19 March 2004

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Acknowledgement list

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1. Ariel Tam (sub-editor of Mediacorp Press Singapore) 2. Bai Yingwen 3. Teresa Pee 4. Dr. Vivian Balakrishnan 5. Caren Carino 6. Jamauddin Jalil 7. Cherie Yeo 8. Andre Yeo 9. Adeline Chin 10. Corrie Tan 11. Connie Sie 12. Ow Junxuan 13. Ng Baoqi 14. Muhd Khairul Hafiz 15. Aundrea Tai 16. Li Shishi 17. Xu Zijie 18. Anonymous students 19. Letchemanen 20. Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan 21. Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali 22. Vivienne Tan 23. Arthur Wong 24. Low Mei Yoke 25. Chen Lili 26. Liang Yu 27. Neville Ellis

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Table of contents

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Chapter Title Page no. 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 INTRODUCTION 7 2.1 Singapore Context 72.1.1 Creative Economy/Industries Theory 14 2.2 Definition of Creativity 152.2.1 Creativity and education 18 2.3 Aesthetics 212.3.1 Aesthetic experience 212.3.2 Aesthetic understanding 232.3.3 Aesthetic and (arts) education 262.3.4 Aesthetic and dance education 26 2.4 Artistic education 28 2.5 (Multi-)culturalism and (arts) education 30 2.6.1 Other rationales for arts education 392.6.2 Other rationales for dance education 44 2.7 Conclusion 46 3 OVERVIEW 47 3.1 The appropriateness of the research approach and interpretive paradigm 48 3.2 The appropriateness of the methodology 49 3.3 Collection and analysis of data 503.3.1 To ensure trustworthiness of findings 53 3.4 Methods of data collection 553.4.1 Interviews 553.4.2 Focus group interviews and questionnaires 553.4.3 Focus group interview and journals 563.4.4 Journals, creative works, and course and facilitator evaluation forms 56 3.5 Brief description of interview subjects and their relevance to research 57


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Chapter Title Page no. 3.5.1 Dance educators 573.5.2 Teachers 583.5.3 Dance choreographer 593.5.4 Tertiary dance students 593.5.5 Creative Arts Programme students 593.5.6 Nanyang Girls’ High School students 603.5.7 Northland Secondary School students 613.5.8 Mayflower Secondary School students 613.5.9 Parent 62 3.6 My role as researcher 62 3.7.1 Ethics 633.7.2 Time Arrangement 653.7.3 Limitations 65 3.8 Conclusion 66 4 OVERVIEW 67 4.1 Savouring the Red Layer: Creativity Flavours for Dance Curriculum 68 4.1.1 What is creative education and dance curriculum? 694.1.1.1 Creating something new 694.1.1.2 Problem-solving 694.1.1.3 Promotes individuality in the absence of rules 694.1.1.4 Must have some extra spark 704.1.1.5 Difficult to articulate its meaning 71 4.1.2 Why is creative education significant for dance curriculum? 714.1.2.1 Expression of ideas and opinions 714.1.2.2 Expression of feelings 724.1.2.3 Develops one’s individuality 724.1.2.4 Tools to learn (other disciplines) 734.1.2.5 Current curricular lacks activities to incite creativity 73 4.1.3 How can creative education be implemented in dance curriculum? 744.1.3.1 Learning basic skills in choreography 744.1.3.2 Allowing students to work on their own 754.1.3.3 Guided by stimuli, themes 764.1.3.4 As a core subject 77


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Chapter Title Page no. 4.1.4 Conclusion 78 4.2 Savouring the Blue Layer: Aesthetic Flavours for Dance Curriculum 78 4.2.1 What is aesthetic education and dance curriculum? 794.2.1.1 Beauty is in the eye of the beholder – aesthetic, dance, education 794.2.1.2 Aesthetic of dance genres 794.2.1.3 Aesthetic of other art forms 804.2.1.4 Aesthetic of culture 814.2.1.5 Personal aesthetics 824.2.1.6 Education of feelings 834.2.1.7 Appreciation 83 4.2.2 Why is aesthetic education significant for the dance curriculum? 844.2.2.1 Expression of feelings 844.2.2.2 Critical reflection 854.2.2.3 All-rounded individuals 864.2.2.4 Valuable in life 86 4.2.3 How can aesthetic education be implemented in the dance curriculum? 864.2.3.1 Narrow the scope 864.2.3.2 Using an analysis model 874.2.3.3 Verbal communication fares better than writing reviews 88 4.2.4 Conclusion 88 4.3 Savouring the Yellow Layer: Artistic Flavours for Dance Curriculum 89 4.3.1 What is artistic education and dance curriculum? 904.3.1.1 Skills, understanding and knowledge in dance via the processes of choreography, performance and appreciation 914.3.1.2 Dance should provide more than performing skills 954.3.1.3 Finding own artistic expression in Singapore 964.3.1.4 Ballet: a pas de deux of challenges and relevance 974.3.1.5 Who should have access to the dance programme? 99 4.3.1.5.1 Eliminate academic pre-requisites as entry 994.3.1.5.2 Effects of [not] holding auditions 100


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Chapter Title Page no. 4.3.1.6 Dance Elective Programme and General Dance Programme 105 4.3.2 Why is artistic education significant in the dance curriculum? 1064.3.2.1 Arts will thrive 1064.3.2.2 To build audience support 1074.3.2.3 To groom dancers 1084.3.2.4 To continue studying dance at tertiary level 1094.3.2.5 Allows students to know own potential and career prospects in dance 1094.3.2.6 Aesthetic education 1104.3.2.7 Lifelong love for dance 1114.3.2.8 Students overlook significance of artistic education in dance! 111 4.3.3 How can artistic education be implemented in the dance curriculum? 1124.3.3.1 A different focus of learning each year and at certain schools 1124.3.3.2 To suit students’ needs and capabilities 1134.3.3.3 To inform students about objectives, content and learning outcomes of artistic education 1144.3.4 Conclusion 114 4.4 Savouring the Saffron Layer: Cultural Flavours for Dance Curriculum 115 4.4.1 What is cultural education and dance curriculum? 1154.4.1.1 What is Singapore culture and identity? 1154.4.1.2 Singapore Dance 1164.4.1.2.1 Does not help to develop cultural understanding 117 4.4.1.3 Needs time to develop culture 1184.4.1.4 Understanding of cultural differences will promote cultural understanding 1194.4.1.5 Ethnic dances in Singapore and South East Asia 1194.4.1.6 Youth culture 120 4.4.2 Why is cultural education significant in dance curriculum? 1204.4.2.1 To promote cultural understanding 1204.4.2.2 To develop an understanding of cultural differences 1214.4.2.3 To perform at professional dance level 1224.4.2.4 Should learn more than the practical aspects of dance 1234.4.3 How can cultural education be taught or integrated in dance curriculum? 123


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Chapter Title Page no.4.4.3.1 “A Fusion of Cultures” 1234.4.3.2 Nature in which programme is conducted – avoid being superficial and be sensitive to religious concerns 124 4.4.4 Conclusion 124 4.5 Conclusion 125 5 OVERVIEW 126 5.1.1 Rationale 1265.1.2 Content 1285.1.3 Teaching and learning approaches 131 5.2 Implications for the use of framework 132 Broad-based and flexible 133 Description of Dance Elective Programme 133 Inspiration 133

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Chapter 1: Introduction

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1. Introduction

At the beginning of the 21st century, Singapore’s commitment to the arts is evident in

the government policies to develop Singapore into a Renaissance City and develop

its Creative Economy via arts education. It is within the social, cultural and political

contexts for arts education in Singapore today that this thesis describes a framework

for the development of a dance curriculum for 13 to 16 years old secondary school

students in Singapore. This study will consider the question: What kind of Dance

Elective Programme will address the needs of the diverse communities in

Singapore? The framework for curriculum that emerges from the research describes

rationale, content, and approaches as identified by the research participants.

Rationale refers to the fundamental reasons for the foci in the framework; content

refers to “subject-matter of the teaching and learning process and includes

knowledge, processes and values” (Print, 1993:xvii); approaches encompass learning

experiences, opportunities, and activities that work to achieve the desired learning

outcomes.

It is essential to examine the current state of dance in education in Singapore

secondary schools in order to develop a dance curriculum appropriate for this

context. Dance is offered during curriculum time in some Singapore secondary

schools but not as an academic subject. Currently, a dance syllabus to direct

teachers in curriculum development in schools is not available. According to

Chong-Mok Wan Yee, Head of Humanities and Aesthetics Branch of Curriculum

Planning and Development Division at the Singapore Ministry of Education, the

ministry has “no plans, at this point in time, to introduce an elective programme for

dance” and students can participate in dance training through co-curricular activity in

schools (e-mail, 16 July 2002). As a co-curricular activity, students may choose to

learn from any of the four main types of dances: Chinese Dance, Indian Dance,

Malay Dance and Western Dance (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2003). The

objectives for learning the dances are to “[inculcate] the different ethnic cultures”,

and “develop the students physically and aesthetically” (The Singapore Ministry of


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Education, 2003). Dance also “helps students to learn perseverance, self-discipline,

commitment, co-operation and teamwork” (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2003). Students will have an opportunity to “perform at national events, one of

which is the Singapore Youth Festival Premiere Night and Dance Competitions

organised by the Co-Curricular Activity Branch of the Singapore Ministry of

Education” if they perform in “outstanding items” (2003). The Singapore Youth

Festival Central Judging for Dance in 2001 was seen as providing “a platform

for……students to display their talents in dance, and through the experience,

windows were opened for them to develop their leadership, acquire positive values

and build their character” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2003). It is evident

that dance as a co-curricular activity mainly teaches students performing skills.

Visual arts and music are the only arts disciplines offered as academic subjects in the

secondary school curriculum in Singapore. A comprehensive arts education should

encompass other disciplines, so as to provide a holistic learning environment in

schools. The General Art Programme and General Music Programme are available

to most student cohorts in secondary schools as part of the Singapore-Cambridge

General Certificate of Education “Ordinary” level subjects (The Singapore Ministry

of Education, 2002). The Art Elective Programme and Music Elective Programme,

however, are available to students who are talented and “academically able” (The

Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002b; 2002e). When probed about limiting

students with art and/or musical talents as well as academic pre-requisites, the

Director of Curriculum Planning and Development at the Singapore Ministry of

Education, Chan J.K., explained that the elective programmes are created for

students who could cope with the “conceptual and analytical faculties in the subject”

(Chan, 2003). This study will make reference to Music Elective Programme because

like dance, it is a performing art. The Music Elective Programme is offered only at


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selected independent1 and autonomous2 secondary schools that are ranked in the first

10 in the academic rankings organised annually by the Singapore Ministry of

Education (2002f). Students must score at least 230 out of 300 points in the Primary

School Leaving Examination to be considered for selection to the programme (Chan,

2003). Students have to gain entry into these ‘elite’ schools before they are

auditioned and interviewed and selected into the Music Elective Programme (The

Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002e). Lying on the same spectrum as the Music

Elective Programme, a Dance Elective Programme may have to be offered only in

these types of schools.

During the initial stage of this study in February 2002, a framework for a Dance

Elective Programme was to research with a view to developing curriculum that will

support the training of dancers. I limited my scope of research to investigating a

dance programme that will produce well-trained dancers at secondary school level

who could continue to pursue their dance training at the tertiary arts institutions –

Lasalle-SIA College of the Arts and Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. Nonetheless,

when I collected data from participants, I bracketed my own assumptions and biases

so as not to “inject personal experiences into the study” (Creswell, 1998:33).

My eagerness to explore this topic came from my own dance experiences and

training. I had early dance training in Chinese Dance when I was studying in

secondary school and junior college in Singapore. I furthered my studies in dance in

the United States and Australia because of a lack of tertiary dance programmes in

Singapore. Upon graduation, I worked as an educator in secondary schools and

tertiary arts institutions; a professional dancer in a contemporary dance company; a

1 Independent schools are “run by their respective Boards of Governors which decide on staffing, curricular and policy matters within the institution” ( The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002). 2Autonomous schools are government or government-aided schools that are “given additional resources and greater autonomy to function more like independent schools” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002). They are “well-spread out geographically for the convenience of pupils living in different parts of the island” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002).


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freelance choreographer; and a dance reviewer. Owing to my work experience in

recruiting students into the Diploma in Dance course at the tertiary arts institutions, I

felt that there was a need to produce better-trained dancers for the field of

professional dance in Singapore. When secondary school students came for

auditions, some were deemed unsuitable for a professional dance course due to their

lack of training. It became a challenge to investigate if there is a place for a Dance

Elective Programme in Singapore to train dancers.

The doctrine of Singapore promoting an arts education in schools spurs my interest

in exploring the domains of arts in education: Why do we need arts education? What

do we need to teach? Who do we need to teach? More significantly, what is the

vision for dance education in Singapore amidst this overhaul in the arts education in

Singapore? These broad questions assist in formulating the main research question:

What kind of dance curriculum will address the needs of the Singapore community?

It is not my intention to suggest that the Dance Elective Programme is a better

programme but this study considers what the selected group of participants perceives

as an appropriate programme.

My experience in teaching a structured curriculum at Mayflower Secondary School

was initially withheld from this discussion, thinking that the school was not a

suitable site for investigation as it is not an ‘elite’ school. After the data from this

research study was gathered, the wealth of information provided me with the

opportunities to engage in designing and implementing a dance curriculum at

Mayflower Secondary School. The curriculum was implemented in the school from

July 2002. This research also allowed me to expand and refine the curriculum at

Mayflower Secondary School and pushed me to further my investigations in the new

school term in 2003. It was at the final stage of research that the value of including

my own professional practice became evident, as its data would enrich the research

study. The data of this professional development journey included my journal as

facilitator and journals by the 160 students who attended a 13-week course in 2002

as well as evaluation forms written by the students, teachers, and an external


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facilitator. The students were also assessed in the three areas of dance study –

performance, choreography and appreciation – as suggested by Smith-Autard (2002:

27) in her midway model.

In recent Singapore government reports such as The Creative Industries

Development Strategy - Propelling Singapore’s Creative Economy Report (The

Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002) and the Renaissance City Report (The

Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000), the importance of arts education was

accentuated. The government’s visions include fostering “individual creativity, skill

and talent” (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002) and “a keen sense of

aesthetic” (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000) and one of the strategies

is to promote arts education. The Singapore government also suggested that the arts

will cultivate “cross cultural learning” (The Ministry of Information and the Arts,

2002) in students, and a keen sense of national and cultural identity (The Ministry of

Information and the Arts, 2000; The Ministry of Education, 2001). No arts

education is comprehensive without the inclusion of dance.

The exploration of a dance curriculum that sits in the context of the unique setting of

Singapore – in its political, economic, social and cultural rhetoric – poses

considerable challenges. Singapore is a relatively young nation, having attained its

independence in 1965 (Singapore Infomap, 2002) but the country is already

positioning itself as the region’s financial and high-tech hub due to its highly

developed and successful free-market economy (The Monetary Authority of

Singapore, 2002). It has a population of 4.16 million people made up of mainly

Chinese, Malay, and Indian people who are largely descendents of immigrants from

China, the Malay Peninsula and the Indian sub-continent (Singapore Infomap, 2002).

Its language of administration is English whilst the National language is Malay. Its

education system is modelled closely after the United Kingdom’s Cambridge

General Certificate of Education “Ordinary” and “Advanced” level subjects’ syllabi

(The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002a). The question then arises: Is it

possible or appropriate to model a Dance Elective Programme after the United


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Kingdom’s General Certificate of Secondary Education Performing Arts: Dance

Syllabus? In a country that strives “to strengthen Singaporeans” sense of national

identity” and to promote cultural understanding (The Ministry of Information and the

Arts, 2000), will such a programme derived from a Western society be suitable?

Singapore is burgeoning in its economy but the field of research in dance education

remains almost untapped. This proposal will contribute additional knowledge to

what constitutes a suitable framework of dance curriculum appropriate for secondary

schools in Singapore. It is hoped that the suggested model will provide an impetus

for further development and implementation of dance curriculum in the Singaporean

schools in the near future. There were personal benefits reaped during the research

process in that this study has enriched my own experience as an educator and

curriculum planner.

The literature review that follows seeks to explore the recurring themes of creativity,

aesthetics, artistic and cultural, and to provide a conceptual framework of a suitable

dance curriculum that assists in the analysis of data in Chapter Four. Chapter Three

outlines the rationale for undertaking a qualitative research strategy, the mode of

inquiry, the methodologies that support this study and the methods of gathering data.

Chapter Four introduces the data representation gathered from interviews, journals,

and questionnaires that paint a vivid picture of an appropriate Dance Elective

Programme in Singapore. Data analysis occurs in Chapter Four and makes reference

to and connections with the theory outlined in the literature review. In the final

process of analysis, the input from all spectrums will offer some conclusions

regarding an appropriate Dance Elective Programme and ways of implementing it in

Singapore secondary schools.

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Chapter 2: Literature Review

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2 Introduction

This literature review will discuss:

1. The political, economic and social direction in which the Singapore government

is heading in this new millennium and how this affects the role of arts in

education in Singapore. The theorisation of the creative industries that are

rapidly causing changes to the arts education in Singapore will also be discussed.

2. The definition of creativity, within the realm of creative industries and especially

within education.

3. The definition of aesthetics and its implication in education and more

significantly, in dance education.

4. The definition and value of artistic education in a dance curriculum.

5. The issue of (multi-)culturalism and dance education and its relevance in

Singapore’s society.

6. Other rationales for arts and dance education.

Graham McFee (1994:19) sums this up by stating that there is a “justification for dance

in the school curriculum if we can first justify the role of the arts, and secondly, justify

the role of dance from within the arts”.

2.1 Singapore Context

To begin, I will broadly examine the government policies to see how the Singapore

government hopes to steer the nation in the 21st century. The investigation of

government policies will assist in providing context to this research because the vision

and strategies initiated by the various government ministries have a significant impact

on the role of arts education in schools; in particular, Creative Industries Development

Strategy - Propelling Singapore’s Creative Economy Report released by the Ministry of


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Trade and Industry (2002) and the Renaissance City Report by the Ministry of

Information and the Arts (2000). As a result of the above policy statements, the

Singapore Ministry of Education implemented the Enhancing Arts Programme and the

National Arts Education Conference1 in 2001 and 2002 respectively. These were aimed

at educators to help develop aspects of creativity, aesthetics and cultural understanding

amongst students.

Specifically, the Singapore government focused on the relevance of creativity to arts

education. The Ministry of Information and the Arts hopes to promote arts education,

especially among the young, because this will help develop Singapore into a city that is

“creative” (2000). It defines “creative” as “adventurous” and having “an inquiring

mind” that will motivate people in the industries to be “competitive in the global

economy” (2000). The vision of the Ministry of Information and the Arts overlaps, in

some ways, with the Singapore Ministry of Education’s Desired Outcomes that

education will develop the child such that he or she will “be able to think independently

and creatively” (2002c). The significance of arts education to “foster and nurture” the

qualities of “imagination and creativity” in students is highlighted by Dr. Ng Eng Hen,

the Minister of State for Education and Manpower. Dr. Ng, who spoke at the National

Arts Education Conference, asserted that “creativity and innovation are the key driving

forces to progress” in the present “knowledge-based economy” (The Ministry of

Information and the Arts, 2002). There is a greater emphasis for students to “create new

knowledge” (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2002) to compete in this post-

industrial economy; merely “applying the knowledge that they have acquired” (2002) is

insufficient.

1 The National Arts Education Conference was jointly organised by the Singapore Ministry of Education and the National Arts Council for art and music teachers on 11 March 2002 (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2002).


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The Ministry of Information and the Arts regarded such directions in education as the

“software aspect” whilst the “hardware for culture and the arts” mentioned in the 1989

Report of the Advisory Council on Culture and the Arts2 was regarded as “the

development of institutions and infrastructures” (The Ministry of Information and the

Arts, 2000). Now that the Singapore government has developed the “hardware” such as

the performing arts centre Esplanade, it is now ready to focus on developing the

“software”.

The Singapore government views “software” as the skills and talents of the workforce in

Singapore and hence it emphasises the role of creativity in education in order to help

develop creativity amongst students. The importance of creativity in today’s

competitive world is evident in the government policies of Singapore. In September

2002, the Ministry of Trade and Industry hoped to launch a Creative Economy in

Singapore to meet the new challenges since “globalisation, technology and competition

are changing the global environment rapidly” (The Ministry of Trade and Industry,

2002). The subcommittee from the Economic Review Committee set up by the Ministry

of Trade and Industry specified the vision and outlined the strategies. The vision of the

Creative Economy is “to double the Gross Domestic Product contribution of the creative

cluster” in Singapore and establish Singapore as “a vibrant and exciting New Asia

Creative Hub” (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002). The subcommittee relies on

the United Kingdom’s Creative Industries Taskforce definition of creative industries,

that is, “those industries which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent

and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and

exploitation of intellectual property” (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002). The

vision of the Ministry of Trade and Industry to create “a vibrant and exciting New Asia

Creative Hub” (2002) corresponds with the Renaissance City Report, which is to

2 The Renaissance City Report in 2000 is a continuation of the 1989 Report of the Advisory Council on Culture and the Arts (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000).


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develop Singapore into a “world-class city” in which “creative and knowledge-based

industries and talent” will thrive (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000a).

Besides creativity, aesthetics is regarded as the other factor for promoting arts

education. In the Renaissance City Report, the role of arts education is highlighted

because it will help develop Singapore into a city that is “imbued with a keen sense of

aesthetic” (2002). The Ministry of Information and the Arts’ vision overlaps, in some

ways, with the Singapore Ministry of Education’s Desired Outcomes that education will

develop the child “morally, intellectually, physically, socially and aesthetically”

(2002c). The Singapore Ministry of Education implemented the Enhancing Arts

Education in Schools to help develop students into “individuals imbued with a sense of

aesthetics” (2001). There is no explanation of the term “aesthetics” in the document.

Another objective was to further “develop and harness the full range of our students’

talents and contributing to their overall development” (The Singapore Ministry of

Education, 2001). The Enhancing Arts Education in Schools policy states that it will

“help to develop students to reach their full artistic potential” to become “civic-minded,

cultivated, gracious and [be] able to express themselves through various art forms” (The

Singapore Ministry of Education, 2001). The government perceives that talented

individuals will then become social- and law-abiding citizens.

The Singapore government believes that arts education is important because it promotes

cultural understanding. Its vision in the Renaissance City Report is to develop

Singapore into “one of the top cities in the world to live, work and play in” (The

Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000). This could be achieved if Singapore has “a

vibrant cultural scene” and that Singaporeans are imbued with “a strong passion for life”

(The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000). According to the Ministry of

Information and the Arts, culture and the arts are valuable because they “enhance our


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quality of life, contribute to a sense of national identity and add to the attractiveness of

our country” (2000). The Singapore government hopes that by promoting arts and

culture, “Singaporeans’ appreciation of our heritage” and “our sense of national identity

and belonging” will be elevated (The Ministry of Information and the Arts, 2000).

Another reason is to promote understanding of the various cultures prevalent in

Singapore. The Singapore Ministry of Education states that “education helps to

preserve our cultural roots” and students will “be culturally rooted” (2002d) and yet be

able to understand and respect differences. In order to achieve these, students should

“believe in our principles of multi-racialism” (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2002c) and “must develop a sense of shared identity and destiny” (2000d) of being

Singaporeans. The Singapore Ministry of Education also states:

pupils ought to know their own cultural heritages and mother tongues. At the same time they must learn to understand and respect the different racial, religious, cultural and language backgrounds of their fellow citizens (2002d).

The arts are seen as a possible strategy to achieve this. This is evident in the Enhancing

Arts Education in Schools, in which the objective of arts education is that students will

“have a keen sense of the Singaporean identity” (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2001).

In essence, the Singapore government’s definition of arts and culture and their

relationship to society were set in the language of economic enhancement and social

cohesion. The Ministry of Information and the Arts highlights the significance of

creativity and the arts to aid “our economy and society”:

Apart from the direct economic benefits that accrue to arts and cultural activities, creative and artistic endeavours will also play a decisive role in the future economy. To ensure sustained growth in the long run, Singapore must forge an environment that is conducive to innovations, new discoveries and the creation of new knowledge. Knowledge workers will gravitate towards and thrive in places that are vibrant and stimulating. Building up a cultural


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and creative buzz will thus help to attract both local and foreign talents to contribute to the dynamism and growth of our economy and society (2000).

In view of the political, economic and social objectives stipulated in the government

policies, I will next examine the strategies initiated by the various government ministries

that have a significant impact on the role of arts education in schools. Firstly, in the

Creative Industries Development Strategy - Propelling Singapore’s Creative Economy

Report, the integration of the arts, business and technology to “become Singapore’s

competitive advantage” is recommended and a variety of development strategies to offer

new job opportunities for Singaporeans are proposed (The Ministry of Trade and

Industry, 2002). A way to achieve this is to “target the arts and cultural sector” under

the broad title Renaissance City 2.0 (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002). The

Renaissance City 2.0 initiative hopes to achieve what the original Renaissance City

Blueprint sets out to do, that is:

to develop Singapore into a highly innovative and multi-talented global city for arts and culture. It will focus on maximising the potential of existing and new arts infrastructure by developing software (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002).

To develop the “software” is “to nurture creative capabilities at all levels of the

education and training process” (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002). To achieve

this, the subcommittee suggests:

arts, design and media can be embedded as creative learning tools for all levels of education. For example, drama and literature could be employed to help students enhance their language abilities while multi-media tools can help students approach science and maths projects in an innovative manner (The Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002).

Other strategies to enhance the arts education in schools were proposed at the

Enhancing Arts Education in Schools in September 2001 (The Singapore Ministry of

Education, 2001). For example, schools may engage artists and arts organisations to

enrich and extend their curricular and co-curricular arts programmes through a


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Partnership Scheme (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2001). Although the

Singapore Ministry of Education promised that “more details and guidelines on the

implementation of the Scheme will be made available to schools later in the year” at the

time of writing, there is still nothing mentioned on the Singapore Ministry of Education

website (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2001). Schools may wish to extend arts

education beyond the classrooms. For example, students will “attend public concerts

and performances at least once in their secondary school career” (The Singapore

Ministry of Education, 2001). This means that students will attend at least one

performance in their four years of secondary school education. The Singapore Ministry

of Education states that there will be “a set of guidelines to assist schools in the

planning, implementation and evaluation of their arts programmes” made available to

schools later in the year but this appears not to have eventuated (2001). The Singapore

Ministry of Education also suggested the need to recruit more art and music teachers

and the increased “participation in co-curricular arts activities, in particular, to form

instrumental groups and choirs as these activities offer good platforms for mass

participation and enjoyment” (2001). However, “mass participation and enjoyment”

were not spelled out as objectives for this programme in the first place (The Singapore

Ministry of Education, 2001). The dance programmes in Australia (The Queenland

Studies Authority, 1998; 2002), the United Kingdom (Smith-Autard, 1994) and the

United States (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2000) were also

explored to examine the recurring themes as mentioned above. The relevance of the

syllabi from these countries is that their multicultural demography parallels that of

Singapore. The syllabus of the Music Elective Programme (The Singapore Ministry of

Education, 2002e) was selected because it is a performing art, like dance, and will

provide valuable information for the contextualisation of a framework for a Dance

Elective Programme in secondary schools. The components included course rationale,

content, and approaches.


14

2.1.1 Creative Economy/Industries Theory

Key terms arising from the Singapore government publication, Creative Industries

Development Strategy - Propelling Singapore's Creative Economy Report are new

economy and creative or cultural industries. In this section, I will examine how these

ideas relate to recent policies, especially in the area of arts education, as stipulated by

the Singapore government on the creation of a creative economy.

Manuel Castells describes the new economy as a dynamic and information-rich

environment that workers must navigate well in order to excel in their respective fields

(2000:3). The new economy is characterised by three basic functions: informational

(Castells, 2000:4; Healy, 2002), global (Castells, 2000:4), and skills and creativity

(Healy, 2002). Advances in information technology are said to be having a huge effect

on work and industry (Healy, 2002) as it has “the capacity of generating knowledge and

processing/managing information that determine the productivity and competitiveness

of all kinds of economic units” (Castells, 2000). The new economy has also become

globalised (Healy, 2002). Fraser and Oppenheim define globalisation as “the process by

which the world”s economy is transformed from a set of national and regional markets

into a set of markets that operate without regard to national boundaries” (Healy, 2002).

Goods and services are being produced and traded in world-spanning markets, owing to

new communications technologies (Healy, 2002). The skills and creativity of

individuals are becoming increasingly important in this information-driven, globalised

world. Investment “buys new concepts or the means to create them, rather than new

machines” (Healy, 2002). Labour must therefore be “self-programmable” (Healy, 2002)

and the key resource is talent (Castells in Healy, 2002). Creativity is becoming

increasingly important to competitiveness, so the skills of people working in the creative

or cultural sector are highly valued and this reaffirms the need to develop creativity in

education (Healy, 2002). This is reinforced by Ken Robinson, who argues that “we


15

need to reconfigure our educational, economic, and community institutions to better

generate and take advantage of the individual creativity that the new economy demands”

(Healy, 2002).

