Poetry

This article is about the art form. For other uses, seePoetry (disambiguation).“Poem”, “Poems”, and “Poetic”redirect here.For other uses, see Poem (disambiguation), Poems(disambiguation), and Poetic (disambiguation).

Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic andrhythmic*[1]*[2]*[3] qualities of language—such asphonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre—to evokemeanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaïc osten-sible meaning.Poetry has a long history, dating back to the SumerianEpic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songssuch as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oralepics, as with the SanskritVedas, ZoroastrianGathas, andthe Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancientattempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, fo-cused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song andcomedy. Later attempts concentrated on features suchas repetition, verse form and rhyme, and emphasized theaesthetics which distinguish poetry frommore objectivelyinformative, prosaïc forms of writing. From themid-20thcentury, poetry has sometimes been more generally re-garded as a fundamental creative act employing language.Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differentialinterpretation to words, or to evoke emotive responses.Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeiaand rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical orincantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism,irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction of-ten leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Sim-ilarly figures of speech such as metaphor, simile andmetonymy*[4] create a resonance between otherwise dis-parate images—a layering of meanings, forming connec-tions previously not perceived. Kindred forms of reso-nance may exist, between individual verses, in their pat-terns of rhyme or rhythm.Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures andgenres and respond to characteristics of the language inwhich the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifyingpoetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi maythink of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regularmeter; there are, however, traditions, such as Biblical po-etry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony.Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradi-tion,*[5] playing with and testing, among other things,the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altogether for-going rhyme or set rhythm.*[6]*[7] In today's increas-

ingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles andtechniques from diverse cultures and languages.

1 History

Aristotle

Main articles: History of poetry and Literary theory

Poetry as an art form may predate literacy.*[8] Epicpoetry, from the Indian Vedas (1700–1200 BC) andZoroaster'sGathas to theOdyssey (800–675 BC), appearsto have been composed in poetic form to aid memoriza-tion and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient soci-eties.*[9] Other forms of poetry developed directly fromfolk songs. The earliest entries in the ancient compila-tion Shijing, were initially lyrics, preceding later entriesintended to be read.*[10]The oldest surviving epic poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh,from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia,now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script onclay tablets and, later, papyrus.*[11] A tablet dating toc. 2000 BC describes an annual rite in which the king

1

2 1 HISTORY

symbolically married and mated with the goddess Inannato ensure fertility and prosperity, and is considered theworld's oldest love poem.*[12]*[13] Other ancient epicpoetry includes the Greek epics Iliad and Odyssey, theOld Iranian books the Gathic Avesta and Yasna, theRoman national epic, Virgil'sAeneid, and the Indian epicsRamayana and Mahabharata.The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makespoetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes goodpoetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"—the study of theaesthetics of poetry.*[14] Some ancient poetic traditions;such as, contextually, Classical Chinese poetry in the caseof the Shijing (Classic of Poetry), which records the devel-opment of poetic canons with ritual and aesthetic impor-tance.*[15] More recently, thinkers have struggled to finda definition that could encompass formal differences asgreat as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales andMatsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differencesin context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry,and rap.*[16]

1.1 Western traditions

John Keats

Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to de-fine and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the exist-ing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three gen-res of poetry—the epic, the comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality po-etry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes ofthe genre.*[17] Later aestheticians identified three majorgenres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry,treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic po-etry.*[18]Aristotle's work was influential throughout the MiddleEast during the Islamic Golden Age,*[19] as well as inEurope during the Renaissance.*[20] Later poets and aes-theticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it

in opposition to prose, which was generally understood aswriting with a proclivity to logical explication and a linearnarrative structure.*[21]This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks nar-ration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render thebeautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging thelogical or narrative thought process. English Romanticpoet John Keats termed this escape from logic "NegativeCapability".*[22] This“romantic”approach views formas a key element of successful poetry because form isabstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic.This approach remained influential into the 20th cen-tury.*[23]During this period, there was also substantially more in-teraction among the various poetic traditions, in part dueto the spread of European colonialism and the atten-dant rise in global trade.*[24] In addition to a boom intranslation, during the Romantic period numerous an-cient works were rediscovered.*[25]

1.2 20th-century and 21st-century dis-putes

Archibald MacLeish

Some 20th-century literary theorists, relying less on theopposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet assimply one who creates using language, and poetry aswhat the poet creates.*[26] The underlying concept of thepoet as creator is not uncommon, and somemodernist po-ets essentially do not distinguish between the creation ofa poem with words, and creative acts in other media. Yetother modernists challenge the very attempt to define po-etry as misguided.*[27]The rejection of traditional forms and structures for po-