Creative economy is seen as a lucrative ground for economic gains. John Howkins sees

the creative economy as the new foundation for “wealth creation and economic growth”

(Tepper, 2002). Indeed, “wealth creation is dependent upon the capacity of a nation to

continually create content” (Shalini Venturelli in Tepper, 2002). Chris Smith, Minister

of the Department of Culture, Media, and Sport in the U.K., also states that “the role of

creative enterprise and the cultural contribution to a modern world is a key economic

issue. These creative areas are surely where many of the jobs and much of the wealth of

the next century are going to come from” (in Tepper, 2002). The economic benefits

thus reinforce the need to develop creativity in the school curricula.

In Singapore, the creative industries are categorised into arts and culture, design and

media. Arts and culture include “the performing arts, visual arts, literary arts,

photography, crafts, libraries, museums, galleries, archives, auctions, impresarios,

heritage sites, performing arts sites, festivals and arts supporting enterprises” (The

Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2002).

2.2 Definition of Creativity

Creativity is a crucial component in education because it is the reason for our living, our

survival. Peter Abbs states that “creativity is the condition of our existence” (1989:2).

Definitions of creativity are difficult to articulate, as “there is no answer to this question

currently available, any more than there is to the question, what makes an individual

highly creative?” (Pateman, 1991:33) Heyfron reiterates the complexity of a


16

straightforward definition due to “the wide-ranging nature of items and practices to

which the term ‘creative’ can be sensibly applied” (1985:29).

Nonetheless, creativity is related to producing or making something. According to

Pateman, creativity is seen as “creating, and seen as involved in all making: so that there

is an exercise of creativity in all making” (1991:35). Heyfron (1985:51) writes that

when creativity is applied to artistic work, it involves reference to the production of the

‘thing’, that is, “the context to which a person operates, for example the specific artistic

medium” (1985:32). The concept of making is reiterated by Abbs (in Pateman,

1991:35) who states that creativity refers to “the child’s making something new

[something else] out of something old [something other]” (Pateman, 1991:35). Abbs

reinforces this idea of creating something new from old that “the vertical and horizontal

axis move between the conscious and unconscious; or, more precisely, between the

conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious, between tradition and innovation” (1984:22).

When one is engaged in creating something, it will require the ability to solve problems

or “to pose questions regularly in a domain” (Gardner, 1990:21).

Creativity is concerned with being innovative such that it is “original in the sense that it

is significantly different from other ‘things’ of its kind” (Heyfron, 1985:51). Creativity

arises when an individual, “using the symbols of a given domain”, has an original idea

and when this idea is accepted by the “appropriate field for inclusion into the relevant

domain” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:28). “Domain” refers to “a set of symbolic rules and

procedures” and Mathematics as an example, is a domain (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996: 28).

“Field” refers to “all individuals who act as gatekeepers of the domain” and who select

works that “deserve to be recognised, preserved and remembered” (Csikzentmihalyi,

1996:28). Creativity will be promoted when one has “access to the domain”, for

example, attending a good school, having good mentors and coaches (Csikzentmihalyi,

1996:27). Next, creativity is facilitated by “access to a field” such as “being known and


17

appreciated by the relevant people” or “being at the right university” where there are

state-of-the-art research equipment and ample funding (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:54-55).

A conducive environment with proper guidance and facilities will help to develop and

enhance creativity.

Creativity will thrive where imagination is applied. Creativity is “an imaginary ‘thing’”

(Heyfron, 1985:51) and is promoted when one is driven by “curiosity, wonder and

interest” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:27) to unravel the problem. The application of

“convergent and divergent thinking” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:61), “playfulness and

discipline” (1996:61), imagination and reality (1996:63) and love-what-you-do attitude

(1996:107) will lead to a conducive system for creativity (1996:60).

The lack of rules will also promote creativity such that creativity is “freely produced”

and this component of freedom lies at the core of creativity (Heyfron, 1985:51). Abbs

recommends that arts teachers should not interfere in the creative process because they

should allow students to indulge in its “freedom and inventiveness” and to have a “crazy

dream” (1984:23). Consequently, students will have “an agile intuitive sense as to

which movement to make along which axis” (Abbs, 1984:23). Creativity represents a

particular kind of teaching and learning where the results are not deemed as significant

as the process (Abbs, 1998:1). Even if results are important, creativity cannot be easily

measured by creativity tests like what the intelligence tests can do because “creativity,

like intelligence, is not a single trait” (Gardner, 1990: 20-21). Whilst there is an absence

of rules to promote creativity, one’s creativity may be inborn because the symbols it

produces are complex and are repeated explanations of our innate nature (Abbs,

1984:4).

One may need certain level of skills to be able to engage in creating something,

according to Heyfron, who stated that creativity “requires sufficient mastery in an area


18

to enable a person to represent a distinctive perspective”, and “valuable on some

dimension” but not as a technical skill (1985:51). Gardner sums up Heyfron’s argument

about the need of some essential skills by stating that creativity:

has a lot more to do with getting to know the subject in great detail, and then being willing to take that knowledge and use it in new kinds of ways; the inclination to use knowledge in new ways is a personality feature and a value feature as much as a cognitive feature (1990: 21).

If these aspects of creativity are identified clearly, it becomes more conceivable to

search for “a set of logical conditions governing its usage in different contexts”

(Heyfron, 1985:31). However, creativity is not to be confused with “brilliant”

individuals who “express unusual thoughts” and “personally creative” individuals who

“experience the world in novel and original ways” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:25).

According to Csikzentmihalyi, creativity should not be confused with “talent” since

creativity can be achieved without “any exceptional talent” (1996:27). Finally, a person

can be creative and have the power to ‘change the culture’ significantly without being a

‘genius’ (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:27). The theorisation of creativity here will help to

define its role within the realm of education more clearly.

2.2.1 Creativity and education

Creative education is a critical aspect of a dance curriculum because it is “essential to

any understanding of education” (Abbs, 1989:1). In Singapore, one of the desired

outcomes for education is to help the students to “be able to think independently and

creatively” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002c) but it stops short of

suggesting a way to achieve this. Similarly, the education system in the United States

rarely encourages “originality and creative thinking” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:12). The

arts education that “deals primarily with matters of feeling and creativity” and the


19

application of “rational or empirical educational criteria” seem doubtful

(Csikzentmihalyi and Schiefele, 1992:187). Simpson also discovers the arts experiences

that students engage in are not creative and do not yield many benefits with regard to

making “great achievements” and profound continuation to their knowledge (1985:205-

6). Conversely, he views the creative experience as limiting to the “narrow compass of

an individual’s experience and fulfillment” (Simpson, 1985:206).

On the other hand, Csikzentmihalyi and Schiefele view that the desired outcomes in art

education should include the “enhancement of subjective meaningful experience and

enhanced creativity and originality” (1992:187). Students will then become creative and

proficient to “face the future with zest and self-confidence” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996:12).

To foster creativity in our educational system, the creative cognition approach has to be

applied (Finke et. al, 1996:1). The creative cognition approach consists of “specific

cognitive processes and structures that contribute to creative acts and products” (Finke

et al., 1996:1) and they include “creative reasoning and exploration” (Finke et al.,

1996:167) and “divergent thinking” (Finke et al., 1996:183). This highlights the

significance of “our valuing of the individual and of how his creative expression, no

matter how slight, is internally related to what we might call the strength of his inner

life, his identity, or to him as a person” (Simpson, 1985:206).

An examination of the dance syllabi in Australia, the United States, the United

Kingdom, and the music syllabus in Singapore offers varying explanations for

creativity. The Queensland Studies Authority views creativity as:

students developing the capacity to work creatively in various ways and modes, responding to multiple experiences and ideas in the diverse world around them. They choreograph, improvise, make, produce, devise and compose to express and communicate personal meaning (2002).


20

In the United States, the North Carolina Dance Syllabus refers to creating as

“expressing ideas and feelings through improvising, composing, or choreographing

dance” (2000). However, in the General Certificate of Secondary Education

Performing Arts: Dance Syllabus in the United Kingdom (Smith-Autard, 1994), there is

no explicit explanation of creativity in its syllabus although it encompasses

choreography. Similarly, in the General Certificate of Education “Ordinary”

examination for Music Elective Programme (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2002e), there is no mention of developing students’ creativity in the course and what

creativity is although students are assessed for melodic composing with or without

words and this written paper examination carries 30% of the total score.

The Singapore government tries to promote arts education in schools using limiting

strategies to develop creativity amongst students. The Ministry of Trade and Industry

stated that “to enhance the creative capacity of our people, arts, design and media can be

embedded as creative learning tools for all levels of education” and one example is that

“drama and literature could be employed to help students enhance their language

abilities” (2002). This shows that the role of arts is to help achieve academic goals and

hardly any intrinsic benefits are reaped from the experience (The Ministry of Trade and

Industry, 2002). Another ambiguous strategy is to use multi-media tools to “help

students approach science and maths projects in an innovative manner” which, in its

generic sense, hardly offers any concrete processes to approach the tasks (The Ministry

of Trade and Industry, 2002). The political exertion over the direction of education in

Singapore indicates that arts education will remain relegated to something of a frill; its

resurgence will only occur to achieve other academic goals or political imperatives, such

as the case of developing students” creativity through the arts. The political influence

over the curriculum will also be raised in the discussion of the following chapters of

aesthetic and cultural education.


21

2.3 Aesthetics

Within the realm of the arts, aesthetic is the other important frame to be considered. It

seems fitting to discuss both Western and Asian aesthetics in the context of a

multicultural society like Singapore.

Aesthetic in Western classical times was rooted in that of the beautiful although it was

constantly applied to the moral good – to human conduct and behaviour (Redfern,

1986:16). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “aesthetic derives from the

Greek word meaning ‘through the senses’” (Pateman, 1991:7). The Queensland Studies

Authority reiterates this definition by referring to aesthetic as “having the ability to use

the senses to observe, acquire knowledge and react to the surroundings” (2002). Adding

to the notion of using the senses, Abbs says that aesthetic encompasses “perception,

sensing, apprehending, and feeling” (1987: 53). Abbs explains that aesthetic implies a

way of “sensuous knowing essential for the life and development of consciousness”

(1987: 53).

2.3.1 Aesthetic experience

Smith-Autard hones in on the uniqueness of aesthetic experience that it is “essentially an

education of feeling” (1994:32). Aesthetic experience will engage personal feelings and

elicit judgments and preferences (Reid, 1971: 163; The Queensland Studies Authority,

2002) such that students will “express particular ideas, feelings and meanings” (The

Queensland Studies Authority, 2002). There is no substitute for aesthetic experience in

an arts education that “provides bridges to things we can scarcely describe, but respond

to deeply” (Kennedy Center, 2002). In the context of dance, students who engage in

aesthetic experience will “yield insight into human feeling” because “movements

kinesthetically felt, can become increasingly differentiated in tone and texture” (Smith-


22

Autard, 2002:33). Feelings should also occur concurrently with movements, as

indicated by Smith-Autard, who said that “thinking about symbolic meaning in

movement and learning about its components and significance should occur alongside

feeling it” (2002:33).

Students who have aesthetic experiences in arts education will increase and enrich their

sensibilities (Redfern, 1986:85; Fowler, 1996:40). Peter Brinson reinforces this notion

of students increasing their sensitivities by engaging in the “pleasures and meanings of

the arts” that “the range of their aesthetic experience and judgment” will be embellished

(1991:70). With elevated sensibilities, students will increase their “awareness of the

qualities of objects” (Arts Council Guidance on Dance Education, 1993). Students’

abilities to “regard things, including things which he himself might have made or be

making or performing” will also be cultivated (Redfern, 1986:67). They will “half-

apprehend and half-create a world of understanding, of heightened perception, of

heightened meaning” via aesthetic activity since aesthetic means “one distinctive mode

for the creation of meaning, of significance, of truth” (Abbs, 1987:53). In their quest to

find meaning, students will become more critical such that they become “increasingly

discriminating and critically reflective” (Redfern, 1986:67). The Queensland Studies

Authority reiterates that students will “feel, enjoy, respond to and make judgments about

their experiences and develop their sensory awareness and discrimination” (2002).

Students’ imagination will also be heightened when they engage in aesthetic experience

“with a particular kind of imaginative attention” (Redfern, 1986:67). Therefore,

aesthetic experience will be ingrained in students such that it allows them to always find

meanings with feelings, as it will bring “the approach closer to meanings perpetually

and affectively experienced as qualities of purposeful structure” (Reimer, 1992:38).

Working in the arts allows students “direct ways of exploring values, of raising

questions of personal, moral and aesthetic value and of discussing the ideas and

perceptions to which they relate” (Brinson, 1991:70). They will also adopt multiple


23

perspectives in their modes of thinking and convey ideas and feelings competently (The

Queensland Studies Authority, 2002).

There are intrinsic benefits associated with aesthetic experience because it is essential

for the existence of humans. According to Eaton, “aesthetic experience is a basic

element of human existence” and will provide “meaning to human life and in sustaining

viable communities as well as a healthy environment” (in Smith, 2002). L.A. Reid

reiterates that aesthetic experience is “a total form of living experience” and that is the

fundamental reason why it must be included in “every liberal education” (1971:171). In

Abbs’ opinion, the opportunity to engage in such an aesthetic experience is “intrinsically

valuable”. Therefore, it is unnecessary to have end-results to justify its purpose or role

in education (1987:208). Similarly, Fowler argues that the aesthetic philosophy

indicates that arts should be included in the education of every person because of its

“own intrinsic values” (1996:36). Fowler interprets this as “art for art’s sake”, “beauty

is its own excuse for being”, or “a rose is a rose is a rose” (1996:36). The website of the

United States’ Arts Education Department informs and reiterates that “the arts have

intrinsic value and are worth learning for their own sake, providing benefits not

available through any other means” (Kennedy Center, 2002). To illuminate an aesthetic

experience, the United States’ Arts Education Department explains that for one to read

Schiller's poem Ode to Joy, for example, is “to know one kind of beauty” (Kennedy

Center, 2002). In addition, for one to hear a great chorus sing “the majestic conclusion

to Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony is to experience beauty of an entirely different kind”

and will be a wonderful experience for many people (Kennedy Center, 2002).

2.3.2 Aesthetic understanding

Aesthetic education also aids students to understand the aesthetic of other cultures,

hence promoting cultural understanding. In Reid’s opinion, aesthetic understanding is


24

an assimilation of “learning, understanding, judging and appreciating” (1971:169-170).

Through arts experiences, students are able “to interact with the sensory aspects of their

world” (Reid, 1986:85) in which “the senses are engaged cognitively, physically and

affectively, enabling students to develop an understanding of the aesthetics of their own

culture and that of others” (The Queensland Studies Authority, 2002). These

engagements will also “contribute to the construction of a personal aesthetic and foster a

critical awareness of aesthetic values within and across cultures and social groups” (The

Queensland Studies Authority, 2002).

Singapore is a multicultural society and it is crucial not to limit the discussion of

aesthetics to a Western perspective because it “cannot claim to hold universally, cross-

culturally” (Lang, 1995a:231). The main races in Singapore are Chinese, Malay and

Indians and the main religions are Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam and

Hinduism. Asian aesthetics are different from Western aesthetics. Titus Burckhardt

discovers that the differences between “the European and Islamic conceptions of art” are

so apparent that “the common use of such words as art and artist” may cause confusion

(Mason, 1995:25). Anthropologist Clifford Gertz also highlights the difference between

Asian and Western aesthetics (Mason, 1995:22). He describes “Muslim aesthetic

consciousness as verbal, not visual” (in Mason, 1995:21) and there are “Muslim

restrictions on painting human images” as these “[ape] the creation of God” (Burckhardt

in Mason, 1995:25). Lang argues on the same tangent that the significant feature in

Chinese aesthetics is “aesthetic image, not emotion, feeling or meaning” unlike in

Western aesthetics (1995:248). Lang suggests that “this feeling should be aroused by

and unified with the depiction of reality” (1995:248). Thus, within the realm of Chinese

aesthetics, art is not “primarily a vehicle for an artist to vent forth his feelings, to

express himself, but rather to present an artistic image which will arouse feeling and

insight” (Lang, 1995:248).


25

According to Smith-Autard, aesthetic perception “needs to be nurtured and developed”

(2002:33). Redfern stresses that it is fundamental that “children are encouraged from an

early age to talk about pieces both that they themselves make or choose and that are

presented to them” whatever a teacher chooses to teach (1986:89). However, it is not

possible to evaluate the “essences of all works of art” using a “single uniform method”

since individuals view art works subjectively “in distinctive ways” (Smith-Autard,

2002:33-34). The lack of a general framework will “tend to degenerate into loose talk

about personal impressions” (Reid in Smith-Autard, 2002:34). Therefore, the

assimilation of “aesthetic qualities in works of art” (Smith-Autard, 2002:34) and the

subjectivity of an individual’s feeling into a “general framework” (Smith-Autard,

1994:32) for the discussion of art works are recommended. The Queensland Studies

Authority suggests that students will “select elements, components, concepts and forms

during the process of an arts education” (2002). Thereafter, they will “select, combine,

manipulate, rework and emphasise these elements to express particular ideas, feelings

and meanings” (The Queensland Studies Authority, 2002; Brinson, 1991:70).

Another way of developing aesthetic understanding is to allow students to appreciate the

works of mature artists. Often, in mature artists’ works, students are able to find

common traits that they can express (Redfern, 1986:85). An understanding of the nature

of the artistry as a cognitive endeavour will seem to be important for any viable concept

of aesthetic education because art involves artists and artists produce works that are “the

source of aesthetic meanings” (Reimer, 1992:38). Once students enjoy more

opportunities to become acquainted with works of merit, the greater the chance that their

“sensibilities will be expanded and enriched” (Redfern, 1986:85). They will then be

able to acquire “feeling in the arts” (Redfern, 1986: 85).

Students may also develop aesthetic understanding without having to participate in the

event. As suggested by Redfern, “in the arts, pupils should learn to participate in critical


26

reflection and assessment and, moreover, might participate in this sense without having

to take part in the event itself” (1986: 104). He adds that “what someone says about

objects and performances outside art is of utmost importance” (Redfern, 1986:105).

2.3.3 Aesthetic and (arts) education

Aesthetic is important in education and this is best exemplified by Read who writes that

“an education that ignores the aesthetic is half an education or not at all” (in Wilkinson,

1986:24). However, to state that aesthetic education should be promoted in the school

curriculum as in the case of The Arts in Schools in the United Kingdom is

“unquestionably far too simplistic” (Redfern, 1986:108). The Arts in Schools

recommends that “aesthetic experience, like creativity, should be fostered throughout

the curriculum” (Redfern, 1986:108). It is not useful to merely encourage pupils to

“take an aesthetic interest in things whenever the opportunity presents itself” (Redfern,

1986:108) because it is not always “through art that the foundations of aesthetic interest

are laid” (Redfern, 1986:67). Reid highlights the importance of teachers trained in

aesthetic and art education because the lack of “any introduction to the conceptual

understanding of the aesthetic and art has tended to leave excellent teachers floating in a

sort of half-vacuum” (1985:149). Therefore, the proper training of school teachers in

understanding aesthetic and art education is essential.

2.3.4 Aesthetic and dance education

Smith-Autard highlights the importance of aesthetic in dance education because there is

a need “to attend to the contained qualities in dance” (2002:33). The qualities in art and

their relations best exemplify the essence of aesthetic education in dance and are more

significant than “the mere physicalities of bodies in action” (Smith-Autard, 2002:33).

Students’ awareness of the expressive nature of movements in dance should heighten


27

“through appreciation of their various dynamic, temporal and spatial ‘textures’” (Smith-

Autard, 2002:33).

Osborne categorises aesthetic qualities as “sensory qualities, expressive qualities and

formal qualities” (Smith-Autard, 2002:34). The sensory qualities that relate to

movement are limitless and the problem of relating this in language is often inadequate

(Smith-Autard, 2002:34). One way to develop this skill of “the ability to appreciate” is

that teachers can describe movements in sensory terms, such as “linear, balanced,

flowing, angular, curving, smooth, arrested, or lingering” instead of simply naming it

“arabesque” (Smith-Autard, 2002:34).

Next, the aesthetic qualities that are called expressive are “emergent features of sensory

qualities”. Similarly, there is no language apt or substantial to “describe expressive

qualities of works of art as distinct from human emotions and expressions” (Smith-

Autard, 2002:34). Smith-Autard provides examples such as “curves in space can denote

gentleness, that one person high and upright with several others at his feet may denote

power and submission” (2002:34). However, one must be cautioned not to limit

“correlating ideas and movements, since their expressiveness depends upon their role in

each individual dance” (Smith-Autard, 2002:34).

The formal qualities are represented by terms such as “unity, balance, integration,

harmony, texture, proportion and contrast” (Smith-Autard, 2002:35). Students may be

guided to investigate the “motifs consciously” (2002:35) and “to create the unified

form” (1994:34). Students may progressively come to appreciate dance with “deep and

creative contemplation” if the dance facilitator “can develop devices for presenting the

aesthetic aspects of dance” (Smith-Autard, 2002:35).


28

Finally, Smith-Autard emphasises that “dance works should not be studied in their every

detail nor analysed with infinite precision” (1994:38). This will diminish “the artistic

and aesthetic dimensions of the work and make the study into a pseudo-scientific chore”

(Smith-Autard, 1994:38).

2.4 Artistic education The concept of artistic education may be attached to aesthetic education because they

share common aspects. They relate to a disciplined-based learning as “it is difficult to

disentangle artistic from aesthetic education since in all dance art experiences they are

interdependent” (Smith-Autard, 2002:30). The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance

in the United Kingdom shares Smith-Autard’s view that the General Certificate of

Secondary Education 2003 Performing Arts: Dance syllabus “focuses on the artistic and

aesthetic qualities of dance and the use of dance as a medium of expression and

communication in the performance, creation and appreciation of dance” (2003).

The meaning of artistic education is made explicit by Smith-Autard and in the dance and

music syllabi. According to Smith-Autard, artistic education is “the processes of

creating, performing and viewing dances and the overall appreciation gained from these

experiences” (2002:30). Within the realm of an artistic education, a “discipline-based

education in the art of dance is concerned with developing the students’ skills,

knowledge and understanding” (Smith-Autard, 2002:30). Students acquire “physical

dance skills’ in performance; “choreographic skills through creating one’s own dances

and learning from dances created by others”; and appreciation skills “through learning

how to view dances, describe, interpret and evaluate them” (Smith-Autard, 2002:30).

As advocated by Smith-Autard regarding the content and process of artistic learning, the

syllabi bear some resemblances. Similar to Smith-Autard’s description of a “discipline-


29

based education” (2002:30), the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance in the United

Kingdom indicated that the General Certificate of Secondary Education Performing

Arts: Dance Syllabus “enables candidates to develop knowledge, skills and

understanding in creating and interpreting images/ideas/concepts embodied in dance

development” (2003). The subject content of the General Certificate of Secondary

Education Performing Arts: Dance Syllabus includes performance in which candidates

should acquire “good studio practice” and “the technical nature of dance skills”;

choreography in which the “study of different choreographic styles enables candidates

to develop a breadth of vocabulary and an understanding of dance form that will enrich

their own artistic endeavours”; and appreciation in which “candidates should study the

set work and a minimum of four other professional dance works which embrace at least

two dance styles” (2003).

Whilst the “art of dance is concerned with developing the students’ skills, knowledge

and understanding” (Smith-Autard, 2002:30), the Music Elective Programme also

“enables candidates to acquire and consolidate a range of basic musical skills,

knowledge and understanding through the activities of listening and performing and

through the study of harmony and analysis” (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2002e). Similar to Smith-Autard and the United Kingdom’s processes of artistic

education, the “syllabus organisers” of the dance syllabus in Queensland also include

choreographing, performing and appreciating (The Queensland Studies Authority,

2002). The dance syllabus in North Carolina is slightly different from those in the

United Kingdom and Queensland because it not only encompasses “strands” such as

creating, performing, but also responding and understanding (North Carolina

Department of Public Instruction, 2000). “Responding” means “to observe, describe,

analyse, critique, and evaluate dance” and this is similar to Smith-Autard’s process of

appreciating whilst “understanding” means “to synthesize knowledge of dance in


30

relation to history, culture, heritage, other content areas, ideas, and life-long learning”

(North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2000).

2.5 (Multi-)culturalism and (arts) education Singapore is a multicultural society with dominant races of Chinese, Malays and Indians

and initially, it seems fitting to discuss a multicultural education in that context. Writers

Davidman and Davidman (1997:9) as well as Banks and Banks (1995:xi) write that

multicultural education will provide students equal opportunities in learning and

promote cultural pluralism. Multicultural education is “a field of study and an emerging

discipline whose major aim is to create equal educational opportunities for students

from diverse racial, ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups” (Banks and Banks,

1995:xi). It is not an easy task to instill multicultural arts education in the curriculum

(Pateman, 1991:125) but an effective programme will be able to prepare students “for

living in an evolving multicultural world” (McFee, 1998:95). Multicultural education

will enhance cultural understanding amongst people as they seek “to explore each

other’s aesthetic response to worldwide arts” (McFee, 1998:25). The Queensland

Studies Authority reinforces that it will “promote understanding of the heterogeneity of

practices, beliefs and values within and across cultural, social, geographic and economic

groups” (2002). Therefore, there is a need to “develop more awareness of the cultural

factors that influence aesthetics” in order to proliferate understanding through the arts

(McFee, 1998:25). Blacking suggests it is essential to educate “people from different

cultural backgrounds in the ways appropriate to their cultures” (1985:15). This concern

is echoed by McFee, who writes that “the values of a culture group tend to direct

people’s perceptual development” (1998:25). He also worries “what effect

contemporary multicultural exposure is having upon aesthetic development” (1998:25).

A basic concept of aesthetic experience will not help to achieve “these educational


31

challenges” because it will vastly influence “how students learn to perceive art” (McFee,

1998:26).

To effectively promote cultural understanding through multicultural arts education will

depend on “the respective community’s sense of the aesthetic and how a society of

conflicting aesthetics can work towards a common reality” (Pateman, 1991:127).

Pateman suggests that arts educators have to “understand the arts from a variety of

perspectives and to use the arts to work towards a common reality” (1991:125). McFee

reiterates that arts educators need to “be aware of [their] own cultural values as [they]

try to understand [their] students” (1998:95). After all, it is “the imagination, the

aesthetics of personal experience which can be valued within a community” (Pateman,

1991:127). Pateman elaborates that new experiences can be combined with “existing

traditions for personal experiences to become communal experience” (1991:127). In

Queensland, Australia, cultural understanding is promoted when students learn about

“the cultural constructions of attributes valued in the arts” and “the dynamic

interrelationships between arts works and the historical, social, cultural, spiritual,

political and economic contexts in which they are created” (The Queensland Studies

Authority, 2002). Illustrating how cultural understanding could be promoted,

Burckhardt recommends one to address “the spiritual background of the whole Muslim

culture” in order to understand art education for Muslims more clearly (in Mason,

1995:25). For example, Islamic artists should be allowed “to develop harmonious forms

from fundamental geometrical patterns” (in Mason, 1995:25).

Arguing along the same vein that one should learn about aesthetic in one’s own and

other cultures, Smith states that multicultural art educators should utilise the dialectical

approach to enquiry, which is “to engage with and learn from alien cultural traditions

with a view to improving their knowledge of self and of the right relations of self to

culture” (in Mason, 1995:2), as opposed to exegetal, dogmatic and agnostic approaches.

The exegetal approach means that “multiculturalists read their own ideas into foreign


32

cultural situations” and praise other cultures so as to criticise their own (Mason, 1995:1).

Dogmatic multiculturalists hold the opposite view of the exegetal multiculturalists in

that they “assume the superiority of their own culture and expect the values of other

cultures to conform to it or to be dismissed” (Mason, 1995:1). Agnostic

multiculturalists resemble a “souvenir collecting tourist” whose concerns seem almost

too “exclusive” and minute to have a penetrating insight of the “historical or cultural

contexts” of the cultural artifacts (Mason, 1995:1).

Moreover, multicultural education will help to articulate one’s identity and role in

society because it will “help us define who we are and articulate our own very special

sense of being” (Fowler, 1996: 55). Similarly, dance education is a way to know

oneself and other people and “to understand the society around one” (Arts Council

Guidance on Dance Education, 1993:2). Dance also “illuminates wide aspects of our

lifestyles” and “reflects the changing nature of our dance culture and society” (Arts

Council Guidance on Dance Education, 1993:2).

Additionally, “dance can reflect and validate social organisation” (Gardner, 1993:223).

The Queensland Studies Authority reinforces this, stating that students will “develop

knowledge, practices, and dispositions to critically analyse organisations and power

relations that can work for or against individuals, cultural or social groups” (2002). As a

consequence, students will “in turn express their ideas and feelings confidently through

the arts” (The Queensland Studies Authority, 2002). It will also “help all students to

acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic

democratic society” (Banks and Banks, 1995:xi).

Multicultural education will help students to communicate more effectively, “facilitating

human communication within and across cultures” (Fowler, 1996: 55). Similarly,

Banks and Banks argue that students will “interact, negotiate, and communicate with


33

peoples from diverse groups in order to create a civic and moral community that works

for the common good” (1995:xi). Dance is “a way of knowing, a way of

communicating” (Frosch-Schroder in McCarthy, 1996).

On the other hand, Eisner recognises the problem of using the arts “to help students

understand the lifestyles of other cultures”, which will undermine the justifying

conditions for the arts in our schools in the long run (1999). This will diminish the

primary aim of teaching what is “truly distinctive about the arts” (Eisner, 1999). He

suggests that “anthropological studies would be a more direct route” to learning about

cultures (1999). If not, the arts will be left “vulnerable to any other field or educational

practice that claims that it can achieve the same aims faster and better” (Eisner, 1999).

Moreover, multicultural education should be regarded as a separate entity because

“different systems of education cannot be combined” (Blacking, 1985:14). The reason

is “the educational distinctiveness of each cultural system is automatically eliminated as

soon as they are presented within a single education system” (Blacking, 1985:14).

It is often misunderstood that multicultural education can be used to address the needs

of students from “racial minorities” to diminish racial tensions rather than making

students recognise that cultural diversity is prevalent in our lives and should be taught

during curricular activities every day (Gay, 1992:44). Therefore, such a multicultural

approach poses problems of alienation and curricular segregation that do not rectify

problems of exclusion (Perpener III, 1999:335).

Cultural education, on the other hand, seems more appropriate to reflect and address the

cultures prevalent in individual, group, race or nationality and the entire human kind.

Culture, within the spectrum of education, refers to “unique world view” of the

individual student (Hoffman, 1999). That world view informs and is informed by

cultures in various forms: groups, races, nationalities and the common humanity that all


34

of us share. By connecting these different manifestations of culture, students will learn

to create meaning through symbols in the arts. As a result, they will understand that

cultural difference is prevalent and universal (Hoffman, 1999). Smith-Autard also

identifies art as a significant aspect of culture that “should be valued not only for its

aesthetic and artistic character but as a teacher of and about culture” (2002:36).

Therefore, art teaches one about culture and promotes cultural understanding by giving

form and connecting the cultures of individuals with the larger culture of human kind

(Hoffman, 1999).

By engaging in cultural education, students will understand the cultural and historical

context of arts better, such that:

there is a connection between the content and form that the arts display and the culture and time in which the work was created. This outcome is intended to situate the arts within culture and to advance students’ understanding that the problems that artists tackle and how they do so are influenced by the setting in which they work (Eisner, 1999).

Eisner adds that the relationship between culture and art should be emphasised at the

level where “principled generalization should be understood and that at least one or

more examples of that idea should be part of the student’s intellectual repertoire”

(1999). Smith-Autard echoes the importance of culture and art that “understanding the

history of an art form as part of the Western society” is crucial in cultural education

(1994:36). It is not possible to expect students “to have an encyclopedic knowledge of

the cultural context of every art form or individual work of art” (Eisner, 1999).

However, it is crucial for students to learn the arts in context and to understand that the

arts are culturally and historically situated. As a consequence, arts learning for students

will become more meaningful and “enrichment can be achieved” (Eisner, 1999).


35

Besides promoting cultural understanding, art also teaches one about culture. In the

school curricula, the arts are perceived to provide and support “a range of

understandings and manifestations of culture” (Hoffman, 1999). The rationale of

Queensland’s Year 1-10 Arts Syllabus is to “develop, share and pass on understandings

of ourselves, our histories, our cultures and our worlds to future generations” (The

Queensland Studies Authority, 2002). The United States Education Department

suggests that students could learn to “identify, appreciate, and participate in the

traditional art forms of their own communities” (Kennedy Center, 2002). By doing so,

they challenge students to make meaning and allow them “to experience and

comprehend the many faces of humanity and the universality of difference” (Hoffman,

1999). As the demography of students grows more diverse each year, it calls for the

increasing attention to cross-, multi-, and intercultural curricula (Hoffman, 1999). The

prevalence of different perspectives and languages calls for the need to reconsider

“pedagogical structures and content” (Hoffman, 1999). Hoffman advises that cultural

education will “necessarily be implemented differently from child to child, school to

school, community to community” (1999). To promote cultural understanding

convincingly across diverse communities is to let students recognise the presence of

differences. According to Bhabha, cultural difference is “the enunciation of

culture……adequate to the construction of systems of cultural identification” (1994:34).

Hoffman articulates that “difference in that context is not a variation, but a given - not

an otherness to be tolerated or celebrated, but the very thing we human beings [and

therefore the structures of our education] hold in common” (1999). Cultural difference

does not simply represent the tension between “oppositional contents [and] antagonistic

traditions of cultural value” (Bhabha, 1994:162). Conversely, it introduces into the

process of “cultural judgment and interpretation” that allows for “the establishment of

new forms of meaning, and strategies of identification” (Bhabha, 1994:162). The arts

promote cultural understanding by allowing students to recognise cultural differences

that will entail the acts of meaning-making and the search for identity.


36

It is possible to promote understanding of culture amongst the young through the art of

dance because dance is “part of a cultural fabric of contemporary life” (Arts Council

Guidance on Dance Education, 1993:2). In fact, dance is “an embodiment of

culture……kinetic human history” (Frosch-Schroder in McCarthy, 1996). Culture and

history can be passed on through generations via dance since it is an art form that

assimilates culture, human history and expression (Levine, 1994:10). Similarly, in

North Carolina, the rationale of The Arts Education Curriculum states:

Through dance, students come to appreciate rich and diverse cultures, beliefs, and societies. As students examine the role of dance throughout history and in different cultures, they learn to respect diversity. Dance helps people connect with one another and exists in all cultures and places, addresses the learning needs of the whole child (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2000).

This is reflected in its syllabus organiser of “understanding” that refers to “synthesizing

knowledge of dance in relation to history, culture, heritage, other content areas, ideas,

and life-long learning” (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2000). This is

similar to Queensland’s Year 1-10 Arts Syllabus, that is, to “understand, critically

evaluate and appreciate the impact of the cultural, social, spiritual, historical, political

and economic contexts of arts works in the construction of meaning” (The Queensland

Studies Authority, 2002). Unlike the dance syllabi in Queensland and North Carolina,

the General Certificate of Secondary Education 2003 Performing Arts: Dance Syllabus

in the United Kingdom is less explicit in its rationale and outcomes that promote

cultural understanding. Its rationale, “the study of dance works, including those of the

professional repertoire, within artistic and social contexts”, is regarded as a fundamental

aspect in the development process that allows “candidates [to] develop knowledge,

skills and understanding in creating and interpreting images/ideas/concepts embodied in

dance development” (Assessment and Qualifications Alliance, 2003). This is reflected

in its syllabus organiser that includes the analysis and interpretation of dance in its

“historical and social context” (Assessment and Qualifications Alliance, 2003).


37

However, cultural education in dance should not be restricted to learning multi-ethnic

dances; it also includes youth culture (Arts Council Guidance on Dance Education,

1993:2). Ethnic dance is “any dance form that can be identified as originating with an

ethnic culture and expressing the movement aesthetics of that culture” (Duree, 2003).

The Encyclopædia Britannica defines ethnic dance as embodying “characteristics of a

particular cultural group” (2003).

The Music Elective Programme offers opportunities for students to acquire knowledge

in non-Western music, albeit not specifically the study of multicultural music in

Singapore. This is reflected in its scheme of music examination for General Certificate

of Education “Ordinary” level that includes a section of unprepared listening of “Music

around the World” that is a written examination paper (The Singapore Ministry of

Education, 2002e). Students could also perform a non-Western instrument for 10

minutes that carries 30% of the total marks (The Singapore Ministry of Education,

2002e).

Critical pedagogy is an effective way to encourage students to voice their opinions and

to promote cultural understanding amongst students. It encompasses critical evaluation

or criticism in which students discussing art “can participate in the artist’s creativity and

can share their ideas with other people” (Dan Nadaner in Mason, 1995:32). In order for

students to become reflective learners and be able to make decisions concerning

personal, social, political and economic issues effectively, it seems necessary to amend

the ways in which they “acquire, view and evaluate knowledge” (Banks, 1992:155). By

engaging them in processes to “critically analyse” and to “construct knowledge

themselves”, they will begin to comprehend how “various groups within a society often

formulate, shape and disseminate knowledge that supports their interests and legitimises

their power” (Banks, 1992:155). As a consequence, students will understand the

perspectives of people from both dominant groups and minority groups who are being


38

“victimised or marginalized” (Banks, 1992:156). Dan Nadaner suggests to teachers

that such a discussion does not mean “negative discussion” about art but is a method of

collecting all information about a work in order to describe and explain its content and

meaning and to become “aware of some personal reactions” (Mason, 1995:32).

To promote understanding of and respect for minority groups via dance history, new

modes of thought suggest the discarding of “linear concepts of time”, that means dance

advances as time progresses; doubting “hierarchical structures and classifications”,

referring to some dance forms being more superior than others; and that the contexts are

examined more holistically without “prioritizing certain ones” and leaving out the

marginalised dance forms (Perpener III, 1999:347-348). Cultural records should be

reassessed thoroughly in light of “new sensibilities”; searching for stories that have gone

unrecorded; and “building a body of knowledge that reflects a new sense of

inclusiveness” (Perpener III, 1999:347-349). The problems of loss of identity and

inferiority for being excluded will then be gradually eradicated.

Another way to promote cultural empathy among students is to discuss art in its cultural

contexts. Teachers can take advantage of this and extend beyond the method of critical

discussion of describing, analysing, interpreting and evaluating and try to question

students in various ways. One example is to ask students to describe “what life was like

for Sanjay and Sunita” (Mason, 1995:33) to promote understanding of the art in that

context.

The arguments presented for and against multicultural education do not make it less

crucial in our understanding of a dance curriculum framework; it highlights the need to

address cultural differences, meaning-making and identity-searching more clearly. This

is where cultural education becomes more relevant to address the issues.


39

2.6.1 Other rationales for arts education Whilst the above section discusses the cultural importance of the arts, other rationales

can be categorised into arts-based outcomes, arts-related outcomes and ancillary

outcomes (Eisner, 1999). The Queensland Studies Authority identifies them as core,

discretionary and foundation learning outcomes (2002).

Arts-based outcomes are related directly to the subject matter that an arts education

curriculum is designed to teach (Eisner, 1999). If the goal of the curriculum is, for

example:

to enable students to hear and be able to talk discerningly about the form and content of a piece of music or of architecture, or a cubist painting, or a play by Tennessee Williams, an arts-based assessment would disclose the extent to which those outcomes or outcomes like them were achieved. Such outcomes reside in perceptions and discourse unique to the arts (Eisner, 1999).

Similar to Eisner’s arts-based outcomes, the Queensland Studies Authority identifies

core learning outcomes as “skills, concepts, elements, techniques and processes that

students need to know in order to demonstrate the core learning outcomes at each level”

(2002). Students’ aesthetic awareness allows them to “express themselves and

communicate through the various arts disciplines” (The Queensland Studies Authority,

2002). As a result, they will learn to understand “the influences of context on arts works

and practices” (The Queensland Studies Authority, 2002).

However, arts-related outcomes have broader implications. Arts-related outcomes

“pertain to the perception and comprehension of aesthetic features in the general

environment” and examples include “arts courses that enable students to notice and

respond to the aesthetic configurations of phenomena such as cloud formations, the

dynamic flow of a city street, the cacophonies of a city during rush hour” (Eisner, 1999).


40

Ancillary outcomes of an arts education are “those outcomes like the effects of arts

education on student performance in reading, math, or other academic subjects” (Eisner,

1999). They “transfer skills employed in the perception, creation, and comprehension of

the arts to non-arts tasks” (Eisner, 1999). In a somewhat different vein, Redfern argues

that the arts are often regarded in education as “the prime means of healing the alleged

division between intellect and emotion” since the arts are assumed to “involve the

expression of the artist’s feelings” (1986:69). This assumption is intensified by the

“linguistic tradition of Western education and the development of a scientifically and

technologically oriented society” that the arts “act as ‘balancers’, providing

compensation for academic studies” (Redfern, 1986:68-69). This is evident in the

rationale of Champions of Change in the United States, “as students imagine, create, and

reflect, they are developing both the verbal and non-verbal abilities necessary for school

progress” (Kennedy Center, 2002). To justify arts education in our schools on the basis

of advancing academic achievement in other subjects is an ancillary rationale for arts

education (Eisner, 1999). Fowler indicates that the focus in the rationales supporting

arts education today is on its practicality – “how the arts can serve the educational and

human priorities of the moment” (1996:37). He feels that the relevance and role of the

arts in education seem to relate to the “prevailing concerns in the United States –

dropout rates, school reform, cultural diversity, violence” (Fowler, 1996:36). Indeed,

the United States recognises that there is a “consistent and positive correlation between

a substantive education in the arts and student achievement in other subjects and on

standardized tests” and this justifies the relevance of arts in education (Kennedy Center,

2002). Paradoxically, Greene argues that there have been attempts to include the arts in

the official statements of Goals 2000, but the arguments for education are “geared

toward economic competitiveness and technological mastery” (1997:57). This is

evident in the Singapore government policies in which they encourage students to

develop “a spirit of experimentation and innovation” via arts education in order to

“excel in knowledge-based economy” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2001).


41

Arts education is also used, according to Greene, “for the development of higher-level

skills, academic achievement, standards and preparation for the workplace” (1997:57).

Arts education programmes also engage students in a process that helps them “develop

the self-esteem, self-discipline, cooperation, and self-motivation necessary for success

in life” (Kennedy Center, 2002).

Arts education should be valued because of its “practical contributions to human

development” (Fowler, 1996:36). According to Greene, the arts are essential in

education because they provide “‘inexhaustible insights’ that help us comprehend the

mysteries in life” (Fowler, 1996: 40). Adding to the point of developing students’

ability to comprehend via arts education, Greene elaborates that “educating the artistic

intelligences nurtures more awareness” (Fowler, 1996: 40). With enhanced awareness,

students will learn to express their “feelings and intuitions that are repressed in every

other quarter of life” (in Fowler, 1996:40). This is then possible for “human evolution

and for the development of the individual human being” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1992:170).

Students who are involved with many forms of art are able to “see more in their

experience, to hear more on normally unheard frequencies, to become conscious of what

daily routines, habits, and conventions have obscured” (Greene, 1997:57).

Arts education also offers students multiple pathways to learning and thinking,

especially in the current world swamped with “a bewildering array of messages and

meanings” (Greene, 1997:57). Greene explains, “in art as in life, there is often no clear

or ‘right’ answer to questions that are nonetheless worth pursuing” (1997:57). Thus, an

arts education helps young people to “explore, understand, accept, and use ambiguity

and subjectivity” (Greene, 1997:57) and gives students the perception and understanding

that could not be acquired in any other way (Fowler, 1996: 55). Arts education helps to

“enlighten our understanding, making it deeper and more comprehensive” (Fowler,

1996: 55). Students will acquire an ability to “think inductively, deductively and

intuitively by engaging in and reflecting on arts experiences” (The Queensland Studies


42

Authority, 2002). In addition, they will develop the ability to “clarify, interpret and

make explicit their ideas and feelings through and about the arts” (The Queensland

Studies Authority, 2002).

As a result, students learn to improve their “conceptual understandings, solve problems,

make judgments, discuss respectfully, and justify opinions” (The Queensland Studies

Authority, 2002). To reinforce the point of developing problem-solving abilities, the

intellectual demands that the arts place on students help them to develop “powerful

thinking skills as analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating” (Kennedy Center, 2002).

Similarly, they will “understand and value the processes and products of lateral thinking

and apply related strategies to their own problem-solving” (The Queensland Studies

Authority, 2002). Arts education is able to teach the students different ways of thinking

rather than “convergent thinking” (Fowler, 1996: 55). Similarly, the Singapore Ministry

of Education believes that “the arts offer multiple ways by which our students can

perceive and understand the world” (2001).

A way of maintaining interest in learning is through the enjoyment that arts experiences

can provide, because it will “bring excitement and exhilaration to the learning process”

(Kennedy Center, 2002). Students will become “increasingly interested in learning, add

new dimensions to what they already know, and enhance their expectations for learning

even more”. The enjoyment and eagerness in learning about the arts will engage the

students’ interest in learning more about the arts.

Given the convincing arguments posited by specialists in the arts education field, it

appears that an arts education should be made available to all and not be exclusive to the

talented and gifted (Kridel, 1990:86; Werner, 1990:131). Kridel reinforces this by

stating that “artistic intelligences are within the realm of all students’ capabilities”

(1990:86). In fact, the basis of Howard Gardner’s concept of multiple intelligences


43

applies to the education of all students and “should not be viewed as talents or learning

styles for only a select few” (Kridel, 1990:86). The Queensland Studies Authority also

states that in Queensland, “all students deserve access to the rich education and

understanding that the arts provide, regardless of their background, talents, or

disabilities” (2002). Werner writes, “to establish literacy, education in the arts must be

for everyone” (1990:131). The Singapore government also perceives that arts education

should be made available to everyone. Dr. Ng Eng Hen, who spoke at the National Arts

Education Conference, viewed that the arts education should be regarded as “part of the

broad-based holistic education we give to every Singaporean child” (Ministry of

Information and the Arts, 2002).

Wilkinson suggests that the arts be elevated to “become core subjects rather than as at

present, a light relief from the study of the exhausting ‘respectable disciplines’” as this

will alter the arts into “means for intellectual and emotional maturation” (1986:23).

Reimer recommends that students who go on to become professional artists or

professionals in other aspects of the arts “need a broader general education in the arts as

the foundation for their special study and special vocation” (1991:48). However, Art

Elective Programme and Music Elective Programme offered in Singapore secondary

schools are only available to the “academically able pupils” with a talent for art and

music respectively, albeit not with the goal to groom them into professional artists (The

Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002b; 2002e). Music Elective Programme does not

prepare one for a professional career and the Enhanced Arts Education Programme only

aims to “further develop and harness the full range of our students’ talents and

contribute to their overall development” (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2001).


44

2.6.2 Other rationales for dance education

Whilst it seems that the necessity for arts education in its broadest sense is accepted, this

is not so clear when it comes to dance. The power of dance as a medium to

communicate is made explicit by modern dance pioneer Martha Graham, who said that

“throughout time, dance has not changed in one essential function. The function of

dance is communication” (in Brown et.al., 1998:50). In fact, another modern dance

pioneer, Isadora Duncan, reinforced that dance is a non-verbal form of communication,

stating “if I could tell you what it is, I would not have danced it” (in Gardner,

1993:224). Dance, in its mode of “movement and gesture”, allows students to “express

inner feelings and outside experiences which cannot be expressed in words” (Arts

Council Guidance on Dance Education, 1993:2). Therefore, dance contains “methods of

communication that differ from any other written, spoken or visual system” (Levine,

1994:10). Using “a vocabulary [steps and gestures], grammar [justifying how one

movement follows another], and meaning”, dance “engages both dancer and viewer”

(Hanna, 2003). Students will benefit especially through “the creative process of dance,

which teaches them to “write” and “read” the non-verbal” (Hanna, 2003).

The relevance of dance in education is evident in light of Howard Gardner’s theory of

multiple intelligences because “of all the uses of the body, none has reached greater

heights, or has been more variably deployed by cultures than the dance” (Gardner,

1993:222). Dance as a form of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence allows one to “use one’s

body in highly differentiated ways, for expressive as well as goal-directed purposes”

(Gardner, 1993:206) and dancers are individuals who “develop keen mastery over the

motions of their bodies” (1993:207). Gardner highlights the need to utilise “different

forms of thinking and abilities to solve problems” because effective learning for

children is to use “several kinds of intelligence” (Hanna, 2003). In addition to bodily-

kinesthetic intelligence, one needs to exploit other intelligences such as abilities in


45

personal, musical or linguistic intelligence as they are “part and parcel of successful

performance” (Gardner, 1993:207). Judith Hanna provides more explicit examples such

as linguistic intelligence in which students will “[listen] to teacher or choreographer

instruction and [tell] stories through dance, [read] about dance or ideas for making a

dance, and [comment] orally and in writing about dance work”; musical intelligence,

that allows students to listen and interpret music; logical-mathematical intelligence,

“employed in working with rhythmic units, adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing

dance components”; and spatial intelligence, “required in creating kinetic images in

various directions, levels, body spaces, and performance space for audience members in

linked space” (2003). Additionally, through dance, students “develop intrapersonal

intelligence through self-discipline, self-reflection, and expression of their feelings”;

interpersonal intelligence by collaborating with performers and musicians to create a

dance; and naturalist intelligence “through recognizing distinct objects represented by

movement” (2003).

Dance involves the use of mind and body because dancers “can sense the feel and

command of the human body” whilst “the mind tells them how to move and make sense

of feeling” (Hanna, 2003). Thus, dance is useful as “an academic stimulus through its

multisensory engagement” (Hanna, 2003). Hanna explains the use of both body and

mind that is enhanced by:

the sight of dancers moving in time and space; the sound of physical movement; the sensation of dancers touching the ground, other people, or props; the sense of distance between the dancers and the audience; and the kinesthetic experience itself (2003).

Dance is an effective learning tool “to introduce, enhance, reinforce, and assess

knowledge” because the amalgamation of books and dance results in “knowledge

doubly inscribed” (Hanna, 2003). Hanna reasons it is a more effective way of learning

if one were to do it manually because “the know-how we get for ourselves because we


46

want and need it tends to stick; by contrast, information poured into us, like water into a

bottle, tends to evaporate” (2003). This may enhance the students’ “intellectual growth

in many academic subjects and can help schools meet other education goals” (Hanna,

2001).

In the Singapore education context, Caren Carino affirms that dance education is “more

than learning how to dance” (2001:89). Effective dance education can provide the

“tools that enrich and enliven all learning” (Carino, 2001:89). Therefore, through dance

education, young people will be provided with “the tools for understanding and

contributing to creating a vibrant arts society – Renaissance City” (Carino, 2001:89).

Consequently, Singapore may be one step closer to realising the Renaissance City vision

and achieving what the Creative Economy blueprint sets out to accomplish.

2.7 Conclusion This literature review has sought to explore the meanings of creativity, aesthetics, and

artistic and cultural education both within the context of Singapore education and in

relation to arts and dance education more generally. It has also provided descriptions of

what writers perceive as rationales for arts and dance education. The theories and ideas

outlined here will help to support the analysis of data in Chapter Four.


47

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Chapter 3: Methodology

47

3 Overview

This thesis examines the development of a framework for a dance curriculum suitable

for secondary school students in Singapore that relates to the social, cultural and

political contexts for arts education in Singapore’s society today. The main research

question is “What kind of Dance Elective Programme will address the needs of the

diverse communities in Singapore?” To unravel this question, the study took a

predominantly phenomenological approach, using ethnographic research methods,

through a constructivist inquiry. Research data collected included questionnaires and

interviews with Singaporean artists, educators, dance students and a parent. The

findings identified the multiple perspectives of the Singaporean communities with

regard to the rationale, content and approaches a Dance Elective Programme might take.

This chapter will explain:

1. The reasons why a constructivist inquiry was deemed as the most appropriate

interpretive paradigm to explore the research questions.

2. Why ethnography with a phenomenological approach was selected as the most

suitable methodology to answer the research questions.

3. Methods used to analyse the collected data and to check its trustworthiness.

4. The advantages of the research methods employed.

5. The selection procedures for the participants.

6. The issues pertaining to my role as the researcher and my relationship with the

research participants including my dance background and experience.

7. Ethical concerns, time arrangements and limitations of this thesis.


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3.1 The appropriateness of the research approach and interpretive paradigm

A qualitative approach was selected for this study because it provides “rich insight into

human behaviour” (Guba and Lincoln, 2000a:106) and a “detailed view of the topic”

(Creswell, 1998: 17). This enabled me to illustrate as fully as possible the diverse needs

and perspectives of the communities of Singapore with regard to the research question.

In addition, this approach was appropriate to “make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in

terms of the meanings people bring to them” (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998:3). A

qualitative research methodology was also appropriate because of its potential to

“provide contextual information” (Guba and Lincoln, 2000a:106) and “to study

individuals in their natural setting” (Creswell, 1998: 17). This involves going out to the

“field of study, gaining access, and gathering material” (Creswell, 1998: 17). This aided

in investigating the social, cultural and political meanings associated with dance

education in Singapore, as related by the research participants. Qualitative research

elicits “a richness of experience” as compared with “simply measuring effect sizes” as

in quantitative studies and this helped to focus on the depth of meaning revealed by the

study (Gee, 2001:32).

The mode of inquiry or a paradigm is “the basic belief system or worldwide view that

guides the investigator, not only in choices of method but in ontologically and

epistemologically fundamental ways” (Guba and Lincoln, 2000:105). This research was

filtered through a constructivist inquiry that seeks to make sense of or to interpret the

experience that the participants have about the world in order to develop a pattern of

meaning (Creswell, 2003:9; Denzin and Lincoln, 1994:129). The aim of a constructivist

inquiry is to rely as much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation being

studied and to “understand and reconstruct” the knowledge gathered (Guba and Lincoln,

2000a:166). Constructivist inquiry in this study led me to “look for the complexity of

views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas” when the


49

participants developed subjective meanings of their experiences that were diverse and

multiple (Creswell, 2003:9). Using this paradigm, I explain the process of how the

participants construct the meaning of a situation by focusing on the context of the

participants in order to elucidate what and how meanings are embodied in their

language, actions and cultural settings (Creswell, 2003:8; Denzin and Lincoln,

1994:118). In other words, I became the “facilitator of multivoice reconstruction”

(Guba and Lincoln, 2000a:166). The questions posed were broad, general and open-

ended questions so that the participants could express their views and they could

construct the meaning of a situation (Creswell, 2003:8). I acknowledge that my own

personal and cultural experiences shape my interpretation, and so in this study I

“position” myself in the research to acknowledge how my interpretation also flows from

my own background (Creswell, 2003:8).

3.2 The appropriateness of the methodology

This study uses two methodological approaches commonly used in qualitative research:

ethnography and phenomenology. This combined methodological approach assists in

understanding the various stages of the study - data collection, analysis and

trustworthiness.

There are common aspects to ethnography and phenomenology. Both use the researcher

as the data collection instrument (Marshall and Rossman, 1999:79; Patton, 1990:472)

and both emphasize the need to describe things or phenomena instead of explaining

them (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982:35; Ehrich, 1999:4; Janesick 1991: 101). In addition

both use interviews, a combination of open-ended and structured questioning methods

and look for meaning in the resultant narratives (Creswell, 1998:19; 54; 58).

Ethnography describes and explains “a given culture” (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982:35;

Janesick 1991: 101) which is the “acquired knowledge that people use to interpret


50

experience” (Spradley in Janesick 1991: 101). Phenomenology means “the appearance

of things or phenomena” (Stewart & Mickunas, 1974:3; Spinelli in Ehrich, 1999:4) and

focuses on the need to study human consciousness by comprehending “how the

everyday, intersubjective world” (Schwandt, 2000: 192) represented by the participants

is constituted. Ethnography describes, explains and interprets individual views or the

shared views of the needs, expectations and interests of the participants within the

context or setting of the culture-sharing group (Creswell, 2002: 488). A culture-sharing

group is “two or more individuals that have shared behaviours, beliefs, and language”

(Creswell, 2002: 489). The context for ethnography refers to “the setting, situation, or

environment that surrounds the culture-sharing group being studied” and in this study,

the context refers to the participants’ involvement and experience in dance, their racial

and cultural backgrounds, and the students’ interest in dance (Creswell, 2002: 494).

Conversely, phenomenology tries to uncover concealed meaning in the phenomenon,

embedded in the words of the narrative (Stewart and Mickunas, 1974:120; Field and

Morse in Creswell, 1998:54). The ethnographic procedure focuses on “detailed and

thick” descriptions as rendered by the participants to depict what is going on in the

culture-sharing group (Creswell, 2002: 491). To enhance the ethnographic procedure,

intentionality that refers to the consciousness of phenomena, is used to explore the “total

meaning” of the phenomena that is “always more than what is given in the perception of

a single perspective” (Chamberlin in Ehrich, 1999:5). The ethnographic and

phenomenological data allows me to highlight the interpretation of the phenomenon

under review, whilst at the same time considering that phenomenon in terms of the

participants, their cultural background and experiences.

3.3 Collection and analysis of data

Data analysis is “the process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to the mass

of collected data” (Marshall and Rossman, 1999:150). Typical analytical procedures


51

include organising the data, generating categories, themes, and patterns, searching for

alternative explanations and writing the report (Marshall and Rossman, 1999:152).

As the study proceeded all interviews were transcribed and coded. After each interview

was transcribed, it was then coded and entered into QSR Nudist 6, a software program

for storing, merging, and analyzing qualitative data. The database numbered the lines of

the interviews and provided a framework for the development of a coding tree and

branches of coding categories. The length of the 22 interviews and questionnaires

entered into QSR N Nudist 6 ranged from 173 to 467 lines. Four major codes - role,

rationale, content and approaches to Dance Elective Programme - emerged during the

initial coding process and subcategories such as the present dance education, dance as

co-curricular activity and dance at tertiary level evolved. The transcribed interviews

were then scrutinised and reviewed “to create an in-depth understanding of the exact

words and behaviors of the participants in a study” (Jones, 2002). At this analysis stage,

I moved away from describing the findings to begin to interpret the phenomena

(Creswell, 2002:492).

The ethnographic perspective allows for the phenomenon to be considered by drawing

connections between the culture-sharing group and larger theoretical frameworks as

informed by the literature and documents (Creswell, 1998:152-3). I emphasised how

participants “provide useful insights” into their culture-sharing group (Creswell,

1998:60). There is a development of “themes or issues” using an ethnographic approach

(Creswell, 2003:191). In the study the data is reduced to search for patterned

regularities in accordance with ethnographic data analysis techniques (Creswell,

1998:148). The ethnographer interprets the data by drawing “inferences and form

conclusions of what was learned” after describing and analysing it (Creswell, 2002:

493). The ethnographic element helped to shed light on the participants’ feelings and

opinions and provided more information about their dance experiences. Ethnography


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provides a textural description of the experience of “what happened” (Creswell,

1998:150).

The analysis of data is reinforced by using phenomenology that enables me to provide a

detailed description of the phenomena from my own and each participant’s experience

(Creswell, 1998:147;150; Ehrich, 1999:4; LeCompte, 1992:850). My own

presumptions or personal experiences about the phenomena are bracketed in order not to

contaminate the description of others and in order to understand the phenomena better

(Creswell, 1998:54; Ehrich, 1999:4; Stewart and Mickunas, 1974:26). This bracketing

or the temporary suspension of “taken for granted assumptions and presuppositions

about phenomena” is known as reduction in phenomenology (Ehrich, 1999:4; Gubrium

and Holstein, 2000: 489). This makes it possible to emphasise ways the participants

“subjectively constitute the objects and events they take to be real” (Gubrium and

Holstein, 2000: 489). This occurs whilst looking for statements in the interviews about

how the participants are “experiencing the topic”, listing what appears to be the

significant statements of meaning for individuals (Creswell, 1998:147; Moustakas in

Creswell, 2003:191). Combined with the phenomenological approach to treating each

statement as “having equal worth” (Creswell, 1998:147), known as horizonalisation of

the data, will enhance the results of the data analysis. Data reduction is part of the

analysis process that “sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards, and organises the data” in such

a way that “final conclusions can be drawn and verified” (Miles and Huberman,

1994:10-11). It is easy to detect the patterns as they occur but it is important to “see the

added evidence of the same pattern” and “remain open to disconfirming evidence when

it appears” (Miles and Huberman, 1994:246). The addition of a phenomenological

element dealt more intensely with the question “what does Dance Elective Programme

mean to you?” A structural description of “how” the phenomenon was experienced

results in the construction of “an overall description of the meaning and the essence of

the experience” (Creswell, 1998:150). Both methodologies look for shared themes


53

within the narratives and both reduce data to develop an overall description of the

“essence” of the experience (Creswell, 1998:148).

3.3.1 To ensure trustworthiness of findings

In this study, the criteria proposed for establishing trustworthiness of the constructivist

inquiry included credibility and confirmability (Guba and Lincoln, 2000:21).

Credibility is enhanced through prolonged field engagement, negative case analysis and

member checks (Denzin, 1994: 513). Prolonged engagement allows me to establish

good rapport and trust with participants to overcome the effects of misinformation or

presented fronts. After I have conducted the field research, I keep in contact with most

of the research participants and often provide them a brief update of the status of the

study and initial findings. Negative case analysis involves revising the constructed

meaning when I “become aware that new information conflicts with the held

construction” (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994:129). “Member checks” is the process of

communicating with all the participants which provides them with the opportunity to

“nominate questions of interest” (Guba and Lincoln, 2000a:175) for the study and to

confirm individual data by sending them transcripts (Creswell, 2002:280). I send

analysed findings to selected participants “for findings to be shared more widely” (Guba

and Lincoln, 2000a:175). They are asked to read a draft of the research findings and

answer two questions, “Does this summary capture your experiences or perspectives? If

not, how should this be interpreted?” and “Is there anything that is significant with

regard to the Dance Elective Programme that you will like to add?” The participants are

encouraged to provide answers in writing and send them to me via electronic mail. In

the cases where translation from Mandarin to English was essential, a linguistic expert

was sought to verify the translated data. Confirmability seeks to ensure that my

influence is minimized in the analysed findings and is enhanced when the findings and


54

research processes are revealed in the appendixes thus providing an audit trail and this

allows readers to trace the source for clarifications (Denzin, 1994: 513).

Triangulation is a process of collecting and analysing information using a multiplicity of

data sources and means (Atkinson et al., 2001:19-20; Creswell, 2002:280; LeCompte,

1993:48). This ensures that the multiple viewpoints by which different individuals

perceive things are taken into account to prevent personal mono-dimensional

perspectives (Stake in Denzin and Lincoln, 2000:241). Evidence from different

individuals [dance educators, dance students] and types of data [interviews,

questionnaires and documents] were corroborated in “descriptions and themes” to assess

the authenticity of individual accounts (Creswell, 2002:280). Participants’

interpretations of the circumstances became difficult to access as “context, audience and

narratives change” (Murphy and Dingwall, 2001:346). Participants could not help but

omit data or give biased comments. By comparing and contrasting one source of data

with another, I was able to produce a more comprehensive and balanced study in

response to the research questions as compared to relying on too few sources in this

study and merely allowing “the people speak” (Murphy and Dingwall, 2001:346).

Conversely information garnered from multiple interviewees, questionnaires and texts

can be triangulated and analysed, to deal with this inherent problem.

Therefore, trustworthiness and authenticity were established through a myriad of

methods that included credibility, confirmability and triangulation through the analysis

of data using multiple data sources.


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3.4 Methods of data collection

3.4.1 Interviews

Since ethnographic research is about “interpretation of local and situated cultures”,

interviews were one of the important sources of information (Atkinson, Coffey,

Delamont, and Lofland, 2001: 5). Interviews with one assistant ballet

master/dancer/educator, three dance educators, one dance choreographer, two tertiary-

trained dance students and a student’s parent were pertinent to explore multiple

perspectives from the diverse individuals within Singapore. The interviews contained

open-ended questions about:

a. The role of dance education in Singapore now.

b. The relevance of a Dance Elective Programme in Singapore secondary schools.

c. The appropriate content for a Dance Elective Programme.

d. The approaches to implementing a Dance Elective Programme.

The interviews were conducted in locations determined by the interview subjects and

lasted from 60 to 120 minutes. Of the eight interviews conducted, two occurred in the

family home, four in a restaurant, and two at the interviewee’s office. All interviews

were audio taped for later transcription and analysis.

3.4.2 Focus group interviews and questionnaires

Students from Nanyang Girls’ High School and Northland Secondary School who

attend or have attended compulsory dance lessons in their schools participated in the

focus group interviews. I interviewed the two groups of students at their schools’ dance

and music room respectively, on separate occasions. To provide different lenses on the


56

phenomena, the focus group included students from different cultural, ethnic, social

backgrounds, gender, age group and dance experiences [described in “Brief description

of interview subjects”]. The students also answered questionnaires.

3.4.3 Focus group interview and journals

Three Creative Arts Programme’s Dance Workshop students recorded their experiences

of CAP in journals and attended the focus group interview. The Creative Arts

Programme, an annual event that lasted for four to five days, was organised by the

Singapore Ministry of Education Gifted Programme Unit. Only the top students from

selected schools who showed a flair for writing were selected to participate in the

Creative Arts Programme. Their poems and journal writings provided varying

perspectives of dance education. Therefore, journals were a very useful source of data

in this study as they provided information to “complement or corroborate” the focus

group interview as a form of data triangulation (Wagner, 1999).

3.4.4 Journals, creative works, and course and facilitator evaluation form

The 160 students from Mayflower Secondary School who attended the Artist-in-

School’s dance programme in July-October 2002 recorded their experiences of the

programme in journals during each lesson. Artist-in-School is a project sponsored by

the National Arts Council in Singapore. Only four out of eight classes were selected to

participate in the 13 weeks’ pilot project due to timing of lessons and budget. The four

classes were Secondary One Diligent, Endeavour, Faithful and Integrity. Besides

journal entries, the students wrote poems, and dance reviews that provided varying

perspectives of dance education. They also completed course and facilitator evaluation

forms at the end of the programme in October 2002 to give feedback of their

experiences during the course of study.


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3.5 Brief description of interview subjects and their relevance to research

3.5.1 Dance educators

The Head of Dance Department at LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts and contemporary

dance practitioner, Ms Caren Carino is an American who has many years of experience

in dance education and holds a Master in Fine Arts from the University of Hawaii. I

selected her as an interview subject because she had written a proposal for a possible

Dance Elective Programme titled “Creating a dance elective program: a proposal for

Singapore” and it was interesting to glean her perspectives on a framework for a Dance

Elective Programme (Carino, 2001). Similarly, Ms Teresa Pee who was the former

(Acting) Head of Dance Department at Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts was selected

because of her experience in developing and implementing a performing arts curriculum

at a Singapore primary school and her varied experience as a dance educator in theory

and practical subjects. A Singaporean Chinese, she is a strong advocator of the teaching

of ethnic dances in schools and has written a Master in Arts (Research) thesis

concerning the history of Chinese, Malay and Indian dances in Singapore. Mr Bai

Yingwen, a Chinese Dance lecturer at Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts was chosen

because of his experience as a Chinese dance educator. A native from China, Mr Bai

received his early dance training at the prestigious Beijing Dance Academy. He is now

a Singaporean citizen and it was interesting to discover his perspectives concerning the

curricular needs of a Dance Elective Programme suitable for Singapore’s contexts.

These three interview subjects provided peer review if my research questions or focus

seemed inappropriate. They had been my colleagues at LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts

and Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts and coupled with their rich experiences as dance

educators, I felt that they could provide honest and yet critical comments to the

questions probed.


58

Miss Chen Lili, a native from China was selected because she is the only full-time dance

teacher employed by a secondary school in Singapore to teach dance during curriculum

hours as such was an ideal interview subject.

Mr Danny Tan, a Singaporean Chinese, who was the Artistic Director of Odyssey Dance

Theatre was selected as his company was the “pilot arts group to participate in the

Artist-in-School Scheme” (National Arts Council, 2001:30) funded by the National Arts

Council. From 2001, his professional dance company members had been conducting

compulsory dance lessons to all Secondary One students.

Mr Jamaluddin Jalil, a Singaporean Malay was selected because of his expertise in both

professional dancing and education; he lectures part-time at LaSalle-SIA College of the

Arts and is the assistant ballet master and dancer at Singapore Dance Theatre. As a

Malay dance educator he was able to lend a different perspective on dance education in

Singapore.

3.5.2 Teachers

Neville Ellis, a native from the United Kingdom is the Head of Aesthetic Department at

Nanyang Girls’ High School and I was eager to elicit his comments on a possible

aesthetic framework for a Dance Elective Programme.

The teacher in-charge of Chinese Dance Club at Northland Secondary School, Liang

Yu, a Chinese citizen, was selected as she has had a close working relationship with Mr

Danny Tan on the implementation of the compulsory dance lessons. She will have a

clear understanding on the contextualisation of a Dance Elective Programme in

secondary schools.


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3.5.3 Dance choreographer

Miss Low Mei Yoke is the artistic director and resident choreographer of Frontier

Danceland Company and she is known for marrying both Western and Asian dance

forms in her choreography. She was chosen for this study because she has intentions of

turning her project-based amateur company into a professional one and her interest in

the kind of dancers she is seeking might lend some interesting perspectives on my study.

She is Singaporean Chinese.

3.5.4 Tertiary dance students

I selected two students, Vivienne Tan and Arthur Wong. With varied dance training and

dance ambitions, they provided invaluable insight regarding a Dance Elective

Programme from a male and female’s perspectives. Vivienne Tan, a Singaporean

Chinese has had many years of ballet training and wishes to become a professional

dancer upon graduating from Laban Centre in London whilst Arthur Wong, a Malaysian

Chinese only began serious dance training when he first enrolled at LaSalle-SIA College

of the Arts and hopes to become a dance educator.

3.5.5 Creative Arts Programme students

Adeline Chin, Andre Yeo and Corrie Tan were students in my dance workshops at

Creative Arts Programme in 2001 and 2002. They were selected to participate in the

focus group interview because Adeline Chin and Andre Yeo are Special course1and

1 The four-year Special course provides able pupils with the opportunity to study English Language and the Mother Tongue at a higher level, that is, Higher Malay, Higher Chinese or Higher Tamil. At the end of Secondary Four, they take the GCE “O” level examination (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2000b).


60

Gifted Programme2 student respectively at independent schools and Corrie Tan studies

the General Music Programme in an autonomous school. They study in schools that

offer Music Elective Programme and General Music Programme and they will have a

clearer understanding on the contextualisation of a Dance Elective Programme in

secondary schools. Furthermore I selected them because they revealed maturity and

effective communication skills in the poems and journal entries they wrote.

I read and examined the participants’ journals written during the Creative Arts

Programme workshop and selected the journal written by Yu Zhihua that reflected the

benefits of a Dance Elective Programme. None of the students wrote against the Dance

Elective Programme. Yu Zhihua was also selected for the focus group interview but he

could not attend it as he was away in New York. Otherwise he could lend another male

student’s perspectives on the phenomenon. I also selected a negative case – Shuling

who wrote in the journals that she did not like dance. I was unable to follow her views

any further as she did not respond to my calls or electronic mails.

3.5.6 Nanyang Girls’ High School students

Four students from Secondary One, Two and Three participated in the focus group

interview and answered questionnaires in order for me to glean their perspectives on

their present dance experience and the Dance Elective Programme that they desire.

Nanyang Girls’ High School is the only school in Singapore that offers compulsory

Chinese dance and mass dance lessons to students from Secondary One to Four, thus is

deemed as a suitable selection for study. More significantly, this is an independent

school that offers Music Elective Programme and Art Elective Programme and the

2 The vision of Gifted Programme is to ‘provide professional expertise and exemplary resources to develop intellectual rigour, humane values and creativity in gifted youths to prepare them for responsible leadership and service to country and society’ (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002a).


61

interviewees will have a clearer understanding on the contextualisation of Dance

Elective Programme in secondary schools.

3.5.7 Northland Secondary School students

Although Northland Secondary School is not an ‘elite’ school and therefore does not

offer Art Elective Programme and Music Elective Programme, this is the only school,

besides Mayflower Secondary School, that offers dance to both male and female

students who come from different ethnic backgrounds. The participants of Northland

Secondary School were appropriate sampling cases because of their ethnic, cultural and

social backgrounds, gender and dance experience that juxtaposed the other focus group

from Nanyang Girls’ High School that consists mainly Chinese students. The interview

subjects from Northland Secondary School included two Singaporean Malay-Muslim

female students who learn Malay dance as a co-curricular activity and two Indian male

students who have had no dance training other than the compulsory dance lessons.

3.5.8 Mayflower Secondary School students

I selected six Secondary One students from Mayflower Secondary School who attended

the Artist-in-School’s dance programme in 2002. They wrote journal entries and

completed the course and facilitator evaluation forms. Their creative works were also

selected to exemplify the outcomes of the dance programme. Connie Sie, Muhd Khairul

Hafiz and Darren Chua were students from Secondary One Diligent; and Ng Baoqi,

Quelyn Koh and Ow Jun Xuan were from Secondary One Endeavour; they are all from

Express Stream classes. Connie Sie was selected because she showed maturity and

articulation in her writing and being in the school’s Modern Dance Club meant that she

could lend a differing perspective from the other students who have little or no dance

experience. Ow Jun Xuan was selected because he showed enormous interest and


62

enthusiasm during the lessons, tasks and assessments. The assignments and assessments

submitted by Quelyn Koh exemplified creativity and were selected to reflect on the

process and products of the programme. Darren Chua revealed ambivalent thoughts

about the programme and was selected as a negative case for study. Muhd Khairul

Hafiz from Secondary One Diligent was selected because he is a Malay male student

and could lend a different perspective to the phenomena of dance education from his

peers who are predominantly Chinese. In essence, I selected them because they all

articulated their thoughts clearly in their writing.

3.5.9 Parent

Cherie Yeo, the mother of Creative Arts Programme participant, Andre Yeo was

selected because she teaches dance at kindergarten and will be familiar on the role of

dance education in schools. Secondly, I was interested to know her perspectives on the

possibility of Singaporean students studying a Dance Elective Programme.

3.6 My role as researcher

To establish researcher credibility, it is essential to include information about the

researcher in a qualitative inquiry (Patton, 1990:472). The information must include my

experience, training, and perspectives relating to the field I was studying as well as the

personal connections I have with most of the participants and the topic studied (Fraleigh

and Hanstein, 1999:96; Patton, 1990:472).

Other than the participants at Nanyang Girls’ High School and Northland Secondary, the

rest of the interviewees were familiar with me; I was either their colleague or teacher.

The reason for selecting these participants is because of their familiarity and possible

contribution to this study. Another crucial role of the researcher is to communicate


63

clearly and effectively the purpose, jargon and language pertinent to the study. This

situation may arise when I interact with non-English-speaking participants. Heyl

advises that researchers should maintain reflexivity so as to allow the researcher and

participants to build rapport and comprehend one another (2001:377). I tried to achieve

this by repeating what the interview subjects have said so as to confirm their meanings.

I also try to maintain a cordial relationship, if not, friendship with the participants by

communicating with them via electronic mails or short message services on mobile

phones to build rapport and trust with them. This allowed them to share with me their

feelings, points of view and information (Goetz, 1984:96). Reflexivity refers to the way

researchers “know about” or “make of” and “do in a setting” (Pollner and Emerson,

2001:121). Reflexivity in ethnography also means that I am conscious of and discuss

unreservedly about my role in the study “in a way that honours and respects the site and

people being studied” (Creswell, 2002:494). When I interviewed the participants at

Northland Secondary School, I informed them that I have taught dance as a Co-

Curricular Activity at their school two years ago and I have worked with their dance

facilitator, Mr Danny Tan before. I stressed that the objective of the field study was to

elicit their viewpoints about their compulsory dance lessons and not solely about the

dance facilitator. This aided me to “bridge differences” (Wasserfall in Heyl, 2001:377)

with the participants and prevented me from making “unexamined assumptions” (Karp

and Kendall in Heyl, 2001:377) especially with the culture and contexts I assumed I was

familiar with. More significantly, reflexivity will help to augment the way I view the

study and my position in it and also magnify and reorganise my “conceptual field”

(Karp and Kendall in Heyl, 2001:378).

3.7.1 Ethics

In August 2002 Queensland University of Technology granted ethical clearance

(exemption number 2746H) for this study. The Singapore Ministry of Education in


64

Singapore gave permission (request no: RQ/0466) in July 2002 for the study to be

conducted at two secondary schools – Nanyang Girls’ High School and Northland

Secondary School - and only eight students and four teachers were allowed to partake in

this. Students had to ask their parents to sign the participant consent forms as they were

under-aged.

When I interviewed the participants, I stated who I was and my potential influence over

the research. I informed them that they have the right to voluntary participation, the

right to be aware that they are participating, and the right to information that may affect

their decision to participate (Dane, 1990:60). I reassured them that they also have the

right to privacy, to remain anonymous, and to confidentiality (Tuckman, 1999:15-16). I

have a responsibility to accurately represent myself, especially when I interview

students who are young and they trust me wholly. I tried not to manipulate their trust

and attempt to alter their information without their consent (Dane, 1990: 60). I sought

permission from the students’ parent or guardian before I interviewed them (Tuckman,

1999:16) by sending them information package that included the purpose and objectives

of project, the expected outcomes of project, what the participants will experience and

their child’s right to remain anonymous and to confidentiality as well as the informed

consent forms for them to sign. I was obliged to protect the participant’s right to retract

consent at any stage of the project and to debrief them at the conclusion of research

procedures (Dane, 1990: 60). Debriefing included presentation of omitted information,

clarification of deceptive information, and a full explanation of the research (Dane,

1990: 60). I was present while conducting the interview so as to allow respondents to

clarify questions with me, if there was any (Dane, 1990:129). I also provided them with

my electronic mail address to clarify any doubts regarding the research, with me. If the

participants indicated their desire to know the outcome of the research I will provide

them with information (Dane, 1990: 60).


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3.7.2 Time Arrangement

From June 2002 to February 2003, eight interviews of about one hour in length were

arranged with three dance educators, two dance students, one dance choreographer, one

professional dancer/ballet master and a student’s parent. Focus group interviews with

students from the Creative Arts Programme Dance Workshop, Nanyang Girls’ High

School and Northland Secondary School took place during June to October 2002 and

they lasted between thirty minutes to two hours. Completed questionnaires were

collected in person or received by mail from educators and dance teachers. Coding and

analysing the findings was completed from October 2002 to May 2003.

3.7.3 Limitations

One of the limitations encountered in the data collection was that my request for

interview with the curriculum planners for the Music Elective Programme at the

Singapore Ministry of Education was rejected. Teo Kie Eng, the Head of Data

Administration Centre did not provide a reason (e-mail, 31 Jul 2002). Such

circumstances for which I have no control over may “limit or impact the results of the

study” because this could have provided an opportunity to gain insight in how the

curriculum planners created the Music Elective Programme suitable for Singapore’s

context (Fraleigh and Hanstein, 1999:52). Consequently, it will allow a clearer

understanding of the creation of the framework for Dance Elective Programme. The

other limitation was my request for Mr Danny Tan to answer a questionnaire was

rejected. His company’s general manager did not provide any reason. His perspectives

will lend me another lens to view the phenomenon and to contextualise his dance

programme at Northland Secondary School for my study.


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3.8 Conclusion

The use of constructivist paradigm and ethnographic methodology with a

phenomenological approach facilitated the field study, data collection and analysis

possible for the development of a framework of dance curriculum titled, Dance Elective

Programme. It reveals insiders’ - teachers, dance educators, choreographer/artistic

director, parent and dance students - perspectives of dance education, and directed

attention to the rationale and contexts for dance education in Singapore secondary

schools. The contexts include the social, political and cultural implications that reflected

the educator’s aims and objectives and approaches, the students’ backgrounds and

interests and the community’s values.

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Chapter 4: Analysis

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4 Overview

Lapis sagu is a nine-layered sweet cake in rainbow colours, which is commonly called

nine-storey cake. This popular Singaporean dessert-cake can be eaten as a whole

sideways or after peeling it off a layer by a layer. Developing a dance curriculum

reflects the act of baking in which the act of selecting what and how much ingredients to

make the curriculum work is essential. The research is trying to determine the intensity

and frequency of colours for making a curriculum cake with multiple layers. The layers

are creative, aesthetic, artistic and cultural. The participants construct meanings when

they reflect on the curriculum cake and its layers to determine what taste[s] best suit[s]

them. Lapis sagu, as a nonya cuisine 1 with Malay influences is an appropriate

multicultural cuisine to represent the meanings constructed from the participants in this

research informed by their own experiences and cultural and social background.

The themes arising from the data will be considered under the broad theoretical frames

of:

1. Creative education and Dance Curriculum

2. Aesthetic education and Dance Curriculum

3. Artistic education and Dance Curriculum

4. Cultural education and Dance Curriculum

1 Nonya cuisine is “part of the Peranakan culture in Singapore. Peranakans are racially Chinese, but culturally, they are distinct from the majority of Chinese in Singapore as they were strongly influenced by the people of the Malay Archipelago and their home language is Malay. Thus nonya cuisine has many Malay influences” (Yong, K.E.W., 2002).


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4.1 Savouring the Red Layer: Creativity Flavours for Dance Curriculum

A graceful tilt and swish of arms Her legs spread out and jump A multitude of whirling tops Their faces alight with joy A smart turn of the hand And a bend of the legs And the dance is about to finish The audience clap ‘Encore! We say.’ And our performance’s heartblood paid

- Adeline Chin, journal, 1 June 2001

Student Adeline Chin’s experience in the Creative Arts Programme involved

choreographing a group dance and then performing it on stage. The poem helped to

encapsulate this creative process in which the dancers created movements such as “a

multitude of whirling tops”, “a smart turn of the hand” and “a bend of the legs” (Adeline

Chin, journal, 1 June 2001). The implication of creativity in education is emphasized

because of the immense joy one can reap from the experience as Adeline Chin wrote

“‘Encore! We say.’ And our performance’s heartblood paid” (journal, 1 June 2001).

Other than this, creativity will be discussed in the realm of education, in terms of its

meaning and relevance and the implications for a dance curriculum. Within the frame

of “creativity and dance curriculum” are themes that arise around the questions:

1. What is creativity and dance curriculum?

2. Why is creativity significant for the dance curriculum?

3. How can creativity be implemented in the dance curriculum?


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4.1.1 What is creative education and dance curriculum?

4.1.1.1 Creating something new

Firstly, in the explanation of what is creativity, both educators and dance artists have

shared similar viewpoints. Nanyang Girls’ High School’s Head of Aesthetics

Department, Neville Ellis suggested that creativity is “producing something new and

novel that has some appropriate meaning” (questionnaire, 2 Oct.2002). Speaking on a

similar strand, Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil explained that

creativity is the act of “making something new every time” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003).

He expanded on this definition by adding, “when one is reinterpreting something old

then there’s creativity in the invention and the newness that he’s trying to make the

thing new” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). Creativity involves the process of producing

something new from old, as well as new creation.

4.1.1.2 Problem-solving

The act of making something creative involves the ability to pose questions and to solve

problems. Head of Dance Department at LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts, Caren Carino

identified the creative process as “primarily about exploration, discovery and making

creative choices - problem solving” (interview, 16 July 2002). Creative processes

engage students to solve problems in multiple ways, hence promoting multiple pathways

in learning and thinking.

4.1.1.3 Promotes individuality in the absence of rules

Creative process can promote individuality as students seek ways to express themselves.

Dance graduate, Arthur Wong felt that the creative process “allows the students to self-


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explore and come up with their own movements” (interview, 4 June 2002). Likewise,

Creative Arts Programme participant, Corrie Tan viewed creative dance as “an

expression unique to the individual” (journal, 29 May 2002). Students may claim

ownership to their own expressions as identified by student Corrie Tan, “your actions

belong to you in their entirety” (journal, 29 May 2002). Individual expression is

encouraged through this medium because of the lack of rules and restrictions imposed as

Arthur Wong reasoned that creative expression is “free” (interview, 4 June 2002).

Corrie Tan also stated the freedom of the experience in which she felt like “just letting

go” (journal, 29 May 2002). Students will find their own individual expression through

creative processes and may eventually find their own identity and make their voices

become prominent.

4.1.1.4 Must have some extra spark

In addition to the absence of rules, one has to have the imagination and drive to create

something new as Dr Balakrishnan reasoned that “if they didn’t have the extra spark,

they would not be able to light fires” (speech, 1 June 2002). He characterised “creative

expressions” as:

the people who originate creative art, by definition, have to be people who have some angst, have to be people who have some beliefs to chase, they have to be people, who almost by their very essence, are more radical than the norm (speech, 1 June 2002).

The conditions for creativity to thrive include imagination, absence of rules and

determination for students to engage in the production of something innovative and to

solve problems. In their quest in finding meanings and answers to express certain ideas

and feelings, students may unravel pertinent issues regarding their own identity.


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4.1.1.5 Difficult to articulate its meaning

The definition of creativity to many is difficult to articulate as identified by educator

Teresa Pee because it is like a “coined-in” word that everyone seems to have their own

definition and/or “a problem with” (interview, 23 July 2002) defining. Teresa Pee

recommended that one has “to actually define it in the curriculum framework” when

discussing creativity (interview, 23 July 2002). Owing to the lack of a clear definition

or direction, educator Neville Ellis argued that in reality the stated aim or vision of the

Ministry of Education will not be realised if the students are “merely learning to

perform” (questionnaire, 2 Oct.2002). Whilst creativity may seem complex to

articulate, it is possible to discuss it in the realm of the dance curriculum and to ensure

that students engage in activities that promote creating processes other than performing

ones.

4.1.2 Why is creative education significant for dance curriculum?

4.1.2.1 Expression of ideas and opinions

Educators and students provided various reasons why creativity is relevant and

beneficial for dance education. LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts dance graduate

Vivienne Tan revealed her observations of the Singapore context and explained the

relevance of creative dance that allows an avenue for the expression of ideas. She felt

that many Singaporeans who “have opinions and they complain to each other but they

don’t voice it out to people who can help them change; help them solve their problems”

(interview, 12 Aug. 2002). Therefore she suggested “creative dance and things like that

is a very good way letting students to express their opinions” (interview; 12 Aug. 2002).

Creating movements could be an effective way for students to express ideas and

opinions.


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4.1.2.2 Expression of feelings

Apart from being able to express one’s ideas and opinions, creative processes also allow

one to express his or her feelings. When expressing how she felt about the creative

processes, student Corrie Tan wrote that dance “brings out the simple joy and beauty of

living” (journal, 29 May 2002). When Mayflower Secondary School student Ow Jun

Xuan “learnt how to use [his] name to create dancing moves”, his exhilaration was

apparent when he wrote “How cool! I’m so excited” (journal, 9 July 2002). Mayflower

Secondary School student Connie Sie also recounted the joy she reaped from the

creative experience that involves creating the Para-para dance that I taught, “I really feel

very happy because when I see my friends dancing what I have thought of, I feel very

happy” (journal, 7 July 2002). Relating this experience, she felt that the outcome was

that it elevated her confidence (journal, 7 July 2002). In addition to the joy reaped from

the creative experience, fellow classmate Darren Chua highlighted its value in helping to

entice male students to at least learn to enjoy the dance experience. He felt that “it is

kind of fun creating actions that we boys normally don’t do” (journal, 20 July 2002). It

is evident that creative process in dance allows students, males and females alike, to

express their inner, deeper feelings that other mediums may not be able to induce.

4.1.2.3 Develops one’s individuality

The other significance of creativity in the dance curriculum is that it highlights one’s

individuality and that it is accessible to everyone. Dance graduate Arthur Wong saw the

significance of creative movement classes that promotes “individuality, about individual

aesthetics, about self-expressing” (interview, 4 June 2002). Such classes “rather than

technique classes” allow one to explore movements regardless of race, gender and

physical attributes as he said “it’s not a matter of whether you’re Chinese, Malay or

Indian or whether you’re female or male or whether you’re taller or shorter, fatter or

thinner” (Arthur Wong, interview, 4 June 2002). Creative Arts Programme participant


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Adeline Chin also echoed Arthur Wong’s preference for creative movement classes in

which the participant’s dance abilities and experience are not considered as criteria for

participating. She explained “as long as you are creative and you know how to express

your thoughts through movements, it should be more than enough” (interview; 3 June

2002). With persistence and self-exploration, Arthur Wong felt that those who lack

training initially could even form their own vocabulary (interview, 4 June 2002).

Individual expression is displayed during the creative movement class that Mayflower

Secondary School student Ow Jun Xuan attended and he wrote, “‘Jun’ somehow stands

for handsome so I did a tick on my chin. ‘Xuan’ looks for turning. So I turned very

nicely” (journal, 9 July 2002). Creativity allows students to explore and to manipulate

movements to create their own unique expression, which may elevate their confidence

in the process.

4.1.2.4 Tools to learn (other disciplines)

The relevance of creative process is that it could enhance the learning of other

disciplines. The benefit of teaching creative dance is that it can be used to “teach other

subjects such as biology, anatomy, nutrition and geometry”, as proposed by dance

graduate Vivienne Tan (interview; 12 Aug. 2002). From the viewpoint of a tertiary

dance educator who trains students for careers in dance, Caren Carino felt that the

creative process is essential for dance students to aid them “to become the artist they

want to be” (interview; 16 July 2002). Once students acquire the know-how of creating

and solving problems, they will be able to apply these lifelong learning skills into other

fields.

4.1.2.5 Current curricular lacks activities to incite creativity

The importance of creative education in the dance curriculum is accentuated by the lack

of activities to promote creativity in the current school curricular. Creative Arts


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Programme participant Corrie Tan confessed that her teachers do not include creative

activities during the general academic lessons. She stated, “we practically fall asleep in

our chairs” (interview, 3 June 2002). Andre Yeo, a Gifted Education Programme

student “played the pyramid game2“ in which “the screen is here and I would sit here”

(interview, 3 June 2002). Special Stream student Adeline Chin had also played the

pyramid game and elaborated “you sit here and you’re supposed to describe……It’s

generally quite useful; we remember the terms better for example, in chemistry”

(interview, 3 June 2002). The experience that Adeline Chin engaged in helped her to

remember chemistry terms better, albeit not developing students’ creativity. Like Andre

Yeo and Adeline Chin who gave examples of creative activities, Corrie Tan recalled a

game that was “interesting, whether positive or negative” (interview, 3 June 2002). She

explained “our teachers make us stand on our chairs and we have to read our lines in the

way that was most significant of the character. If we don’t get it right, we have to stand

on our chairs” (interview, 3 June 2002). The activities revealed lack of stimuli to

engage students in creative making and solving problems.

4.1.3 How can creative education be implemented in dance curriculum?

4.1.3.1 Learning basic skills in choreography

There are various ways of implementing creativity in the dance curriculum but the

teaching of the basic codes and conventions of choreography is essential. Dance

educator Teresa Pee stated that students should be taught “the choreographic elements

2 In the pyramid game, there are six screens structured in a pyramid shape with a title on each one. The participant would first pick a title that would then reveal the subject in the first round. The participant ‘would then have to describe, as best as they can, to the other contestant seven words connected by the subject within thirty seconds. They could use as many gestures and words as they liked but they could mention anything that sounded vaguely like the word being guessed’ (UK Game Shows.com, 1 Aug 2003).


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or using the choreographic devices to create” during a creative movement class

(interview, 23 July 2002). Educator Neville Ellis reinforced that developing the

students’ creativity is only possible if they are given opportunities to engage in creating

their own dance movements and choreography (questionnaire, 2 Oct. 2002). Teresa Pee

believed that it is possible to include that “within the choreography framework”

(interview, 23 July 2002). She added that it is possible to develop the creativity level of

the students within the four years of secondary education because “it really hinges on

the framework of the curriculum that we teach them. How much of emphasis we’re

putting in” (Teresa Pee, interview, 23 July 2002). Relating to the notion of emphasis of

this subject, educator Caren Carino noted its flexibility such that “the process can be as

simple or complex as one chooses” (interview, 16 July 2002). To effectively develop

students’ creativity, it is necessary to determine the content, with regard to its

importance in the entire curricular and the learning opportunities pertinent to

choreographing a dance.

4.1.3.2 Allowing students to work on their own

Teachers should guide and facilitate students during the lessons instead of instructing

them. Dance educator Teresa Pee perceived that students should be encouraged to think

of movements on their own during the creative process. She stated students will

“actually depend on their own individual creativity with movements that they created”

(interview; 23 July 2002). China-born educator Bai Yingwen also shared Teresa Pee’s

view that creativity should start from within the individual by allowing the child to

decide what he or she wants. He advised that one should “allow the child to choose”

(interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He reasoned that a child’s creativity and room for

development would be stifled if adults too often dictate a young individual’s decision-

making. Coming from a country that often dictates what children should become when

they grow up, Bai Yingwen gave an explicit example:


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once you are born, you will become a lawyer because our society lacks lawyers or engineers; you need to. By doing so, you are destroying the child’s creativity and limiting his room for development (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

By allowing students to work on the tasks on their own will help to promote

individuality and self-expression.

4.1.3.3 Guided by stimuli, themes

It is essential for students to work with stimuli and/or themes even when they attempt

the creative task[s] on their own. Nanyang Girls’ High School is the first secondary

school in Singapore to offer dance during curriculum hours. The data from the

participants’ focus-group interview and questionnaires helped to contextualise the

processes involved in implementing creativity in the dance curriculum. Dance teacher

Chen Lili teaches “creativity training” during the compulsory dance lessons for all

Secondary One and Two students at Nanyang Girls’ High School (questionnaire; 23

Sept. 2002). During the lessons she taught them how to “choreograph a variety of short

dance items” (Chen Lili, questionnaire; 23 Sept. 2002). Her students who voiced that

this dance programme “promotes creativity” helped to triangulate this data (Chen Lili,

questionnaire, 23 Sept. 2002). One of her dance students explained the process of

creating various positions that helped to develop creativity:

we get to have different positions. We can think of different positions and poses for ourselves for certain dance. We are given a chance to experiment which way the posture looks the best, which kind of lines formed look nice (Xu Zijie, interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

Fellow dance-mate Li Shisi also stated that dance helps to “develop a sense of

creativity”, explaining a process in which the students recreated the teacher-

choreographed sequence and the teacher later manipulated the sequence:


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we were taught an action, and my seniors were just experimenting with it and sort of changing it a little bit. We danced, do it for the teacher, she actually did her own version of it, and we ended up using that action (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

This form of creative experience is a collaboration of sharing and teaching of dance

movements with one another. Student Aundrea Tai agreed with her fellow dance-mates

that the lessons help “to develop a sense of creativity” and spoke about the process of

re-creating movements from a teacher-choreographed dance without teacher supervision

or given instructions:

There was once our teacher was absent, we were asked to revise a dance that she taught us ourselves. So in the end, we ended up choreographing our own dance from the dance that she taught us with a lot of other different and new movements (interview; 10 Sept. 2002).

Using the technique of “member checks”, I asked the students via electronic mail to

clarify on the use of stimulus or theme in the choreographic tasks. Student Li Shisi

replied “no, (there was no stimulus or theme given). This was up to the class to decide.

But most of us prefer modern dancing, thus most of the dances choreographed are all

modern dances” (e-mail, 11 Sept. 2002). Similarly, Aundrea Tai stated the Secondary

One students had to choreograph a dance with six people in a group “using their own

creativity. There was no theme given to them” (e-mail, 25 Sept. 2002).

Without the aid of stimuli, themes and/or teacher supervision, the processes that

students engage in tend to degenerate into creating movements with no clear objectives

and learning outcomes.

4.1.3.4 As a core subject

The implications for developing students’ creativity suggest that creative dance should

be a core subject as suggested by dance graduate Vivienne Tan (interview; 12 Aug.


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2002). Though not speaking in the same vein of creative dance as a core or elective

subject, educator Teresa Pee recommended students should acquire sufficient

knowledge and understanding of creativity in the curriculum. She suggested the

teaching of “enough” creativity within a framework because the students are already

overwhelmed with learning “the syllabus for ballet, RAD [Royal Academy of Dancing]

and all the others” (interview, 23 July 2002).

4.1.4 Conclusion

The lack of activities in the existing Singapore curriculum to promote creativity and

demands for creativity in the economy intensifies the need for this red creativity flavour

to the dance curriculum. The necessary ingredients, as revealed by the participants

include teaching students the fundamental devices to create; allowing students to create

on their own without too much interference; and guiding students through the process

with stimuli and/or themes in order to bake an appetizing and meaningful cake. The

savouring of the red creativity flavour of the curriculum cake entices one to indulge in

the next blue aesthetic layer of the curriculum cake to help reveal the unique ingredients

needed to develop students’ skills in creating something novel, solving problems and

expressing ideas and feelings.

4.2 Savouring the Blue Layer: Aesthetic Flavours for Dance Curriculum

Why has dance always attracted the human soul? I believe it’s because it satisfies that deep need in each and every one of us. However introverted one may be, there is still the [flamboyant] performer hidden deep within, that yearning to express pent-up emotions and to release that often-suffocated desire to be noticed, to be applauded, and to be praised.

- Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May 2002


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Besides creative education, aesthetic education and dance curriculum is another theme

that arises from the literature evidence and data. Within the frame of “aesthetic and

dance curriculum” are themes that arise around the questions:

1. What is aesthetic education and dance curriculum?

2. Why is aesthetic education significant for the dance curriculum?

3. How can aesthetic education be implemented in the dance curriculum?

4.2.1 What is aesthetic education and dance curriculum?

4.2.1.1 Beauty is in the eye of the beholder – aesthetic, dance, education

Several participants relate the concept of aesthetic to beauty. The Head of Aesthetics

Department at Nanyang Girls’ High School, Neville Ellis noted that often in Singapore

the term “aesthetics” is applied to describe the visual and performing arts, but strictly

speaking the term should refer to “a study or appreciation of the visual appearance or

beauty of things” (questionnaire, 2 Oct 2002; e-mail, 16 July 2003). Similarly, assistant

ballet master/educator Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil stated

“dance is concerned with ……the production of beauty and aesthetics is all about that”

(interview, 6 Mar. 2003). He elaborated aesthetic “is about the appreciation of the finer

things in life” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). Therefore, according to dance educator Bai

Yingwen, students should learn “how to appreciate beauty and what is beautiful”

(interview, 10 Sept. 2002) within the realm of aesthetic education.

4.2.1.2 Aesthetic of dance genres

This notion of “what is beautiful” and what should be taught, according to

choreographer Low Mei Yoke is “through dance, students know where the line of


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beauty is. What are the basic aesthetics in dance?” (interview, 2 July 2002) She

asserted “if we were to discard the aesthetic framework, there is still aesthetic in the

dance syllabus” (interview, 2 July 2002). Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator

Jamaluddin Jalil gave an explicit overview on what aesthetic education encompasses:

dance in its traditional manifestation such as ballet is very concerned about (aesthetics) and the emphasis on providing good lines or form, the execution of steps (interview, 6 Mar. 2003).

Here, Jamaluddin Jalil highlights that aesthetic should be a focus of students’

experiences in dance. By engaging “in the process……the traditions related to the

technique” (Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar. 2003), students will develop an

awareness of that dance genre and its aesthetic.

4.2.1.3 Aesthetic of other art forms

The content of aesthetic education should not be limited to only dance but other art

forms. Jamaluddin Jalil mentioned “the whole field of performance arts is about

aesthetics” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts dance graduate

Arthur Wong reiterated that the study of “aesthetic of the art form not just dance alone

but different arts forms” (interview, 4 June 2002). He recommended the important

subjects in the dance curriculum should be “understanding arts aesthetics” (interview, 4

June 2002). Similarly, Nanyang Girls’ High School student Xu Zijie viewed the study

of different art forms as essential to aesthetic education. She reasoned “arts is about

expressing ourselves and be able to evaluate art pieces, no matter it is drawing, music or

even dance” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Using a sculpture as an example where one can

develop aesthetic understanding and to form evaluation, students could identify “dark

and light areas to contrast the difference” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Choreographer

Low Mei Yoke reinforced Arthur Wong and Xu Zijie’s point that aesthetic education is

not limited to dance. She stated that aesthetic is “very vast in art. If we were to look at


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dance alone, they are able to detect aesthetic in other art forms too” (Low Mei Yoke,

interview, 2 July 2002). She gave examples of “buildings” that also embody aesthetic

(Low Mei Yoke, interview, 2 July 2002). Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator

Jamaluddin Jalil gave the reason for studying other art forms in addition to dance, that

is, “just learning about the steps would be insufficient in terms of the education in the

field” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). In the context of dance education, it becomes essential

to discuss other art forms and not merely learning the physicality in dance.

4.2.1.4 Aesthetic of culture

Aesthetic education should include the understanding of aesthetics prevalent in students’

own and other cultures, which will help to promote cultural understanding. Chinese

dance lecturer at Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts, Bai Yingwen, stated students need to

firstly know what is beautiful and then go on to explore “the beauty of (their) own

original cultural source” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). By understanding their own

aesthetic, when students view other ethnic groups, they will “know how to view the

essence of their aesthetic” with empathy and sensibilities (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10

Sept. 2002). As a consequence, students who understand the essence of beauty will

know how to form their own personal perception of beauty and hence aesthetic.

The content of aesthetic education is problematised when the line between Western and

Asian aesthetics is blurred. Caren Carino reasoned that due to the overwhelming

multicultural mix of Chinese, Malays and Indians, “generally, Western aesthetics is seen

as that which is alien to Singapore’s society” (interview 16 July 2002). She gave

examples of ballet and modern dance as being “alien” but argued that modern dance

may not consist of Western aesthetics entirely (interview 16 July 2002). She explained:

Modern Dance, as most understand it, hails from the West but many artists are exploring what this concept means in their own “cultural” experience. Modern Dance (equals) Western, is therefore, not necessarily so (interview 16 July 2002).


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Speaking about the lack of a need to differentiate between Western and Asian aesthetics

so explicitly, educator Bai Yingwen explained students need not be taught to distinguish

the aesthetics “from the time [they learn] to read and write” because as he mentioned

earlier, once students learn the aesthetic of their own culture, they will come to

understand others’ aesthetics and their culture (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

4.2.1.5 Personal aesthetics

The content of aesthetic education should consider personal aesthetics because everyone

will have his or her own perception in viewing things and Low Mei Yoke explained:

any person who creates a work has his own sense of aesthetics. If you’re able to go beyond the sense of aesthetics and comment “it’s not that great”, or “that’s not bad”. Sense of aesthetics is not definite…...(because) it’s a different point of view. So I can’t tell you where is sense of aesthetics (interview, 2 July 2002).

There are certain ways to discern aesthetics that are prevalent in everyday life.

Choreographer Low Mei Yoke provided the example of everyday-activity of

coordinating the clothes we wear. A person would have his or her own aesthetics to

ascertain what colours of clothes to wear and this is significant amongst the

multicultural people in Singapore. She elaborated:

Today you match green with light green to go out to work. But green and light green are vivid colours. However to Indians and Malays, their use of colours is bolder. To them it’s beautiful. So to Asian Chinese, the use of colours is not as bold…...If we were to wear bold colours in everyday life, most people wouldn’t dare (interview, 2 July 2002).

Thus it is essential to consider the aspect of personal aesthetic in the context of

Singapore that is a largely multicultural, predominantly Asian country where cultural

sensitivities are rife.


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4.2.1.6 Education of feelings

Aesthetic is about educating one’s feelings and dance is a valuable medium to allow

students to express their feelings as Creative Arts Programme participant Yu Zhihua

wrote “dance can express our feelings very well – when we are angry, we dance fast.

When we are sad, we dance slowly” (journal, 28 May 2002). Students at their age are

experiencing many problems and need a medium to communicate their feelings. Dance

is an effective medium as Yu Zhihua reflected in his poem:

Expressing our feelings and our thoughts Dancing our troubles away (journal, 30 May 2002)

He elaborated that creative dance is “a medium to express our feelings” as teenagers like

himself are “experiencing many problems and difficulty in our lives” (journal, 28 May

2002). Therefore aesthetic education in dance should offer opportunities to students to

engage in activities to perform and to express themselves.

4.2.1.7 Appreciation

Honing in on the education of feelings, students should therefore learn how to

appreciate dance in a structured way because choreographer Low Mei Yoke stated

“there’s a certain level in appreciating the arts” (interview, 2 July 2002). Speaking on

learning an overview of dance, students will learn to appreciate dance and other art

forms because dance encompasses elements in other art forms. In the case of ballet,

Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil reasoned that when students

learn classical ballet works, they will also “learn about the musical style that was used,

set design, costumes, lighting” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). For example, when students

learn the set design of the ballet, they will learn “what kind of visual arts are involved in

dance” (Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar. 2003).


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Through students developing their skills to appreciate dance they will be more

sensitivity to the aesthetics operating within the dance. Choreographer Low Mei Yoke

explained:

for dance, it has its own appreciating skills. No matter how we look at it, the point of evolvement still contains aesthetic elements……. Once dance is performed on stage, there is a sense of aesthetics (interview, 2 July 2002).

Similarly by emphasizing that “dance is actually a beautiful form of art”, Nanyang

Girls’ High School dance teacher Chen Lili tried to make the students “appreciate

[dance] more” by knowing what elements to look out for when appreciating dances

(interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

4.2.2 Why is aesthetic education significant for the dance curriculum?

4.2.2.1 Expression of feelings

The value of aesthetic experience is that it allows students to express themselves. Parent

Cherie Yeo agreed that aesthetic education would benefit the students such that they will

have “certain outlets for them to express in poetry, in dance” (interview, 3 June 2002).

This is reflected in the self-assessment activity in which Mayflower Secondary School

students used reflective journal to assess their own choreography of Para-para sequence.

Mayflower Secondary School student Connie Sie shared this view that dance is an outlet

for expressing herself. She wrote “I like last week’s dance because everyone was given

a chance to think of something for himself or herself” (journal, 16 July 2002). Creative

Arts Programme participant Corrie Tan reinforced this point and wrote “dance yields

such enormous power. It captures the human mind and tugs at the strings of the heart”

(journal, 28 May 2002). Where words could not define how she feels, dance is able to.

She explained “dance appealed to me tremendously because I am not a good verbal


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communicator. When you stated that the essential function of dance was in fact

communication, I was hooked” (Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May 2002). Her reason is that

dance is “constantly in contact with the emotional realm, painting visible and tangible

pictures where description in words will never be able to. Words could even hinder this

work of expression” (Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May 2002). Yu Zhihua reiterated that

dance could help to “broaden our capabilities in expressing ourselves” (journal, 28 May

2002). He saw the significance of dance because “this is especially suitable for teens

our age as we need an effective means of communication” (28 May 2002). As a non-

verbal communicator, dance is an effective medium for students to express their

feelings.

4.2.2.2 Critical reflection

Aesthetic experience will elicit critical response to own and other’s works. When

Mayflower Secondary School students were “asked for [their] opinions of the temple

dances” from Bali in Indonesia, student Ng Baoqi recalled her classmates giving “the

weirdest impressions, [such as] seducing the Gods and washing face” (journal, 1 July

2002). Speaking on the point about responding to her own and others’ works, in the

dance performance lessons, student Connie Sie recorded her judgment of her

classmates’ dancing abilities in a peer-reviewed assessment, reflecting:

Well, this is quite nice. Through this I can learn from my friends and they can learn from me too. I feel very happy because I am able to comment on their dancing skills and they are able to tell me how they feel about my dance (journal, 26 July 2002).

The dance performance lesson attended by Mayflower Secondary School students also

enabled them to respond to their classmates’ performance; they learnt the characteristics

of modern dance genre such as the use of rhythm and dynamics. Connie Sie recorded

her judgment of her classmate’s dancing abilities in a peer-reviewed assessment “she is

not aware of her spatial movements. Her actions are too limited……Her actions are not


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dynamic” (journal, 26 July 2002). By engaging students in activities that encourage

them to critically reflect on their own and others’ practices, they can develop a deeper

understanding that aesthetics are contextually-based, and an awareness and valuing of

cultural diversity in their society.

4.2.2.3 All-rounded individuals

The other benefit, according to Nanyang Girls’ High School dance teacher Chen Lili is

students from this Special Assistant Plan 3 school will “cultivate a high level of

appreciation for the arts……so that they will be all-rounded individuals” (questionnaire,

23 Sept. 2002) with sound knowledge and understanding of the Chinese culture and

traditions.

4.2.2.4 Valuable in life

Aesthetic education allows students to appreciate aesthetics that are valuable in their

lives because studies can become dull. Parent Cherie Yeo felt that aesthetic education

“will be good in their development……not just studies, studies, because [studies] can

get boring” (interview, 3 June 2002).

4.2.3 How can aesthetic education be implemented in the dance curriculum?

4.2.3.1 Narrow the scope

In order to discern what constitutes aesthetic education in the dance curriculum, it is

necessary to narrow the scope of aesthetic as Teresa Pee suggested to “narrow it down

3 The Special Assistance Plan schools are created for students to excel in both English and Chinese whilst ‘preserving the traditional ethos existing in the schools’ (The Singapore Ministry of Education, 2002a).


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to what aesthetic are we talking about. And only if we know the scope of aesthetic that

we’re trying to inculcate into the students” (interview, 23 July 2002).

It is also crucial to narrow the appreciation subjects because it is then possible to add the

element or level of aesthetic learning for the students to cope with. Teresa Pee

explained:

we actually talk about putting [aesthetics] into our programme because if we’re going to write Dance Elective Programme at all to put in an element of aesthetics and creativity or have the level of aesthetics and creativity knowledge, ability for the school learners…… (interview, 23 July 2002).

4.2.3.2 Using an analysis model

Aesthetic education should include appreciation lessons in which students rely on an

analysis model to describe, interpret, and evaluate dances. The use of an analysis model

was evident when Mayflower Secondary School students learnt to analyse elements of

dances from various cultural and historical contexts. Mayflower Secondary School

student Quelyn Koh’s review of ballet “Deep End” choreographed by Meryl Tankard

exemplifies the use of an analysis model. She wrote:

The movements of the dance were splendidly choreographed. It started with some female dancers shaking their pelvis and executing some attitudēs. Then, some male dancers appeared and jumped into the air and executed grand jetēs. This is probably to portray the dancers warming up before swimming. Then more female and male dancers appeared and executed pirouettes with interesting hand gestures. Their movements were all portraying the swimming actions such as backstrokes and freestyles……I enjoyed this performance very much but this scene could do with some effects, like watery effects at the back to make it look like an actual swimming pool (journal, 23 Sept. 2002).

On the other hand, Nanyang Girls’ High School students are taught appreciation lessons

in which they “watch dance performance at theatres and on VCDs” without the guidance

of an analysis model (Chen Lili, questionnaire, 23 Sept.2002). Students at this school


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were taught to focus largely on dancers’ movements and expressions because student

Xu Zijie highlighted that she learnt “how to see whether a movement has extension and

the dancers’ emotions go with the music” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). She also learnt

“this dancer gets to express herself or himself well. And how should we react as in how

we should express ourselves to different types of music while dancing” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). Thus the appreciation lessons taught her how to translate the skills from

watching the professional dancers into her own performing skills.

4.2.3.3 Verbal communication fares better than writing reviews

It seems more effective to develop aesthetic understanding via appreciation by allowing

students to verbally communicate their experiences rather than writing them down an

anonymous student at Nanyang Girls’ High School felt that “review is writing; it’s

dead” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). However, by interacting with others and sharing their

experiences, students get to clarify their ideas and/or offer spontaneous and varying

reactions as the anonymous student further explained; “sharing, communication is alive.

When you communicate with people, it gets into you more easily” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Fellow dance-mate Xu Zijie added that by hearing what others reveal about their

dance experiences “this sort of exposes us to different types of dance and how to

interpret different dances and give suitable comments about it” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). In view of this, it seems useful for students to interact and share their responses

with others verbally.

4.2.4 Conclusion

The blue layer of the curriculum cake will be baked with consideration to allowing

students to express their personal feelings and to develop their reflective critical view

when evaluating the arts areas. The importance of students having dialogues to discuss

the meanings and interpretation of the arts, using an analysis model is also embedded in


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this layer of the curriculum cake. To analyse dance students need to acquire skills,

knowledge and understanding in dance via the processes of creating, performing and

appreciating. This artistic education will be considered in detail in following discussion

of the yellow layer of the dance curriculum.

4.3 Savouring the Yellow Layer: Artistic Flavours for Dance Curriculum

Shadow Dancing

I never learnt dance – my mother muttered Very politely beneath her breath That the turns, the twists, the pirouettes I thought I executed sublimely Seemed like an elephant attempting To disguise its rear end And so I could only gaze with Wistful eyes at satiny ballet shoes And Appreciate concerts Though constantly teetering on that Brink of zilch self-esteem and envy Never learnt dance, just because A toddler fell when learning how to walk? Believed that it was never possible To be lithe nimble Knifing through vacuum of air And so I could only Perform onstage to my shadow audience

Famed critics, those professionals Who even screamed for encores And when I shook off the trance They slashed my reality into shards But now I know.

- Corrie Tan, journal, 30 May 2002


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Corrie Tan is ambivalent about learning dance because she feels that she is “not

particularly gifted in this area of movement” (journal, 28 May, 2002). It was evident in

the poem that her inhibition was due to her lack of dance training, particularly in ballet

as she “could only gaze with wistful eyes at satiny ballet shoes” (journal, 30 May 2003).

She envies her peers endowed with dancing abilities; “those……dancing perfectly with

complete abandon” (Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May, 2002). The issue of who should have

access to the dance programme will be discussed later in this chapter because that will

determine what artistic education should constitute the dance curriculum. It also seems

fitting to discuss artistic education and dance curriculum next since it is related to

aesthetic education. Within the frame of ‘artistic and dance curriculum’ are themes that

arise around the questions:

1. What is artistic education and dance curriculum?

2. Why is artistic education significant for the dance curriculum?

3. How can artistic education be implemented in the dance curriculum?

4.3.1 What is artistic education and dance curriculum?

There are two sections in this sub-theme:

1. What does artistic education mean and should constitute?

2. The implications of which kinds of students should have access to this

curriculum and whether they should be selected based on skills and abilities

in dance?


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4.3.1.1 Skills, understanding and knowledge in dance via the processes of choreography, performance and appreciation

Dance educators alike recommend students acquire skills, knowledge and understanding

in dance via the processes of creating, performing and appreciating. Dance educator

Teresa Pee recommended that dance as an educational subject has to “cover a broad-

base” that includes “the three organizers” (interview, 23 July 2002) - creating,

performing and appreciating dances - at different times during the course. Likewise,

contemporary dance lecturer Caren Carino proposed the inclusion of the three

organizers (interview, 16 July 2002). Similar to Teresa Pee’s notion of a broad-based

curriculum, Caren Carino recommends that students should acquire skills, understanding

and knowledge in dance, be it learning a variety of dance forms or skills in creating

dances that will equip them with essential tools “to become the artist[s] they want to be”

(Carino, interview, 16 July 2002). Therefore, in the paper Creating a dance elective

program: a proposal for Singapore (Carino, 2001) that Caren Carino wrote and directed

to the Arts Education Committee [who at present administer tertiary education in

Singapore], she did not offer a preference of dance genres such as ballet, modern dance,

multicultural to be included as she “[hopes] that students would be exposed to all forms

but be given a choice at some point” (interview, 16 July 2002). Adding to the point of

introducing students to as many dance forms as possible, Chinese dance lecturer Bai

Yingwen suggests training dance students to be versatile is more important than training

in a genre such as ballet or Chinese dance. Once students acquire the abilities to

coordinate well “to get used to any forms of movements”, they will then be able to

“dance any forms of dance” (10 Sept. 2002). He noted every dancer’s capabilities to

learn different dance genres vary because “every form of dance has its own habits or

practices” (Bai Yingwen, 10 Sept. 2002). After I’d conducted Member Checks,

Nanyang Girls’ High School student Aundrea Tai added that students should learn a

variety of dances such as “folk dance, ballet, jazz, hiphop, [and] breakdance” (e-mail, 14

July 2003). She reasoned that when students are exposed to different dances, they will


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then “discover that they are actually more gifted towards a particular dance type which

he/she may not have tried before” (e-mail, 14 July 2003). Students should therefore

learn a variety of skills, codes and conventions, and dance styles and genres pertinent to

becoming a versatile and competent artist, albeit not limited to dance.

There are varying perspectives on the inclusion of certain dance genres as core or

elective subjects due to research participants’ own dance experience and/or expertise.

Choreographer Low Mei Yoke recommended ballet and modern dance to be core

subjects while ethnic dances such as Chinese dance, Indian dance, Malay dance, Asian

dances and folk dances, elective subjects. She reasoned “students are able to absorb

these and not become restricted to a particular dance style” (interview, 2 July 2002).

Students should be trained in a variety of dance styles since they are young and

receptive and will then become versatile enough to join her dance company. To

compete against the top Western dance companies, Low Mei Yoke believed that her

company needs “to have a distinctive dance style” that is unique enough “to create a

name in the world platform” (interview, 2 July 2002). Dance educator Teresa Pee also

recommended the teaching of ethnic dances because it reflects the multicultural society

in Singapore and also out of her “own personal interest” in ethnic dances (interview, 23

July 2002). Students need to be taught the differences between the ethnic dances in

Singapore and from their original sources such as Indian dance in which “there are

many types, forms or styles of dances in India that maybe we’re not familiar with

locally” (Teresa Pee, interview, 23 July 2002). Studying the ethnic dances in Singapore

and from our ancestral lands – China, India and Malaya - will help to widen students’

knowledge and understanding in our heritage since many of our forefathers emigrated

from these countries.

A strong advocator of ethnic dances, Teresa Pee highlighted the importance of dance

history that will increase the awareness of the different cultures prevalent in students’

own and other societies. On the other hand, Chinese dance lecturer Bai Yingwen felt


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that theory subjects in dance should not be introduced at secondary school level. He felt

that it is more interesting and meaningful for students to learn dance “through a

physical, interesting, characters, and stories-like activities, like in a dance work” that

will allow them to understand the effervescent nature of dance as “a form of art and not

dance is art” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Therefore he suggested that students should be

introduced to culture and a range of art forms including art and music through their

experiences of dance. He cautioned that students should be given opportunities to

choose what to learn; one should not “drag the child’s hand and to force him to do

whatever you want him to” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Caren Carino also

spoke about providing students with tools and opportunities in learning by allowing

them to be “immersed in the process of creating – problem solving and making creative

decisions’ rather than ‘whether they become choreographers” (interview, 16 July 2002).

Thus she encourages the learning of Creative Movement and Improvisation that will

help “to develop the creative mind” (Caren Carino, interview, 16 July 2002).

Nanyang Girls’ High School students also objected to studying theory subjects. Student

Xu Zijie reasoned such a programme is “just to enhance a sense of appreciation for the

arts” and providing “basic knowledge will be enough for most students” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). Studying the history of dance for example can be “quite boring” which

may even deter students from entering the programme (Xu Zijie, interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Students will prefer learning “basic knowledge of certain types of dance” than

“to memorise three hundred pages book for our exam” (Xu Zijie, interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Fellow dance-mate Li Shisi proposed dance history to be an optional subject

because one does not “really need the history of dance to dance well” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). Instead, students should learn a variety of dance genres and styles to attain

“a more balanced dance life” (Li Shisi, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Similarly, Mayflower

Secondary School student Connie Sie voiced her preference for practical to theory

learning, writing “I really like actual dancing…..I do not want theory……Although

theory aids our knowledge but personally trying it is much more nice and fun!” (journal,


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16 August 2002) The development of the content of artistic education in dance to suit

students’ needs and preferences is thus problematised when several students preferred

practical lessons to theory lessons.

The processes of creating, performing and appreciating are reflected in the dance

curriculum at Mayflower Secondary School. Students learnt to adapt dance components

– spacing, timing, energy and form - to reflect the purpose of dance in the context of

choreographing to a poem. This is exemplified in Connie Sie’s planning for her

choreography. She submitted “Formation A shows that the bear is alone which

emphasizes its loneliness and sadness” (journal, 26 July 2002). The appropriate use of

music is evident when Darren Chua wrote in his plan for choreography “I’m choosing

the song ‘Dui Bu Qi’ [means “I’m sorry” in Mandarin] for the dance as it is a sad song

which shows how the bear should feel” (journal, 26 July 2002). The students modelled

genre-specific techniques - Graham-based and Horton-based - when performing

movement sequences. Connie Sie learnt modern dance terminologies such as

“contraction and release” and “straight and much table-top movements” (journal, 16

Aug. 2002). The curriculum also aims to develop in students a fundamental

understanding and skills of the craft of critical appraisal. Students were given a task that

required them to work in pairs and to analyse a dance review from The Arts Magazine.

They needed to highlight sentences that alluded to the appreciation skills. This exercise

helped to enlighten them on what is required when they review a dance performance and

critically reflected on their own choreography. On the other hand, educator Bai

Yingwen highlights that the programme should not only aim to “cultivate arts critics. If

it only grooms arts critics, then it is the failure of the programme. They do not get

involved and only criticize” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). There should be a balance in

what students learn via artistic education and that students are guided through the

processes with clear learning outcomes.


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4.3.1.2 Dance should provide more than performing skills

The relevance of artistic education in dance is highlighted because dance exists in

Singapore secondary schools only as a co-curricular activity and through enrichment

programmes that generally do not promote a wide range of artistic experiences. In fact,

in Bai Yingwen’s opinion, the objective of dance as a co-curricular activity has altered

to simply attaining Gold Awards during the bi-annual Singapore Youth Festival Central

Judging Competitions, thereby changing the “main and original objective for the

government to create co-curricular activity” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Assistant ballet

master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil viewed co-curriculuar activity as “mostly ad-

hoc” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003) and “conducted on a more casual basis and mostly as a

means to prepare the students for various functions in schools as well as competitions

like the Youth Festival or something along those lines” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). In

fact, schoolteacher at Northland Secondary School Liang Yu acknowledged that the

school’s only short-term goal pertaining to dance is “achieving [Singapore Youth

Festival] medals” (questionnaire, 1 Oct. 2002). This viewpoint seems limiting and

simplistic.

Other than dance as a co-curricular activity, Caren Carino revealed that “there are

several individuals such as Danny Tan at Northland Secondary [School]; Teresa Pee at

St. Anthony’s [Primary School] and Lim Mei Chian who are conducting dance

programmes that are the efforts of individuals [as dance educators]” (interview, 16 July

2002). She elaborated that it is not “a cohesive effort” (interview, 16 July 2002).

Teresa Pee agreed that such enrichment programmes are not comprehensive and

revealed “even for schools who actually offer dance as a subject or maybe a semi-

formal, academic education, it is still very practical-based. In terms of theory, there

isn’t much” (interview, 23 July 2002). The emphasis on practical rather than theory

aspects of dance is evident at Singapore Chinese Girls’ School that “employs a full-time

dance teacher to conduct classes for its children on the Royal Academy Dancing


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Syllabus” and “also attaches a dance group that consistently put on performances”

(Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar. 2003). Therefore, the course should be “an elective

comprised of a consistent and systematic programme” if dance were to be offered in the

school curriculum (Caren Carino, interview, 16 July 2002).

4.3.1.3 Finding own artistic expression in Singapore

It is relevant to know the types of artistic expression prevalent at the professional level

as this serves to indicate what artistic learning should or should not constitute the dance

curriculum. Caren Carino lent her perspective on this particular area of concern. She

noticed that many artists in Singapore are exploring the possibility of finding their own

“artistic expression” (interview, 16 July 2002). There are two types of such artists who

are broadly identified as those who do so in a superficial way and those who are

labouring to find their own expression. She described the first group as “some artists try

too hard, that is, they are striving towards an objective they don’t personally hold

themselves, that it is externally imposed” (interview, 16 July 2002). The second group,

according to her consists of “individuals who truly believe in themselves and want to

find what is called the ‘Singaporean voice’ and they also struggle to do this” (interview,

16 July 2002). She insisted that finding one’s “artistic expression” is unlike “making a

cake - it's not like putting all the ingredients together and stirring it up, baking it and

‘voila’ Singaporean dance!” (interview, 16 July 2002) She described artistic expression

as being “so much deeper than that, unlike words, unlike language, movement is more

ambiguous” (interview, 16 July 2002). In order for students to find their own voice in

dance, they need to know the essential skills and also not be too influenced by external

factors.


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4.3.1.4 Ballet: a pas de deux of challenges and relevance

The role of ballet in artistic education and the dance curriculum is problematised with

revelations from trained and untrained dance students as well as a choreographer. There

are advantages in grooming dancers in ballet technique and hence Low Mei Yoke

suggested it to be a core subject for training students. She proposed that ballet is able to

“train the lower body”, “the feet articulation and footwork will be neat and clean” and

“the centre of gravity is better and the turn is faster” (interview, 2 July 2002). On the

point of training dancers, she elaborated that training in Chinese dance, coupled with

ballet will enhance the students’ techniques in modern dance. She cited a recent Beijing

Dance Academy students’ performance as an example and said “their modern dance is

superb. Their foundation is in ballet and ‘sheng duan’ [a Chinese Dance technique to

train the torso to be flexible]. When they dance modern dance, they’re able to release

their body” (interview, 2 July 2002). After viewing the performance, she felt that she

needed dancers “with strong foundation in ballet. Dance in its primitive state is about

technique” (interview, 2 July 2002). She also felt that modern dance is a perfect

complement to ballet training because whilst ballet trains lower parts of the body,

modern dance trains the upper body to “move more fluidly” (interview, 2 July 2002).

She highlighted that there should not be any restriction on which modern dance

technique to train students because “every technique has its own advantages” (interview,

2 July 2002). More importantly, if students are introduced to all dance techniques, they

will benefit because “their bodies would become more agile and versatile” (interview, 2

July 2002). Thus her rationale for students to engage in the artistic learning of ballet,

combined with training in modern dance and Chinese dance is because of her need for

dancers with sound techniques who can execute movements proficiently in her dance

company Frontier Danceland Singapore.

When asked if ballet or Chinese dance is the more effective method to train dancer,

Chinese dance-trained lecturer Bai Yingwen replied “there is no one expert who can


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determine if there is one sole method” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Coming from China,

a country that often dictates what dance companies should perform and for whom, he

figured the training of dancers “depends on what the country emphasises on and what it

needs” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Yet he raised an interesting point

about the versatility of dancers trained in Chinese dance or ballet. He noticed that there

are more Chinese dance-trained dancers who can dance ballet but not many ballet-

trained dancers who can dance Chinese dance. His point was not to say that Chinese

dance is more superior to ballet but to highlight a universal dilemma facing educators to

implement a programme that yields “a variety of effective results, in this case physical

results” training students to become professional dancers (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10

Sept. 2002).

Ballet may also deter students from taking up dance more seriously because they are not

trained in ballet. This is relevant in knowing what artistic learning should constitute the

dance curriculum. A student of Singapore Chinese Girls’ School, Adeline Chin said “in

my school, a lot of people are interested. The only thing is that they don’t think they

can make [it into] the dance group. They thought that it’s all ballet” (interview, 3 June

2002). Student Corrie Tan agreed with Adeline Chin that from her experience, students

are deterred from taking up dance because of the overwhelming presence of ballet “in

rhythmic gym and artistic gym” (interview, 3 June 2002). Adeline Chin went on to

explain that the reason for the students to be intimidated by ballet is due to their lack of

confidence. She reasoned that there are “a lot of ballet movements so they feel very

embarrassed while they’re doing it because they don’t think they can actually live up to

that kind of standard” (interview, 3 June 2002). Corrie Tan’s poem “Shadow Dancer”

exemplifies her lack of confidence in learning dance, and she wrote:

I thought I executed sublimely Seemed like an elephant attempting To disguise its rear end (journal, 30 May 2002)


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Ballet remains a controversial subject, as it seems to be pertinent to train students and

yet continues to deter students from taking up dance as they deem it to be too complex

for them to cope with.

4.3.1.5 Who should have access to the dance programme?

The next sub-theme will discuss the implications on the kinds of students who should

have access to this curriculum. This will then affect the content of artistic learning. The

data reveals two camps that argue for and against auditions in which a range of

reasoning is provided. This hinges on the problem of selecting students for the dance

curriculum and if there is a necessity.

4.3.1.5.1 Eliminate academic pre-requisites as entry

Besides holding auditions, having academic pre-requisites was deemed by participants

as an unsuitable criterion for admitting students into the dance programme. Assistant

ballet master/dancer/educator, Jamaluddin Jalil spoke about the inherent problem of

admitting students into an Art, Dance or Music Elective Programme; they have to be

admitted into the ‘elite’ schools first. He propounded “logically of course the

programme would have to be restricted to the students of the schools that they are given

to” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). On the other hand, he observed that it is limiting if

academic pre-requisites are imposed to admit students into the programme because

academic brilliance does not equate to abilities in artistic learning. Thus he viewed

having academic pre-requisites as “short-sighted because in terms of skills, sometimes

academic skills do not translate into physical skills” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003).

Similarly, Nanyang Girls’ High School student Aundrea Tai explained, the Dance

Elective Programme should be offered in “all or any schools” because there may be

talented dance students in these schools (e-mail, 25 Sept. 2002). Fellow dance-mate Li

Sishi suggested that the Dance Elective Programme “should just be offered in schools


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where dance is very popular and many students are very interested in dance” (e-mail, 11

Sept. 2002). If the Dance Elective Programme is only offered in independent, Special

Assistant Plan and autonomous schools as in the case of Music and Art Elective

Programmes, it would “be unfair to students who have an interest in dance, yet do not

do too well in their studies and be deprived of this opportunity to enter the Dance

Elective Programme” (Li Shisi, e-mail, 11 Sept. 2002). Student Aundrea Tai reiterated

“if Dance Elective Programme should be offered, it should be available to every school,

to ensure that everybody has a chance to show their talent and not just let their talents

slip away in the dark” (e-mail, 25 Sept. 2002). Creative Arts Programme participant

Adeline Chin also felt that it is quite unfair because “some of them [Art and Music

Elective Programmes] are offered only in select schools” (interview, 3 June 2002). She

recommended that the Dance Elective Programme “should be branched out to schools

that are not so ‘high-up’” (interview, 3 June 2002). Corrie Tan reiterated “even if you

are not in the premier school, you should be given the option to choose” (interview, 3

June 2002) to take up the Dance Elective Programme.

4.3.1.5.2 Effects of [not] holding auditions

Educators such as Bai Yingwen and Caren Carino as well as the students from

Northland Secondary School and the Creative Arts Programme felt that auditions are

not essential in Singapore. Bai Yingwen reasoned “for secondary schools to insist on

auditions for students who are full of passion “will only diminish their hope and initial

option to take up dancing” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

Bai Yingwen suggested a more effective way of encouraging the youngsters to take up

an interest in dancing, that is, giving them opportunities to learn dance because “when

you enjoy it, I will give you an opportunity. We hope that there will be more people to

join and learn dance” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Instead of going through the process

of auditions, the criterion is that the students have to enjoy dancing and even “love


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dance” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He insisted it is a basic requirement

for dance students to enjoy dancing “with a passion that comes from your heart”; if not

one will “just be a machine” who mimics what others tell them to do (Bai Yingwen,

interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

Similarly, when Caren Carino interviewed candidates into the Diploma in Dance course

at Lasalle-SIA College of the Arts, she “looks first and foremost for passion” (interview,

16 July 2002). Student Adeline Chin advocated a “very short audition” to see if the

candidate has a genuine interest in dance and she believed that it is easy to detect one’s

passion in dance (interview, 3 June 2002). She explained “if a person really likes

something, it shows, you know. They have the passion in them; you can see it”

(Adeline Chin, interview, 3 June 2002). Caren Carino reasoned that passion would

assist the students in sustaining through the “very tough and vigorous programme” and

to survive in the “tough world out there” (interview, 16 July 2002) if they were to look

for jobs in dance productions and dance companies upon graduation.

Northland Secondary School student Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan’s revelation

about auditions being unnecessary coincided with educator Bai Yingwen, being the

candidates’ interest in dance would drive them to sign up for the course. She explained

“if they have the interest, they will join. Don’t like, don’t join” (interview, 2 Oct. 2002).

Hence fellow schoolmates Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali, Letchemanen and her agreed that

auditions are not necessary. Letchemanen further argued on this point “as long as they

have the interest they should be allowed [into Dance Elective Programme]” which

paralleled Bai Yingwen’s argument earlier about giving the students opportunities to

learn dance as long as they are keen (questionnaire, 2 Oct. 2002).

There are a few positive consequences such as increasing the students’ intake and

increasing the students’ confidence if auditions are not held to select students. Educator

Bai Yingwen foresaw the result of this is that the number of students enrolling in the


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dance curriculum will elevate, stating “once there are a large number of students, we can

then divide them into different classes or levels or ethnic dances, for example, if one

chooses a different dance career” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Assistant ballet

master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil also viewed that auditions would limit the

number of students wanting to take up the dance course, arguing “I think that would be

sad because then it would narrow a pool of talent that one can cap” (interview, 6 Mar.

2003). As a consequence of limiting the programme to talented students, it may have a

low enrolment rate. Although not directly responding to the effects of auditions, parent

and schoolteacher Cherie Yeo predicted that Dance Elective Programme “will actually

cater to a minority population” (interview, 3 June 2002). Speaking from her experience

as a General Music Programme student, Corrie Tan attends lessons in the general

curricular with other students from General Art Programme to make up the number for

a class. But they attend music and art lessons separately. She explained:

in our school is that we have music but [they] have art for “O” [Ordinary] level and we are separated for music. But you see, there are not enough, there are seven of us in music but there are over 20 in the class. We are in the same [arts] class (interview, 3 June 2002).

It is crucial to allow students to overcome the first hurdle to take up dance and then

subsequently provide them with skills, knowledge and understanding in dance to engage

their interests further.

The positive effect of not holding auditions will increase students’ confidence. Once

students are admitted into the course, with training and perseverance, they may be able

to improve on their techniques. Dance graduate Arthur Wong reinforced “it’s a matter

whether the students are willing to learn it. Whether they want to work hard. I’m sure

they can get technically better” (interview, 4 June 2002). Consequently, they will have

the confidence to decide their own interests and career options. Bai Yingwen

rationalised “by doing so, you give the students confidence, and allow them to


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determine his own direction instead of informing him that he is or is not suitable”

(interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Bai Yingwen spoke about the inherent problems in holding

auditions from his own experience as a former student from the prestigious Beijing

Dance Academy in China. He remembered “every year, those who audition into Beijing

Dance Academy or other professional arts academies, will meet the same problems. He

dances very well but his criterions are not good and will lose the chance” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). Bai Yingwen elaborated on the criteria at the audition at Beijing Dance

Academy where examiners looked for physical attributes such as “the length of legs and

arms” and looks such as the five facial features (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). For a

country like China with a population of two billion, it seems possible to select the best

individuals to become professional dancers but the case in Singapore is vastly different,

with its demographic and vested interests’ differences.

All the four research participants from Nanyang Girls’ High School and a choreographer

strongly supported holding auditions due to the reasons of judging the candidate’s

commitment level and/or standard of dancing. Speaking on the candidate’s commitment

level, Nanyang Girls’ High School student Aundrea Tai felt strongly for auditions

because it is important that “a person should have a very strong passion for dance and

should be willing to learn more about dance” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Fellow dance-

mate Xu Zijie agreed with Aundrea Tai that an “audition is needed because Dance

Elective Programme is mainly for those who really love dance” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Li Shisi spoke on the same vein that “they must have the heart to learn and to do

it” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). If there is no stringent requirement such as an audition

for the intake of students, they will not take the dance course seriously. She reasoned

“if you just let anybody in, they might not exactly have the passion for it and they may

just give up halfway. They may find it too difficult or demanding” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Speaking from her experience of taking a third language, Xu Zijie shared that

there were students who “just go for fun; we’re not really interested” because the

Singapore Ministry of Education offered them an opportunity to “receive free education


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about different languages” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Xu Zijie agreed with Li Shisi

about the possibility of students giving up the dance course because they may find that

they are “not cut for it” or “not interested” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). As a result of

such potential dropouts, Xu Zijie spotted some problems in maintaining the standard

and environment for learning, perceiving “this will affect the class progress and affect

the teacher as well because she has to pay more attention on certain students”

(interview, 10 Sept. 2002). A conducive environment for learning and teaching will

result if students are competent.

The second reason for auditions being to judge one’s dancing abilities is emphasized by

student Xu Zijie, saying “if one is really very not coordinated at all, she or he enters a

dance programme, he or she may find that they don’t benefit at all or don’t get anything

out of this programme” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Elaborating on this point, she

continued, “practice does make the dance perfect but if you really don’t have the talent,

you’ll be wasting your time and effort” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). She also felt that

auditions are essential “for the teacher to judge one who is suitable” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Therefore, her mindset was that auditions are for students who “wish to enter the

professional dancer career” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Assistant ballet

master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil also shared similar thoughts about auditions

being essential for students who could “make it as a professional career” (interview, 6

Mar. 2003). For students to be able to participate in such level of artistic learning, they

would “require certain proficiency already” (Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar. 2003).

Educator Bai Yingwen also reasoned that auditions are only necessary for students

intending to go into professional training and thereafter, professional careers. However,

he clarified that his suggestion is only applicable in other countries, not in Singapore.

He stated “if it were to be a professional course in any other countries, when one

chooses it to be a profession, then there should be auditions” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

The reasons, as discussed previously, are due to Singapore’s difference in demography

and vested interests. Although not speaking in terms of the necessity of auditions,


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parent Cherie Yeo reinforced the point that the Dance Elective Programme is suitable

for people who show a talent in dance, indicating “unless the child is really…show a

talent in that area, then it is for them” (interview, 3 June 2002). These participants

revealed that only talented students should have access into the programme.

4.3.1.6 Dance Elective Programme and General Dance Programme

A student and an educator offered a way to rectify the above arguments for and against

auditions. They introduced two different dance programmes - Dance Elective

Programme and General Dance Programme - to promote artistic education for different

types of students. Assistant ballet master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil argued that

the dance programme has to be certain of its aim and then decide on what kind of

students it needs. He clarified “it all depends on the ultimate aim of the programme”

(interview, 6 Mar. 2003) and “probably the programme has to make a difference

between that type of students it wants” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). “There shouldn’t be

any restrictions on what [ballet] grade is required” (Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar.

2003) if its aim is to allow students to learn about dance and to “introduce dance to the

masses” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). Arguing on the same line as Jamaluddin Jalil, student

Xu Zijie proposed a similar dance programme that does not need auditions, offering that

the “relatively simpler” (10 Sept. 2002) General Dance Programme is “for those who

have passion for it, who wants to go for it” (10 Sept. 2002). Jamaluddin Jalil

highlighted it is not possible to have a programme to suit every one’s needs, stating “I

don’t think one can have a blanket requirement or blanket item to fit…….one size does

not fit all” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). It is crucial for the dance curriculum framework to

“be tailored to various needs and requirements on both sides” to cater to both the

schools and students (Jamaluddin Jalil, interview, 6 Mar. 2003).

Furthermore, students may be deterred from taking up the elective programmes because

of the distance that one needs to travel to the particular school. Corrie Tan explained if


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one wants to go to the school for the programme, “you have to travel all the way”

(interview, 3 June 2002). Adeline Chin shared her experience of giving up the option of

studying the Art Elective Programme because she preferred studying at Singapore

Chinese Girls’ School but it does not offer the programme. The Art Elective

Programme is offered at Nanyang Girls’ High and she felt that she would not be able to

fit in. She recalled “I don’t know, I feel very strange. I’ll be taking the programme and

I’ll be the only one from my school” (interview, 3 June 2002).

4.3.2 Why is artistic education significant in the dance curriculum?

The significance of artistic education to develop “talent” is highlighted in several

Singapore government documents such as Enhancing Arts Education Programme,

Renaissance City Report and Creative Industries Development Strategy-Propelling

Singapore’s Creative Economy Report. In these reports, the aim is to develop talent via

artistic education and not limiting education to talented students only.

4.3.2.1 Arts will thrive

The importance of artistic learning in the dance curriculum is that it will help the arts in

Singapore to thrive. Dance educator Teresa Pee articulated by saying “it is a good

climate now first to actually have the programme, the Dance Elective Programme, so

that we can actually move a step forward” (interview, 14 May 2002). By advancing

forward, student Xu Zijie added “it will help Singapore’s arts to flourish” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). Speaking on the same point about elevating the status of the arts, Nanyang

Girls’ High School student Aundrea Tai believed that with the positive progress in the

sports and arts, the implementation of the Dance Elective Programme, “the arts in

Singapore may be able to reach a greater height” (e-mail, 14 July 2003). Educator

Teresa Pee provided the reason for the timely implementation of the Dance Elective


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Programme because there are already several art and music programmes prevalent in

Singapore, exclaiming “dance will probably be the last to be included in the whole

education arena. But I think it would be a right time and it should be the right time to

actually introduce the Dance Elective Programme” (interview, 14 May 2002). In

student Aundrea Tai’s opinion, a holistic education would be possible if dance is

included in the curriculum because “arts include music, art, [and] drama” (e-mail, 14

July 2003). Creative Arts Programme participant Yu Zhihua also viewed the timely

implementation of a Dance Elective Programme because of the presence of existing

programmes such as Gifted Education Programme, Music Elective Programme, and Art

Elective Programme such that “most people will really enjoy this” as they are already

aware of these programmes and will more susceptible to a dance programme (journal,

31 May 2002).

4.3.2.2 To build audience support

With a thriving arts scene, it seems essential to groom people on how to appreciate the

arts and to support them. By immersing students in artistic learning, there is a higher

possibility to build audience support, as Caren Carino explained the objective “to

cultivate an appreciation of dance towards……building dance audiences” (interview, 16

July 2002). The reasons for teaching students different dance styles and

choreographers’ styles and works are to enhance the students’ “appreciation level” and

to “create awareness” (Teresa Pee, interview, 14 May 2002). Nanyang Girls High

School student Xu Zijie noticed the impending need to develop one’s appreciation

skills:

we have arts festivals, and stuffs but it has to start with the people, as in you need to get the people to appreciate arts first before you can shout “Ok, let’s promote arts. Let’s get people to become more artistic.”; they can’t (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).


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LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts dance graduate Vivienne Tan also mentioned that there

are students who may “not end up being in the dance industry (but) can contribute to the

arts scene in Singapore by being the audience” (e-mail, 13 July 2003). It is important

for performing arts groups to have audience to watch and support them.

4.3.2.3 To groom dancers

Artistic learning is also important to groom dancers. Student Xu Zijie argued that

artistic learning “will just help Singapore to have better dancers” and “may benefit

Singapore’s performing arts groups” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Xu Zijie viewed the

significance of artistic learning as developing the students’ skills in dance so it should

start when they are young, highlighting “if they don’t have this kind of education that

young, how are they supposed to groom them when they are old. They won’t have the

opportunity” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002).

Educator Caren Carino also identified the benefit “to identify and train talent” so that by

the time the students commence the Diploma in Dance course at LaSalle-SIA College of

the Arts, “they would have previous training and therefore would start their tertiary

education at a higher level” (interview, 16 July 2002). Secondary Four General

Certificate of Education “Ordinary” Level graduates who enter the Diploma in Dance

courses at Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts and LaSalle-SIA College of the Arts “hardly

become familiar with dance [as a co-curricular activity] and then undergo a three years’

diploma in dance course, the time is very short. It is ideal to have a dance syllabus in

school to prepare them” (Low Mei Yoke, interview, 2 July 2002). Caren Carino

reinforced the point about the students’ lack of formal training as co-curricular activity

and at dance studios because “these activities may be on a regular basis but most often

only once a week - certainly not often enough” (interview, 16 July 2002). Therefore

students seem to “have a long way to go by the time they choose to study dance

‘seriously’ at the tertiary level” (Caren Carino, interview, 16 July 2002). Artistic


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Director of Frontier Danceland Singapore Low Mei Yoke noticed that the current

tertiary dance training “does not prepare students sufficiently for a professional dance

career” in her company hence prompting the need for students to undergo training

earlier, preferably at secondary school-age (interview, 2 July 2002). It will benefit

tertiary institutions and dance companies if dance students and dancers receive training

at a younger age and this calls for the need of a Dance Elective Programme.

4.3.2.4 To continue studying dance at tertiary level

The other significance of artistic education is that students who graduate from the dance

programme will go on to pursue dance at tertiary level, so that they can learn more about

dance as an art form. Educator Teresa Pee hoped that they will “go on to pursue dance

maybe in the Diploma level or the Degree level” because “we don’t expect them to learn

everything in the four years” (interview, 23 July 2002). After four years of education,

the students would have learnt a variety of modern dance styles to prepare them for

tertiary dance training. Teresa Pee stated “when we actually expose them to different

styles created by different dance pioneers in modern era, when they go up to diploma or

degree study, they can actually absorb more” (interview, 23 July 2002). The

preparatory stage at secondary school will ensure students to be accustomed to more

advanced learning at tertiary level.

4.3.2.5 Allows students to know own potential and career prospects in dance

With dance as a core subject in the curriculum, it will allow students to find out more

about their potential in dance. Nanyang Girls’ High School student Li Shisi said “if we

have Dance Elective Programme, people who join it as a main subject will discover if

they want to become a professional dancer or something like that” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). Speaking of dance as a profession, Bai Yingwen pondered on the current

situation in which students only identify dance as a co-curricular activity and as such, it


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will only remain “a physical activity” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Thus it

is important to introduce to students via co-curricular activity that dance is a profession

because “if dance could be a profession, it will definitely have its cultural value” (Bai

Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). However in reality, Nanyang Girls’ High School’s

anonymous student whose parents allow her to take up “dancing only as an enrichment,

not for [her] to dance as a career” because “they think that academic [work] will always

come first because with good results, you can get a good job” (e-mail, 14 Sept. 2002).

Northland Secondary School student Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali also viewed the lack of

career prospects in dance, stating “in Singapore, [students] always study for their “O”

[Ordinary] and “A” [Advanced] levels. If they take dance, what for? It will be wasted

after taking “O” and “A” levels” (interview, 2 Oct. 2002). It is important for students to

be aware that there are career prospects in dance, lest it merely remains a leisure

activity, such as the like of a co-curricular activity.

4.3.2.6 Aesthetic education

To develop students’ aesthetics through the performing medium is essential in dance.

As choreographer Low Mei Yoke stated “why do I need them to train their lower body

for stability and balance? This is aesthetic. Why do I need the students to train their

upper body for extension? This is aesthetic” (interview, 2 July 2002). Dance training is

also about building a body of knowledge and technical skills and only after they have

acquired can one highly develop aesthetics of the body. She elaborated “when you

create a work, there is a sense of aesthetics. Why do you want to have dance training?

Why do you point your toes? These already involve [a] sense of aesthetics” (interview,

2 July 2002). Artistic learning embodies aesthetic learning and is manifested through

dance training and performing; it is essential to nurture students’ aesthetic perception

through artistic education.


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4.3.2.7 Lifelong love for dance

Even if students do not end up becoming professional dancers or continue learning

dance at tertiary level, it is valuable for artistic education in dance to cultivate one’s

lifelong passion for dance. Creative Arts Programme participant Corrie Tan’s keen

interest in dance is apparent as she wrote “it’s amazing how something so ethereal can

be so concrete and solid. [Dance] brings out the simple joy and beauty of living”

(journal, 29 May 2002). She elaborated that dance is “literally poetry in action. There’s

rhythm as the beat of the music pulses through your body……” (Corrie Tan, journal, 29

May 2002). She queried “why has dance always attracted the human soul?” (Corrie

Tan, journal, 28 May 2002). She believed dance is essential for everyone because “it

satisfies that deep need in each and every one of us” (Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May

2002). To her, dance is essential because “however introverted one may be, there is still

the [flamboyant] performer hidden deep within, that yearning to express pent-up

emotions and to release that often-suffocated desire to be noticed, to be applauded, and

to be praised” (Corrie Tan, journal, 28 May 2002). Dance has helped Corrie Tan to

know more about herself and others because of “the way each person carries himself or

herself, the movements chosen – each one is a profound gesture from the depth within”

(journal, 29 May 2002). There are intrinsic benefits in learning dance that induces one

to develop a lifelong love for it.

4.3.2.8 Students overlook significance of artistic education in dance!

Hitherto the data reveals the worth of artistic education in dance; there are several dance

students who do not understand its meaning and importance. Mayflower Secondary

School student Darren Chua equated the artistic learning of creating, performing and

viewing dance (Smith-Autard, 2002:30) to physical activities and for relaxation

purposes. He wrote “I thought all along that dancing lessons were like normal PE

[Physical Education] lessons. I thought it was to relieve stress for us students but it


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really surprised me” (journal, 20 July 2002). Classmate Muhd Khairul Hafiz offered the

same opinion about the purpose of dance, writing “it relaxes our mind” (course

evaluation form, 4 Oct. 2002). Darren Chua did not expect the dance lessons to include

assessments. He expressed his shock, “there’s something that surprised me; there is

actually a test on dancing. Wow……I did not know that” (journal, 20 July 2002).

Northland Secondary School student Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan viewed that

dance is merely learning movements and there is no theory involved because “for dance

class, there is nothing to study. Just learn the steps, no need to remember the….you

know like science all that, you must remember the notes” (interview, 2 Oct. 2002). She

formed her opinion from the type of activities she engaged in at school such as one in

which they “lifted up our legs and hands to the ceiling while lying down to balance our

bodies”. When probed, she could not describe any benefit(s) or learning outcome(s) of

the activity because they “just had stomach pains” (interview, 2 Oct. 2002). The

misinterpretation of artistic education in dance may bring about adverse effects to

students’ learning attitude and perception towards dance.

4.3.3 How can artistic education be implemented in the dance curriculum?

This sub-theme will focus on the suggestions given on the duration and range of

activities to promote artistic learning.

4.3.3.1 A different focus of learning each year and at certain schools

The curriculum may have a different focus of learning each year. For example, one year

may have the focus on Asian dances and the next is on Western dances so that students

would experience “an even component of all” in terms of a variety of dance styles and

genres within the four years’ programme (Teresa Pee, interview, 23 July 2002). She

went on to specify the areas of study in artistic learning, in which the focus for studying


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modern dance could be “on the different style of the pioneer artists, the modern pioneer

artists themselves” (interview, 23 July 2002). The content of modern dance can consist

of learning the works and styles of modern dance pioneers (Teresa Pee, interview, 23

July 2002).

Where the learning of different dance genres or styles is concerned, certain schools

could offer specific subjects, thereby increasing students’ interest and options in what to

learn. An educator recommended “cluster schools or arts magnet schools” that could

offer specialised subjects such as Indian Dance, ballet or even more than one discipline,

“thus attracting students interested in studying this dance form” (Carino, 16 July 2002).

By providing a range of learning experiences, a comprehensive programme will then be

realised.

4.3.3.2 To suit students’ needs and capabilities

Teresa Pee advised the planning of syllabus to be flexible to suit the students’ needs and

capabilities. She recommended that the teacher can “create something that is based on

the students’ standards” within the Secondary Four “O” level dance syllabus framework

(interview, 23 July 2002). She explained that the teacher could judge from the

requirements of the “O” Level dance syllabus and “work downwards to see, based on

the students’ standards and then she can progressively slow or fast, depending on how

well the students can actually absorb the material that she teaches” (interview, 23 July

2002). In fact, the lessons can be so flexible that the dance teacher could “introduce the

different styles, any classes; it can still be a free style or individual” (Teresa Pee,

interview, 23 July 2002).


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4.3.3.3 To inform students about objectives, content and learning outcomes of artistic education

It is important first and foremost for schools to determine their objectives, content and

learning outcomes of artistic education and to inform students about them. Educator Bai

Yingwen suggested that “the way it is conducted needs to be practically or scientifically

enforced, not blindly enforced for a specific purpose” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He

cited the example of Singapore Youth Festival Central Judging Competition in which

students are taught to dance because “of the competition and that they come from the

school and they should help the school to clinch an award” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10

Sept. 2002). In this case, students need to be taught that there are more intrinsic reasons

to learning dance than winning awards. He mentioned another inherent problem and if

artistic education is to be implemented, students need to be informed about the

availability of jobs in “all fields of the arts for them to select from” after they graduate

from university or from the dance company. One should not only be concerned with

grooming artists but what happens after they have acquired the skills. The content of

artistic education may need to align with market opportunities.

4.3.4 Conclusion

The baking of artistic flavour of the curriculum cake met with some controversial issues

concerning the inclusion of subjects such as ballet and dance history as well as holding

auditions to discern the types of students entering the programme. The relevance of a

Dance Elective Programme becomes more evident when participants revealed the

shortcomings of dance as a co-curricular activity that hardly engages students in a wide

range of artistic experiences and that dance could be a serious field of study and

profession. The discussion of the cultural flavour next will help to shed light on some

of these problems.


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4.4 Savouring the Saffron Layer: Cultural Flavours for Dance Curriculum

The fourth frame that is used to consider the theme arising from the data is cultural

education and dance curriculum. Interview participants and a Member of Parliament

raise issues concerning the definition of “multicultural” in Singapore and its inclusion in

education; the value of cultural education and ways of implementing a cultural approach

in the curriculum and in this case, a dance curriculum.

4.4.1 What is cultural education and dance curriculum?

4.4.1.1 What is Singapore culture and identity?

To identify the content of cultural education and dance, it is essential to discuss what

constitutes Singapore culture and identity. Member of Parliament, Dr. Vivian

Balakrishnan, speaking at the Closing Ceremony of the Creative Arts Programme,

reasoned it is a common human nature to yearn for identity and culture (speech, 1 June

2002). He also highlighted the relevance of culture and the arts; when one talks about

“identity and culture; language, art and art in its most generic sense is really a

manifestation of that” (speech, 1 June 2002). Speaking in the same vein as Dr.

Balakrishnan about the roots of culture, dance graduate Arthur Wong stated “in your

flesh and bones, your face, your eyes, and everything inside your body, it’s still there’s

something extraordinary, that something the roots [as a Singaporean] are still there”

(interview, 4 June 2002). Dr. Balakrishnan also explained that identity and culture

could not be “described in terms of economics or technical skills” because the latter do

not “confer identity, meaning, purpose, significance, solace and happiness” (speech, 1

June 2002). There are much more intrinsic components of identity and culture that are

embodied in each and every one of us.


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Dr. Balakrishnan stressed that we should not merely “plagiarize, copy the culture of our

ancestors” and that it is not possible to “rely on past historical cultural norms that

existed in China, India or Malaya because they didn’t have that multi-racial mix that we

have in Singapore” (speech, 1 June 2002). Agreeing with Dr. Balakrishanan about the

inherent problem of “copying the culture of our ancestors” (speech, 1 June 2002),

Teresa Pee highlighted the difference of learning the ethnic dances in Singapore as

compared to the ones from China, Malaysia and India. She clarified “the Indian dance

is not only just what we see in Singapore; there are many types, forms or styles of

dances in India that maybe we’re not familiar with locally. Likewise with Chinese

dance and Malay dance too” (interview, 23 July 2002).

4.4.1.2 Singapore dance

In the case of determining the content of cultural dances to be taught in secondary

schools in Singapore, it is essential to discuss the popular multicultural dance style

Singapore dance and how this has affected our understanding of cultural dances

prevalent in Singapore. Educator Teresa Pee described the Singapore dance

encompasses Malay, Chinese and Indian dance movements “on the same programme

but as separate items” (interview, 23 July 2002). Choreographer Low Mei Yoke viewed

“when these three sections end, all three cultural dancers dance together” (interview, 2

July 2002). Low Mei Yoke explained that the “Singapore dance is mainly for National

Day celebrations or for similar occasions” (interview, 2 July 2002). She recognized this

as a “process” that is neither appropriate nor inappropriate (interview, 2 July 2002). But

she admitted that when she saw someone choreograph such a work, she might recognise

“a lack of cohesion; the kind of cohesion that appears not so natural” (interview, 2 July

2002). She reiterated, “this [Singapore] dance cannot be accomplished just because

someone says “Oh, I want [Singapore] dance, please create one for me” (interview, 2

July. 2002). The result will be very superficial” (interview, 2 July 2002). Teresa Pee

also reinforced the superficiality of Singapore dance, stating it is difficult to “artificially


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put the three dance styles together to say that that is one genre” (interview, 23 July

2002). She saw the Singapore dance as three individual ethnic dances and not a dance

genre on its own, stating the Singapore dance is “just a style, displaying the different

ethnic groups in Singapore” (interview, 23 July 2002) and “not really so-called dance

genre” (interview, 23 July 2002). She problematised the concepts of the Singapore

dance with a possibility of losing one’s identity. She recognized “the danger of doing it

is you lose sight of what you really call our ‘Singapore identity’” (interview, 23 July

2002). Therefore she explained:

the Singapore identity is the existence of the different ethnic groups therefore we should have the different ethnic dances as Singapore dances. It is not just one particular dance form that includes the different ethnic groups (interview, 23 July 2002).

Furthermore, Bai Yingwen explained, “the definition of Singapore dance arises out of

everyday life, in which there is interaction between people and not solely from dance

and that dance can make cultures commonly known” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He

further elaborated on the concept of the Singapore dance that is new and may alter,

depending on what the three ethnic groups may decide to do. Nonetheless the

Singapore dance will still remain as a dance. He compared the Singapore dance to the

NEWater4 that “has a concept and is a new term” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Whether

the three multi-ethnic groups “continue or encompass or discard and to build new ones,

just like creating NEWater, it will not shed the fact that it is still water” (interview, 10

Sept. 2002). He meant Singapore dance is still a dance, no matter what happens to it.

4.4.1.2.1 Does not help to develop cultural understanding

Learning the Singapore dance does not help to enhance cultural understanding as

identified by dance graduate Arthur Wong who argued “if this race doesn’t understand

4 NEWater is ‘treated used water that has undergone stringent purification and treatment process ..…NEWater could be mixed and blended with reservoir water and then undergo conventional water treatment to produce drinking water” (Public Utilities Board, 15 May 2003)


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the dance of that race doesn’t give a point of why we’re doing it” (interview, 4 June

2002). There does not seem to be a point to why we are doing it [Singapore Dance]

even though the different ethnic groups dance together. Vivienne Tan also felt that the

Singapore dance is “just a display” but she observed that the Singaporean government

has improved in its way of celebrating National Day for its efforts in promoting the

Singapore Dance recently (interview, 12 August 2002). She viewed that it had become

a more effective way for the masses to learn the Singapore dance. The dance was

taught in a modern, fun, “in” and simple way so that it was easy for the masses to learn

and execute together even if one does not see “the different essences of the cultures”

(Vivienne Tan, interview, 12 August 2002). It becomes insignificant whether or not

they are going through “a cultural diversity integration process” (interview, 12 August

2002).

4.4.1.3 Needs time to develop culture

Bai Yingwen felt the same way as Arthur Wong and Vivienne Tan about imposing the

process of cultural integration upon people, as it “needs time and history to be slowly

cultivated” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He explained that cultural integration is “similar

to human interaction, similar to any kind of cultural education, that needs time and

communication to become cohesive” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He believed that it

needs time to develop culture in Singapore and that one should not be too anxious to

hasten it. The reason is that Singapore is a young country at merely 37 years old as

compared to the American culture that took a hundred years to develop and “a hundred

years to an ancient country or culture is still young” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Dr.

Balakrishnan echoed the same problem of Singapore being “too young, too small a

country” when it comes to issues of identity and culture (speech, 1 June 2002). As a

result, people’s first instinct when they mention their culture was to rely on information

from our ancestors’ lands. He mentioned “our first reflex when we talk about our

culture was to depend on our historical ethnic groups” (speech, 1 June 2002). One


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needs to search for one’s own identity though other means since it is not possible to rely

on the culture[s] prevalent in China, India and Malaya.

4.4.1.4 Understanding of cultural differences will promote cultural understanding

Cultural understanding will be promoted if people understand one another’s cultural

differences. Educator Bai Yingwen offered “once the Chinese people and people of the

other ethnic groups become friends and have a closer proximity and an understanding of

the attitudes, then cultural differences will become less evident” (interview, 10 Sept.

2002). As a consequence, he predicted “the creation of a ‘new culture’ will evolve” and

that Singapore will have to cope with “the development of a ‘new Singapore culture’ in

the near future” (Bai Yingwen, interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Bai Yingwen insisted that it

is not possible to “develop a completely new culture”, with “new people with new

civilisation with no primitive culture, no family background and no family history”

unless this group of people come from outer space (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). He

proposed “to give the students long-term benefits and not only to inculcate cultural

knowledge and to elevate their cultural knowledge” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). This

revelation held implications for the content of cultural education as one learns about the

significance of other people’s cultures.

4.4.1.5 Ethnic dances in Singapore and South East Asia

The content of cultural dances extends beyond learning the three dominant ethnic

dances in Singapore and that includes learning South East Asian dances. Educator

Teresa Pee recommended teaching the students “the South East Asian ethnic dances in

Thailand, Vietnam, Korea, Japan” (interview, 23 July 2002). This will promote

understanding of other cultures. The other reason is that the students will get to learn

Western dance forms more at tertiary level. She explained “because when they go on to

a Diploma study or a Degree study on dance, they have ample opportunities to be in


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contact with modern, with jazz, with ballet, those will be the main focus” (interview, 23

July 2002). This educator believes the focus should be on ethnic dances at secondary

school level since students may have plenty of opportunities to learn Western dance

forms at later stages in their education.

4.4.1.6 Youth culture

However, one should be reminded that cultural education in dance should not be

restricted to learning ethnic dances; it should also include youth culture. Choreographer

Low Mei Yoke who also teaches dance at secondary schools identified “secondary

school students enjoy dancing hip hop and street dance or similar fast-paced dances”

and she felt that they are agile and “able to master dances that include small, detailed

actions” (interview, 2 July 2002). Northland Secondary School students Raden Mas

Ayu Bte Ali and Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan would like to learn popular dances

such as Rhythm and Blues besides those dance styles or genres already taught in their

school (questionnaires; 2 Oct. 2002). Creative Arts Programme participant Yu Zhihua

recommended that students could learn to dance to popular music that “us teenagers

like” (journal, 30 May 2002). By doing so, students will feel that the activity is fun and

easy for them to master.

4.4.2 Why is cultural education significant in dance curriculum?

4.4.2.1 To promote cultural understanding

Dance educators and students highlighted the significance of learning ethnic dances in

the curriculum to promote cultural understanding. Dance educator Teresa Pee proposed

that “ethnic dances should be one of the components” (interview, 23 July 2002) since

Singapore is a multicultural society and that ethnic dances are very important to reflect


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our heritage and identity. In addition to learning ethnic dances in Singapore, the study

of South East Asian dances also allows the students “to know yourself and also your

neighbouring countries, beside you or around you, before you can actually reach out to

[them]” (Teresa Pee, interview, 23 July 2002). She added that it would widen students’

horizon (Teresa Pee, interview, 23 July 2002). Nanyang Girls’ High School anonymous

student said that her school is “like a Chinese school, if we learn different forms of

dance like Malay dance and Indian dance, to further improve our knowledge in other

race and culture” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). Creative Arts Programme participant

Corrie Tan went on to elaborate on cultural understanding through dance and wrote that

“dance does dissolve barriers” (journal, 29 May 2002). Speaking in the context of

Nanyang Girls’ High School that is a Special Assistant Plan school with a mission in

preserving Chinese traditions and customs, educator Neville Ellis encouraged the

learning of ethnic dance, specifically Chinese dance, to preserve traditions adding that if

students are exposed to the style, then it could cultivate an interest and passion so that

one day they may even become “expert in this field” (questionnaire, 2 Oct. 2002; e-

mail, 16 July 2003). It is essential to know one’s culture before breaking away from it

as assistant ballet master/dancer/educator Jamaluddin Jalil believed that it is necessary

for a dance student to have “in-depth knowledge of his own cultural traditions” to “help

to put him in touch with his own history and traditions” (interview, 6 Mar. 2003). To

learn own and others’ cultural dance[s] allows one to secede from the codes and

conventions to form one’s own movement vocabulary and may even help him or her to

find his/her own identity and voice in dance.

4.4.2.2 To develop an understanding of cultural differences

Students would have a better tolerance and understanding of various cultures if they

were tutored on how to differentiate them. Dance educator Teresa Pee advised that

students could “understand the cultures better; they’re more sensitive to individual or

different cultures practice and cultural aesthetic” if they were taught to separate the


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Asian and Western culture and their aesthetics and to highlight to them their similarities

and differences (interview, 23 July 2002). She recommended that this could be

conducted during the appreciation lessons. She elaborated that students would only

identify “ballet or even modern as dance; anything other than that, whether is it an

ethnic dance or jazz, they’re not exposed to” (interview, 23 July 2002). This justifies

the learning of dances from “different cultures” since students lack exposure to different

genres and their knowledge is limited to only ballet and/or modern dance (interview, 23

July 2002).

By understanding the existence of cultural differences, it will enhance people’s empathy

and sensibilities towards one another’s culture. When elaborating on the benefit of a

Dance Elective Programme that enhances one’s appreciation for the arts, dance educator

Bai Yingwen emphasized that it is more significant for students to “understand the

humanity culture” because the paramount goal of humanity is “to achieve a high culture

and civilization helps to develop this” (interview, 10 Sept. 2002). It appears that it is

more important to elevate students’ knowledge of their humanity culture instead of just

elevating their appreciation for the arts.

4.4.2.3 To perform at professional dance level

At the professional dance level, there is also an impending need to train dancers in

ethnic dances to be able to perform specific style[s] of works. As discussed in the

earlier artistic chapter, choreographer Low Mei Yoke emphasized her need to establish a

“unique dance company” that could compete against the top Western dance companies

in the world (interview, 2 July 2002). She needs dancers who are able to perform to her

expectations that are with “detailed expression and focus” (Low Mei Yoke, interview, 2

July 2002). The relevance for students to go through training in ethnic dances to cope

with demands in professional dance companies such as this one is evident.


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4.4.2.4 Should learn more than the practical aspects of dance

Even if students do not end up dancing professionally, they should be taught more than

the practical aspects of ethnic dances and should also be exposed to a variety of them.

Dance graduate Vivienne Tan spoke about its inherent problems as a co-curricular

activity when students merely imitate “what the teacher tells you to do” during dance

lessons (interview, 12 Aug. 2002). Educator Teresa Pee felt similar that dance as a co-

curricular activity is “basically very practical-based and the students basically learn a

particular genre of dance” (interview, 23 July 2002). She explained “if [students] join

the Chinese Dance club they only learn Chinese Dance” (interview, 23 July 2002).

4.4.3 How can cultural education be taught or integrated in dance curriculum?

4.4.3.1 “A Fusion of Cultures”

There are several activities and approaches to promote cultural education in the dance

curriculum. Vivienne Tan suggested one activity in which students from all races who

have already seen or learnt their own ethnic dances could implement “A Fusion of

Culture” during creative dance lessons (interview, 12 Aug. 2002). They could “fuse

Indian dance and Malay dance and Chinese dance into a contemporary dance”

(Vivienne Tan, interview, 12 Aug. 2002). This exercise becomes “challenging for them,

it’s also problem-solving, how to not just use the steps but to change the steps a little to

make it different from the original cultural dance but still maintain the essence of it”

(interview, 12 Aug. 2002). She considered it positive that people dance together

regardless of race or culture, commenting “people learn to interact with each other no

matter which culture you’re from and which race you are” (interview, 12 Aug. 2002).


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4.4.3.2 Nature in which programme is conducted – avoid being superficial and be sensitive to religious concerns

The other approach is the nature in which the programme is conducted. Dance graduate

Vivienne Tan felt that it is redundant to inform students the purpose of learning ethnic

dances as being to promote cultural diversity and/or assimilation. She reflected “it will

sub-consciously rub off on the students even without having to say in words that ‘Oh,

now we’re culturally integrated because we’re all sitting in one room and doing a

dance’” (interview, 12 Aug. 2002). Conversely, she preferred cultural learning through

dance to be “sub-consciously cultivated” because saying it repeatedly will result in the

experience becoming superficial (interview, 12 Aug. 2002). In addition, students from

particular religious backgrounds should be treated with sensitivity, as Northland

Secondary School student Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan highlighted that “[they]

Malays cannot stretch [their] legs…open [their] legs widely” because it is against the

Islam religion to execute such movements (interview, 2 Oct. 2002).

4.4.4 Conclusion

Saffron is a vivid and rich colour commonly used by Singaporean Indians in their

cuisine and clothing. Here, the need for the tasty and important saffron flavour of the

curriculum cake is evident when participants revealed that learning the Singapore dance

and students learning ethnic dances, as a co-curricular activity does not help to develop

cultural understanding. The delicate nature of this cultural layer suggests that students

could learn in, about and through popular dances, a variety of ethnic dances, and/or

contemporary dance to promote an understanding of cultural differences.


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4.5 Conclusion The data has revealed insiders’ views of the phenomena and what they perceive as the

necessary ingredients in baking an appetising curriculum cake in terms of its layers,

colours and taste that will suit most people. It is hoped that these frames of creative,

aesthetic, artistic and cultural education will provide suggestions for the development of

a framework of dance curriculum in the next chapter.

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Chapter 5: Voila! Presenting the curriculum cake!

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5 Overview The development of a framework for a Dance Elective Programme in this chapter is

now possible after savouring the suggested layers of the curriculum cake. Each slice

of the cake represents the aspects of the framework: rationale, content and

approaches. These aspects evolve as a result of considering the description and

essence of the research participants’ perspectives. As each curriculum slice is

presented, the layers of creativity, aesthetics, artistic and cultural education will be

devoured as a combination. From the data, the implications for the use of the

framework and recommendations for further research will be raised. The uniqueness

of Singapore does not make it possible for the framework to be modeled after a

syllabus from other countries; the data reinforces this and reveals a more suitable

framework to suit Singapore’s context.

5.1.1 Rationale This section concerns rationale, which identifies and explains the fundamental

reasons for the foci in the framework. Presently, students involved in dance as a co-

curricular activity in Singapore secondary schools are for the most part, learning to

perform in dances choreographed for them whilst the enrichment programmes in

dance offered in some schools does little more to promote a broad artistic education.

Hence the potential for dance education to promote creativity, aesthetics and cultural

understanding is not being fully realized. The framework that is emerging from this

research is one that addresses the government’s visions and the participants’ needs.

By engaging in creative dance experiences, students can develop skills and abilities

to understand themselves, others and the world in which we live. They will

appreciate the enjoyment and satisfaction they reap from the process of trying to

express themselves and construct meanings in their creative works. Creative dance

experiences can promote unique individual expressions and are accessible to

everyone regardless of social and cultural backgrounds, as well as physical abilities

and experiences. Through engaging in the creative process with others from


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different cultural and racial backgrounds, students learn to identify and value their

own and others’ different aesthetics prevalent in our multicultural society. Creative

learning in dance can involve other arts disciplines, hence promoting inter-

disciplinary arts practices. Through dance experiences student can also engage in

learning about other academic subjects. The bodily-kinesthetic experiences of dance

encourage unique ways of engaging students in academic learning. Creative process

involves students working with others to solve creative problems. Through the

development of their dances, students engage in creative and critical thinking hence

promoting multiple pathways of learning that can be transferred from school to

students’ working lives. They will also be able to apply these lifelong learning skills

of creative thinking and problem solving into fields other than dance.

Students who engage in aesthetic experiences will learn to think and respond

critically as they analyse, interpret and evaluate dance works. These skills enable

them to express their ideas, opinions and feelings. They also learn to respect

personal responses with the understanding that aesthetics differ in their own and

other cultures, hence assisting them to become reflective learners.

This framework is set out to cater to students who are interested in receiving a

general, broad-based dance education known as Dance Elective Programme. For

students who need a greater exposure to building their techniques, this framework

may be extended further to become a Programme of Excellence with a strong focus

in performance. The research indicates that students, in both types of programmes,

should immerse themselves in artistic learning through choreography, performance

and appreciation across a range of dance styles and genres. Engaging in artistic

learning develops students’ lifelong passion for involvement in dance and also

creates a higher possibility in building audience support. Particularly for students in

the Programme of Excellence who engage in artistic pursuits when young, they can

develop physical, cognitive, mental and academic abilities that enable them to pursue


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dance at tertiary level or to become competent enough to join dance companies as

dancers.

Cultural education in dance will enhance cultural understanding amongst students as

they seek to identify and investigate each other’s aesthetic reflections on a range of

dance styles and genres. It is possible to promote understanding of culture amongst

the young through experiences in dance because dance is an embodied form of

culture. The learning of ethnic dances, including South East Asian dances can help

to promote other cultural understandings. Students can build tolerance and

understanding of various cultures if they engage with learning experiences that

expose them to different cultures and their aesthetics.

The inherent problem in which most students learn ethnic dances during dance

lessons as a Co-Curricular Activity is that they merely mimic what teachers teach

them to perform. Thus students hardly engage in creating or appreciating

experiences and they will not have the opportunity to be exposed to other kinds of

dance genres or styles other than what they learn in the activity. Therefore the

relevance of cultural education in dance becomes even more prevalent.

5.1.2 Content The rationale as perceived by the participants will influence the selection of core and

elective content. Core content describes what is essential and compulsory study for

all students studying the programme whilst elective content is considered optional

but also relevant. The implications of the socio-cultural backgrounds, skills,

abilities, and experience of students for which the curriculum has been developed

will also affect the content selected.

Dance, as an educational subject, has to be broad-based and includes the three

organizers - creating, performing and appreciating dances - at different times during

the course. Students can acquire skills, understanding and knowledge in dance that

will equip them with essential tools and allow them to have a wider selection of

careers.


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A suggested component of this framework includes creative movement or

composition that can help to develop students’ creativity and can allow them to

express ideas and feelings. Therefore, the creative process may include producing or

creating something novel. It may also engage students to solve problems and may

provide an avenue for the expression of ideas, opinions and feelings. Students may

be guided by stimulus or theme, criteria, assessments, and knowledge and

understanding of forms of choreography. Modern or Contemporary dance are

suggested components because they can also promote individual expression and

elicit feelings through movements.

The findings from participants reveal that aesthetic learning can be promoted

through dance. Dance history and dance appreciation are essential for understanding

aesthetics of one’s own culture and other cultures, hence promoting cultural

understanding. Dance history may be introduced on a moderate scale and not

limited to memorizing facts and figures so as to remain engaging for students. More

importantly, dance history can help students to identify and respect dance in various

contexts. Guiding students how to appreciate dance using an analysis model that

includes recognizing the form, describing, interpreting, and evaluating dances can

develop aesthetic perception. In the absence of a general framework, students may

tend to engage in discussions in a laissez-faire manner and not able to reflect

critically on art works. The content of aesthetic education should not be limited to

only dance but other art forms.

The role of ballet is problematised as some participants saw ballet as an effective

technique in grooming dancers and should therefore be implemented as a core

subject in the programme. On the contrary, ballet may deter students from taking up

dance because they are not trained in ballet. This controversial issue can be resolved

by implementing ballet as an optional subject in the initial Dance Elective


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Programme and later as a core subject when the curriculum framework is extended

into a Programme of Excellence.

Students can build an understanding of dance in its context by studying dance and

their cultures. In relation to the kinds of cultural dances to be studied, a range of

different cultural dances may be offered. It is important to have embodied

experiences in culture; performing cultural dances alone may be insufficient.

Research participants highlighted the problem of studying the Singapore dance that

consists of three individual ethnic dances and is recognized by participants as not a

dance genre on its own. The concept of the Singapore dance is problematised with a

possibility of losing one’s identity; there is a danger of losing sight of the essence of

what we know as ‘Singapore identity’ with the amalgamation of the three ethnic

dances. Learning the Singapore dance does not help to promote cultural

understanding because students who learn their own ethnic dance may not

understand the other ethnic dances. Conversely, allowing students to study dance in

their contexts can promote cultural understanding. When students from different

ethnic groups begin to acquire an understanding of the other cultures’ attitudes and

values, they will then understand and respect cultural differences prevalent in our

multicultural society. Such processes need time and teaching pedagogy has to be

relevant to address this. The content of cultural dances extends beyond learning the

three dominant ethnic dances in Singapore and should include learning South East

Asian dances. Cultural education in dance should not be restricted to learning multi-

ethnic dances; it can also include learning popular dances because teenagers find

them fun and easy to learn and it is part of their globalised contemporary identity and

culture.


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5.1.3 Teaching and learning approaches Approaches encompass learning experiences, opportunities and activities that work

to achieve the desired learning outcomes. There are various ways of implementing

the suggested core and elective content in the curriculum framework to suit the taste

of diverse communities in Singapore.

To impose academic pre-requisites is deemed by participants as an unsuitable

criterion for admitting students into the dance programme because academic

brilliance does not necessarily translate into artistic talents or abilities. According to

some participants, auditions are not essential in Singapore because students’ interest

in dance may be diminished. The absence of auditions may increase student-intake

and confidence. On the other hand, there were research participants who supported

holding auditions due to the need to judge candidates’ commitment level and

standard of dancing. If there is no stringent requirement such as an audition,

students will not take the dance course seriously and may not cope with the demands

later. To reinforce the point that has been discussed earlier, auditions are necessary

only if the curriculum framework is extended to become a Programme of Excellence

to prepare students for a professional dance career.

Creativity will thrive when teachers encourage students to use their imagination and

do not impose rules to limit their opportunity to explore and express their ideas.

Developing the students’ creativity is only possible if they are given opportunities to

engage in creating their own dance movements and choreography. A suggested

approach to teaching creative movement class includes teaching students

choreographic elements and encouraging them to explore a range of choreographic

devices when creating movement.

Dance appreciation may encompass the understanding and use of an analysis model.

Student-participants reflected that verbally communicating their dance experiences


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fares better than writing because interacting with others is an active experience

whereas writing is impersonal and static. This communication may be deeper and

richer when students apply their developing analysis skills to understand their own

and others’ aesthetics. Another way of developing aesthetic understanding is to

allow them to appreciate the works of professional artists. Participating in dance

embodies the experiences that develop aesthetic awareness.

The programme may be more intensive than the usual co-curricular activity that

takes place only once or twice a week; it can be conducted on a daily basis,

especially for the Programme of Excellence. The framework may have a different

focus of learning of dance genres or styles within their socio-cultural contexts to

allow a deeper learning and understanding. The planning of school-specific

curriculum may be flexible to suit students’ needs and capabilities within the four

years of secondary school framework. For example, the facilitator can introduce

different dance styles or genres and to conduct the class or programme at a pace to

suit the capabilities of students.

A cultural frame with the aim of valuing cultural understanding as a central

component, Dance Elective Programme must include more than practical aspects of

dance. To effectively teach or integrate cultural/ethnic dances in the curriculum,

students need to know how to appreciate them and to manipulate them to create their

own movement vocabulary hence promoting the components of artistic education.

5.2 Implications for the use of framework The absence of a dance curriculum in Singapore secondary schools indicates a great

potential to create one suitable for arts-based learning and arts-related learning if this

suggested curriculum framework is constituted further.


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Broad-based and flexible

Due to the broad-based nature of this framework, it can cater for different student

groups. It is evident that this framework needs to be explored further and embedded

at a number of different schools to provide opportunities for a broader relevance.

Description of Dance Elective Programme

A Dance Elective Programme should not only be offered in ‘elite’ schools, which

will restrict the number of students with interest and talents/abilities to take up

dance. The research indicates that dance in the school curricula should be available

to students who have a love for dance and therefore auditions should not be a

requirement for entry. When more interest is garnered and enrolment has increased,

it may be more feasible to segregate students into a Dance Elective Programme and

Programme of Excellence. The latter, an extension of Dance Elective Programme

will be tailored for talented students who wish to take up a more serious study in

dance with a stronger focus in performance mode. The findings revealed that there

may be two cohorts of students who have different needs that will then constitute

two different programmes.

Inspiration

The insight from this study will be reflected in the continuation of the practice at

Mayflower Secondary School with some adjustments and refinement. The possible

implementation of similar frameworks at other schools will indicate how flexible the

programme can be to cater to the needs of different types of students.

It is hoped that this suggested framework with a focus in creative, aesthetics, artistic,

and cultural education will provide an impetus for further development of dance

curriculum for Singapore schools in the near future and Singapore will be one step

closer to realising its Renaissance Singapore dream.

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore Appendices

i

Member Checks Question 1: Does this summary capture your experiences or perspectives? If not, how should this be interpreted? Question 2: Is there anything that is significant with regard to Dance Elective Programme that you would like to add?’ Educators Name Sent analysis to

participant Received feedback from participant

1 Bai Yingwen √ X 2 Caren Carino √ √ 3 Chen Lili √ X 4 Cherie Yeo √ X 5 Jamaluddin Jalil √ X 6 Liang Yu (transferred to another

school; no mailing address)

X

7 Low Mei Yoke √ X 8 Neville Ellis √ √ 9 Teresa Pee √ √ Creative Arts Programme students Name Sent analysis to


1 Adeline Chin √ √ 2 Andre Yeo √ X 3 Corrie Tan √ √ 4 Yu Zhihua √ √ Nanyang Girls’ High School Name Sent analysis to


1 Anonymous student √ √ 2 Aundrea Tai √ √ 3 Li Shisi √ √ 4 Xu Zijie √ X


ii

Northland Secondary School Name Sent analysis to


1 Letchemanen No mailing address provided

X

2 Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan

√ X

3 Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali √ X 4 Anonymous student No mailing address

provided X


iii

Name Position/Organisation Date interviewed

Type of interview

1a Andre Yeo Gifted Education Programme student, Anglo-Chinese School (Independence)

3 June 2002 Focus group

1b Adeline Chin Special Stream student, Singapore Chinese Girls’ School


1c Corrie Tan General Music Programme student, Cedar Girls’ School


2 Cherie Yeo Parent/kindergarten teacher

3 June 2002 Personal

3 Arthur Lim Ex-graduate of Diploma in Dance course at Lasalle-SIA College of the Arts

4 June 2002 Personal

4 Low Mei Yoke

Artistic director, Frontier Danceland Singapore

2 July 2002 Personal

5 Caren Carino Head of Dance Department, Lasalle-SIA College of the Arts

16 July 2002

Personal

6

Teresa Pee Former Assistant Head of Dance Department, Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts

23 July 2003

Personal

7 Vivienne Tan Ex-graduate of Diploma in Dance course at Lasalle-SIA College of the Arts

12 August 2002

Personal

8a Li Shisi Dance Club student, Nanyang Girls’ High School

10 Sept. 2002

Focus group

8b Anonymous Dance Club student, Nanyang Girls’ High School

10 Sept. 2002

Focus group

8c Aundrea Tai Dance Club student, Nanyang Girls’ High School

10 Sept. 2002

Focus group

8d Xu Zijie Dance Club student, Nanyang Girls’ High School

10 Sept. 2002

Focus group

9 Bai Yingwen Chinese Dance lecturer, Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts

10 Sept. 2002

Personal


iv


Type of interview

10a Letchemanen Artist-in-School Project student, Northland Secondary School

2 Oct. 2002 Focus group

10b Anonymous Artist-in-School Project student, Northland Secondary School


10c Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali

Artist-in-School Project student, Northland Secondary School


10d

Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan



11 Jamaludin Jalil

Full-time dancer/assistant ballet master/educator, Singapore Dance Theatre

6 Mar. 2003 Personal

Name Position/Organisation Date

interviewed Questionnaire/ Others

1 Yu Zhihua Gifted Education Programme student, Anglo-Chinese School (Independence) and Creative Arts Programme participant

28-31 May 2002

Journal

2 Corrie Tan General Music Programme student, Cedar Girls’ School and Creative Arts Programme participant

28 May-1 June 2002

Journal

3 Dr. Vivian Balakrishnan

Minister of State for National Development

1 June 2002 Speech

4 Chen Lili Full-time dance teacher, Nanyang Girls’ High School

23 Sept. 2002

Questionnaire

5 Liang Yu Chinese language teacher, Northland Secondary School

1 Oct 2002 Questionnaire

6 Neville Ellis Head of Aesthetics Department, Nanyang Girls’ High School

2 Oct. 2002 Questionnaire


v


Questionnaire/ Others

7a 7b 7c 7d

Li Shisi Anonymous Aundrea Tai Xu Zijie

Dance Club student, Nanyang Girls’ High School

10 Sept. 2002

Questionnaire

8a 8b 8c 8d

Letchemanen Anonymous Raden Mas Ayu Bte Ali Redha Nuruinda Bte Haji Roslan


2 Oct. 2002 Questionnaire

9 Ng Baoqi Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

1 July 2002 Journal

10 Connie Sie Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

7 July – 23 Aug. 2002

Journal

11 Ow Jun Xuan Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

9 July 2002 Journal

12 Darren Chua Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

12 July – 16 Aug. 2002

Journal

13 Quelyn Koh Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

23 Sept. 2002

Appreciation Assessment

14 Muhd Khairul Hafiz

Artist-in-School Project student, Mayflower Secondary School

4 Oct. 2002 Course evaluation form


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*Interview with Mr Bai Yingwen, Lecturer of Ethnic Chinese Dance, Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts, Dance Department *September 10, 2002, 4.45pm-530pm *Dome Café, National Arts Museum (Tape 1) 1. *J: Can you briefly tell me your work at NAFA? 2. *B: Lecturer of Ethnic Chinese Dance Department, Nanyang Academy of 3. Fine Arts, Singapore 4. 5. *J: What do you think of the kind of dance education offered in Singapore 6. secondary school now? 7. *B: From my teaching experience, the objective and preparatory (“qian ti”) 8. of the entire teaching are positive. However, together with the gradual 9. process and the concrete implementation, a lot of variety (“duo yuan hua”) 10. appeared. There is a lot of variety, not because of the differences in culture 11. but a lot of variety in its objectives. For example, it seems that the objective 12. is to attain (Singapore Youth Festival) Gold Award for the sake of the Gold 13. Award. This causes the fundamental objective of promoting dance to alter. 14. The objective is not to promote dance but to attain Gold Award. The main 15. and original objective for the government to create extra-curricular activity 16. has altered a little. 17. 18. *J: Just now you mentioned about CCA (co-curricular activity) but there 19. were several secondary schools that offer dance in the curriculum. What do 20. you think of that kind of dance education offered? 21. *Bai: It is a new kind of dance education offered, in a different way including 22. the one at Nanyang Girls’ School. Dance teaching methods to be included 23. and introduced directly in the classrooms are a kind of practical (“shi jian”) 24. activity and an innovative procedure (“yi shi”). It is not known if they are 25. able to achieve the main objective of promoting dance. it needs a long time 26. to develop to know its programme’s effectiveness and to enhance it (“gong 27. gu”). It is not only to be promoted in school in a systematic way to develop a 28. system but the school has to decide why are they are training the students in 29. dance. Perhaps it is to allow them to immerse in cultural activities (“xun 30. tao”) and to inculcate their cultural knowledge. What can dance bring to the 31. students? My personal opinion is to give the students long-term benefits and 32. not only to inculcate cultural knowledge and to elevate their cultural 33. knowledge. More importantly the students are not only concerned with 34. studies but from CCA they will understand that it is a profession. If dance 35. could be a profession, it will definitely have its cultural value (“wen hua 36. xing”) and from young they could determine (“dian ding”) that dance could 37. be an option as a profession and not only as a CCA and remains only as a 38. CCA. If dance were to remain only as CCA, it will only be a physical 39. activity. 40.


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41. *J: What do you think are the benefits of the Dance Elective Programme? 42. *Bai: I think that it offers appreciation of a variety of the arts. This 43. programme allows different standard/levels, ages and ethnic groups of 44. people, especially during their learning process, to elevate their appreciation 45. of the arts that everyone mentions and is the objective. More significantly, it 46. is to allow them to understand the humanity culture (“ren wen wen hua”). 47. Everyone mentions the significance to elevate one’s arts appreciation but 48. more importantly it is to understand humanity culture; the utmost goal of 49. humanity to achieve a high culture (“ren li’), culture and civilization help to 50. develop this. These are not dependable on...... Humanity culture advances as 51. time progresses and the application (“diu shi”) becomes lesser. Personally I 52. feel that it is significant to actually elevate their knowledge of their humanity 53. culture, and not merely to elevate appreciation for the arts. Hopefully the 54. programme not only cultivates arts critics. If it only grooms arts critics, then 55. it is the failure of the programme. They do not get involved and only 56. criticise. 57. 58. *J: From your experience as dance lecturer at NAFA, what kind of dance 59. education, in this case, a Dance Elective Programme, would prepare 60. candidates for a Diploma in Dance course? What are the suitable subjects for 61. a Dance Elective Programme? 62. *Bai: how should I say this? From what I mentioned earlier, there are certain 63. standards (“zhi du”) and the direction of CCA and dance education are new 64. experiences and process. Singapore itself is a newly developed country. 65. Whatever that begins is a new evolution. Everything has to be creative. The 66. ways to elevate and to achieve professional dance student’s standard: firstly, 67. the system in which they began dance in secondary schools, has to have 68. objectives. Just like when a girl grows up, she has to get married. You 69. cannot expect her to remain unmarried when she grows up. This world only 70. has females and no males and will result in females not able to get married. 71. You have to have a sense of belonging. After graduating from university or 72. from the dance troupe there must be jobs available in all fields of the arts for 73. them to select from. One should not only be concerned with grooming 74. artistes but what happens after you have groomed them? After you have 75. groomed them, it will only let them lose their confidence. 76. 77. *J: What are the suitable subjects for a Dance Elective Programme? For 78. example, do you think there should be an emphasis on Chinese dance, 79. modern dance or ballet? 80. *Bai: Singapore as a multi-cultural country has different ethnic groups: 81. Malay, Chinese and Indian. I remember that there was a period of time I read 82. in the newspapers that Singapore would establish several specialty (“te se”) 83. schools. It is possible to establish relationship with these special schools and 84. allow different levels to have different alternatives (“ce zhong”). For 85. example, some schools will focus on Chinese dance whilst some schools......it 86. becomes natural for some schools because it is impossible to make them


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87. become popularised (“pu ji”); Malay schools are Malay schools and cannot 88. become universal. It is not possible to force it. Cultural integration needs 89. time and history to be slowly cultivated and not forced upon. Just like human 90. interaction, similar to any kind of cultural education, that needs time and 91. communication to become cohesive. For example, once the Chinese people 92. and people of the other ethnic groups become friends and have a closer 93. proximity and an understanding of the attitudes, then cultural differences will 94. become less evident. There will be no more cultures between them as they 95. have learnt to accept each other’s cultures. To accept, in itself, is a creation 96. and an innovation and the creation of a “new culture” will evolve. This is 97. probably what Singapore will have to face in the development of a “new 98. Singapore culture” in the near future (“tu jing”). 99. 100. *J: In March 2002, the Singapore Ministry of Education stated that arts 101. programmes are able to inculcate amongst our students “a sense of aesthetics 102. and creativity” (The Ministry of Information Communications and the Arts, 103. Speech by Dr Ng Eng Hen, Minister of State for Education and Manpower at 104. the National Arts Education Conference, 105. http://www.gov.sg/singov/announce/110302neh.html, 106. accessed 15 Mar. 2002). Is it possible for a Dance Elective Programme to 107. accomplish this over a span of four years and that our students aged 13-16 108. years old may be too young to comprehend such complex philosophies? 109. Personally I feel that the government’s policies, strategies, goals are very 110. good and this causes....Many people in the past had mentioned that Singapore 111. is a “cultural desert”. In secondary schools and even in primary schools the 112. arts are commonly known and introduced to the students, and to introduce the 113. arts profession to the general public. I personally feel that our young has 114. become more and more intelligent but the adolescents at the age ranging 115. from 13-16 are still not certain about their job and career choices. They are 116. not exactly capable enough to tell apart between differentiating (“fen bian”) 117. and the ability to spot differences (“shi bian”). After all they are not that 118. matured. The way they view a matter, even if it is out of curiosity or out of 119. love, to view that as a career choice is not practical. Very often, to introduce 120. the arts to the general public not only concerns the students but the parents. 121. Very often, when children do not comprehend a matter, they will ask their 122. parents. If it is still not clear, they will ask their teachers. Unconsciously 123. teachers, parents and the school environment make up a huge environment 124. and this directly affect the child to a large extent. Students will have a sense 125. of belonging and this lessens the distance. Parents communicate with their 126. children and this results in the latter building trust in their parents. With 127. regard to every matter, career, culture, profession, and cultural trait, they will 128. unconsciously have a distinct understanding. Without saying, teachers 129. directly help to mould the children and to give them knowledge. In 130. Mandarin, teachers are “engineers of the soul”. Since they are regarded as 131. “engineers of the soul” students unconsciously regard them as role models 132. during their learning process. Very often, children will say “our teacher said

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133. this and that....”; to understand without doubts (“ke xiao er zhi”). This third 134. factor is indispensable and not only through the child. A child is always a 135. child. 136. 137. *J: It is not clear if the MOE is referring to Western aesthetics. If it is, how 138. relevant is that in Singapore’s context? Or is Asian aesthetics more 139. applicable? Or is it universal? 140. *Bai: You mentioned earlier about the aesthetics, whether it is Asian or 141. Western. What you said was true, what is aesthetics? Firstly we have to 142. define aesthetics. What is beautiful? From young, you cannot say from the 143. time the child learns to read and write, that you teach him “this is Asian 144. beauty and that is Western beauty”. More importantly you have to teach him 145. how to appreciate beauty and what is beautiful; that is more significant. 146. Thereafter in a huge environment, in European or Western countries, they 147. will create different cultural aesthetics and to retain other cultural groups’ 148. culture. Even in western culture, they are preserving Asian culture or even 149. distinctive cultural traits, for example, artifacts and even artistic views; these 150. are evident in their thinking. During the process you need to firstly let them 151. know what is beautiful and secondly, let them know the beauty of your own 152. original cultural source (“mu ti”). If you are Chinese you need to know the 153. beauty of your own primitive culture. Similarly when you view other ethnic 154. groups, you will know how to view the essence of their aesthetics (“zhi shen 155. de mei”). Just like when you mature and grow up into an adult, from no 156. decision-making to a little decision-making “si wei” and to ascertain own 157. decision, this sense of aesthetic needs time and education; this is a process. 158. They need to know beauty and then the original beauty “zhi shen de mei” and 159. then to learn about everyone’s beauty and to ascertain own beauty. 160. 161. *J: Bai Lao Shi, what is “si wei”? 162. *Bai: “si wei” is the ways you consider things. 163. 164. *J: you were once a People’s Association professional dancer and had 165. performed the “Singapore dance”, do you think that if our students were to 166. learn the “Singapore dance” or even different ethnic dances, it will help to 167. forge our identity and integrate our cultural diversity, as proposed by the 168. government? Do you think that is possible? Do you think that the Singapore 169. dance’ really represent our various ethnic groups? 170. *Bai: the ‘Singapore dance’ is a new term, just like the ‘Newater” that has a 171. concept and is a new term. People just give it a term and we will call it that. 172. When there isn’t anything, whatever you name it will become something. 173. Because Singapore is a multi-ethnic society, with the three ancient ethnic 174. groups - Malay, Indian and Chinese which have rich history and cultural 175. background. Whether these three cultures continue or encompass or discard 176. and to build new ones, just like creating ‘Newater’, it will shed the fact that it 177. is still water. Actually this kind of concept must be definite. The definition 178. of ‘Singapore dance’ arises out of everyday life, in which there is interaction


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179. between people and not solely from dance and think that dance can make 180. cultures commonly known “pu ji”. Dance is a form and in Singapore at 181. certain stages, dance is not highly regarded and only be regarded as an ethnic 182. and traditional art form in our lives. For example, at associations and 183. celebrations, dance is a display of the various ethnic groups. I feel that the 184. dragon dance and lion dance are not forms of art but a custom. It is a cultural 185. custom and not a cultural art. 186. 187. *J: I’ve come to the end of the interview, is there anything else to add with 188. regard to the secondary dance education in Singapore? 189. *Bai: the secondary dance education, like what I mentioned earlier like any 190. CCA, its objectives, goals and especially the way of conducting the lessons, 191. after trialling what is possible and what is not, and not solely for goals. 192. Every two years the Singapore Youth Festival dance competition has become 193. a do-or-die situation. It has diminished the main objective to promote the 194. arts. In Singapore, our young....of course, time has changed, you cannot 195. force them to learn the more traditional ethnic dance or art works but at least 196. allow them to understand the main objective of learning it. One should not 197. only inform them that they dance because of the competition and that they 198. come from the school and they should help the school to clinch an award. 199. From young, they are being taught and cultivated that there must be a prize if 200. they were to participate in any competition. If they were to compete, they 201. must win. If they do not win any award, it seems like they have lost some 202. glory. So all activities need time. Firstly the way it is conducted needs to be 203. practically or scientifically enforced, not blindly enforced for a specific 204. purpose. To culturally develop Singapore needs time. Everyone seems to be 205. following American culture, and America took hundred years to develop its 206. American culture. A hundred years to an ancient country or culture is still 207. young. For Singapore who is merely 37 years old, it still needs time. One 208. should not be too anxious. Culture, on its own, needs time to develop and 209. inculcate. To develop a completely new culture, one is not possible to leave 210. human. Humans, especially when there are three ethnic groups prevalent in 211. Singapore, need to create or demolish a new culture? This needs a long time 212. to figure out. It is not possible to say “I would like to overthrow it” unless 213. this group of people come from outer space. New people with new 214. civilisation with no primitive culture, no family background, and no family 215. history, you will change all procedures and create entirely new things. This 216. is my personal feeling. Would you like to ask other questions? 217. 218. *J: What are the suitable subjects for a Dance Elective Programme? For 219. example, do you encourage Chinese dance since you teach Chinese dance? 220. *B: As a dancer and as I have been teaching, I wonder if learning ballet or 221. Chinese dance is more complex. Is ballet the only effective method to train a 222. dancer? Or Chinese dance the only way? I feel that there is no one expert 223. who can determine if there is one sole method. It boils down to what the 224. country emphasises on and what it needs. But I am certain to say that how


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225. many ballet-trained dancers can dance Chinese dance? There isn’t that 226. many. However those who are trained in Chinese dance can dance ballet. 227. The numbers are greater than those who learn ballet. I am not saying that 228. Chinese dance is more prominent than ballet but because this is what many 229. people face when teaching dance: how to train a proper, professional dancer? 230. Through which programme can the dancer achieve a variety of effective 231. results, in this case physical results, to become a professional dancer? This is 232. a question that everyone ponders upon. So it is not true to say that to learn 233. ballet is good and it is not bad to learn Chinese dance. I love ballet but I 234. teach Chinese dance. Chinese dance is beautiful. There are 56 ethnic groups 235. and 56 kinds of emotions. But I love ballet for its grace, flow and extension. 236. When I listen to ballet music in the studio, I am tempted to attend ballet 237. classes myself. However as a dancer, it is more crucial to adjust the dancer’s 238. body and not whether it should be ballet or Chinese dance. The most crucial 239. factor to train is the coordination. Once you have trained the dancer’s 240. coordination, he or she can dance any forms of dance. Every form of dance 241. has its own habits or practices, you are used to this, while he is used to that. 242. You need to allow the dancer’s muscles, bones, and abilities to get used to 243. any forms of movements and he will become a good dancer. 244. 245. *J: If secondary school students were to learn dance theory subjects, what 246. kind of theory subjects should be offered? From secondary one to four, what 247. kind of dance knowledge should we provide them with to equip them with a 248. diploma course at NAFA? Or do you think that they are not appropriate? 249. *Bai: I feel that a professional and theoretical knowledge, is not necessary in 250. secondary schools. If the student is in secondary school and has already 251. announced his future career, you would have told him he has to study that. I 252. feel that dance is a form of art and not dance is art. It is a dance art and not 253. art dance. It exists due to the difference in its nature because dance is one of 254. the forms of art. Through a physical, interesting, characters, and stories-like 255. activities, like in a dance work, to allow the students to understand this 256. career; to determine his interest and to have a better understand and not to 257. introduce him to the dance culture and dance anatomy, etc from the 258. beginning. I feel that it is destructive. Once you are born, you will become a 259. lawyer because our society lacks lawyers or engineers; you need to. By 260. doing so, you are destroying the child’s creativity and limiting his room for 261. development. Whatever forms of education, you have to provide him culture 262. and the entire arts, not only dance. There are art and music, and 263. allow the child to choose and not drag the child’s hand and to force him to do 264. whatever you want him to. 265. 266. *J: Are auditions necessary to admit students into DEP? Or is their interest 267. or passion in 268. dance sufficient? Or should there be auditions to determine those talented 269. ones? 270. *Bai: I think that auditions are not necessary in Singapore. If it were to be a


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271. professional course in any other countries, when one chooses it to be a 272. profession, then there should be auditions. But for secondary schools to 273. insist on auditions for students who are full of passion and due to the 274. professional demands and criteria, you will destroy the students’ hope and 275. initial choice to take up dancing. When you enjoy it, I will give you an 276. opportunity. We hope that there will be more people to join and learn dance. 277. Once there is a large number of students, we can then divide them into 278. different classes or levels or ethnic dances, for example, if one chooses a 279. different dance career. By doing so, you give the students confidence, and 280. allow them to determine his own direction instead of informing him that he is 281. or is not suitable. In China, every year, those who audition into Beijing 282. Dance Academy or other professional arts academies, will meet the same 283. problems. He dances very well but his criterions are not good and will lose 284. the chance. In actual fact, in Singapore, what comes to mind is the student’s 285. passion and not about criteria at all. It’s only “I love dance”. Actually, it is 286. fundamental to love dance or without the passion, you would just be a 287. machine. You have to dance with a passion that comes from your heart. 288. Without passion in dance it will just become a physical demonstration. 289. 290. *J: Can you please elaborate on the criteria at the audition at Beijing Dance 291. Academy? 292. *Bai: the professional standards refer to the physical attributes and looks 293. such as the five facial features, the length of legs and arms. The judgment of 294. beauty is different in every country. Dance is a performing art that appears in 295. front of audience. It is unlike music in 296. which one can listen to whilst closing his eyes. Dance is right in front of the 297. eyes of the audience. What kind of beautiful images are created? In China, it 298. must be absolute beauty; it has to be exceptionally beautiful. The 299. requirements are very high and the professional dancers from China have 300. very good criteria such that you will feel that they have the same height and 301. same length of legs. This is a typical professional standard but it also has its 302. negative points. For example in ballet, the educational process will 303. determine its own criteria or targets. These are some of the requirements but 304. not the only ones. Every one’s attributes are different, in the case of a 305. person’s length of legs and strength. Often there are differences. I feel that 306. such requirements that are prevalent in China are not suitable in Singapore. 307. It is not suitable to conduct audition that determines the student’s capabilities 308. and to reassure them of their abilities, especially for secondary school 309. students. On the other hand, it is appropriate for junior college students as 310. they are more matured to determine and differentiate what they want or need. 311. It is still unclear at the stage of secondary school years. 312. *J: Thank you. Interviewer: Joey Chua Transcribed on September 24, 2002

Dance Curriculum for a Renaissance Singapore References

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