2.1 Prosody 3

etry that began in the first half of the 20th century coin-cided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning oftraditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions be-tween poetry and prose, particularly given examples ofpoetic prose and prosaïc poetry. Numerous modernistpoets have written in non-traditional forms or in whattraditionally would have been considered prose, althoughtheir writing was generally infused with poetic diction andoften with rhythm and tone established by non-metricalmeans. While there was a substantial formalist reactionwithin the modernist schools to the breakdown of struc-ture, this reaction focused as much on the developmentof new formal structures and syntheses as on the revivalof older forms and structures.*[28]Recently, postmodernism has come to convey more com-pletely prose and poetry as distinct entities, and alsoamong genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cul-tural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism'semphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasizethe role of the reader of a text (Hermeneutics), and tohighlight the complex cultural web within which a poemis read.*[29] Today, throughout the world, poetry oftenincorporates poetic form and diction from other culturesand from the past, further confounding attempts at defi-nition and classification that were once sensible within atradition such as the Western canon.*[30]The early 21st century poetic tradition appears to con-tinue to strongly orient itself to earlier precursor poetictraditions such as those initiated by Whitman, Emerson,and Wordsworth. The literary critic Geoffrey Hartmanhas used the phrase“the anxiety of demand”to describecontemporary response to older poetic traditions as“be-ing fearful that the fact no longer has a form”, building ona trope introduced by Emerson. Emerson had maintainedthat in the debate concerning poetic structure where ei-ther“form”or“fact”could predominate, that one needsimply“Ask the fact for the form.”This has been chal-lenged at various levels by other literary scholars such asBloom who has stated in summary form concerning theearly 21st century that: “The generation of poets whostand together now, mature and ready to write the majorAmerican verse of the twenty-first century, may yet beseen as what Stevens called 'a great shadow's last embel-lishment,' the shadow being Emerson's.”*[31]

2 Elements

2.1 Prosody

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonationof a poem. Rhythm and meter are different, althoughclosely related.*[32] Meter is the definitive pattern es-tablished for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while

rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of po-etry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to referto the scanning of poetic lines to show meter.*[33]

2.1.1 Rhythm

Main articles: Timing (linguistics), tone (linguistics) andPitch accentThe methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across

Robinson Jeffers

languages and between poetic traditions. Languagesare often described as having timing set primarily byaccents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythmis established, though a language can be influenced bymultiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed lan-guage. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan,French, Leonese, Galician and Spanish. English, Russianand, generally, German are stress-timed languages.*[34]Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived.Languages can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic San-skrit or Ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages in-clude Chinese, Vietnamese and most Subsaharan lan-guages.*[35]Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangementsof stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feetwithin a line. In Modern English verse the pattern ofstresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm basedon meter in Modern English is most often founded onthe pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (aloneor elided).*[36] In the classical languages, on the otherhand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel lengthrather than stresses define the meter.*[37] Old Englishpoetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers

4 2 ELEMENTS

of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in eachline.*[38]The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, in-cluding many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetoricalstructure in which successive lines reflected each otherin grammatical structure, sound structure, notional con-tent, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal orcall-and-response performance, which could also be re-inforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies muchless on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead createsrhythm based onmuch larger sound units of lines, phrasesand sentences.*[39] Some classical poetry forms, such asVenpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to thepoint that they could be expressed as a context-free gram-mar) which ensured a rhythm.*[40] In Chinese poetry,tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinesepoetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone,departing tone, and entering tone.*[41]The formal patterns of meter used in Modern Englishverse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporaryEnglish poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is oftenorganized based on looser units of cadence rather than aregular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, andWilliam Carlos Williams are three notable poets who re-ject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical toEnglish poetry.*[42] Jeffers experimented with sprungrhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm.*[43]

2.1.2 Meter

Main article: Systems of scansion

In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarilygrouped according to a characteristic metrical foot andthe number of feet per line.*[44] The number of metri-cal feet in a line are described using Greek terminology:tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet, for ex-ample.*[45] Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter com-prising five feet per line, in which the predominant kindof foot is the "iamb". This metric system originated in an-cient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindarand Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Simi-larly, "dactylic hexameter", comprises six feet per line, ofwhich the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl". Dactylichexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry,the earliest extant examples of which are the works ofHomer and Hesiod.*[46] Iambic pentameter and dactylichexameter were later used by a number of poets, includ-ingWilliam Shakespeare and HenryWadsworth Longfel-low, respectively.*[47] Themost commonmetrical feet inEnglish are:*[48]

• iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressedsyllable (e.g. describe, Include, retract)

• trochee – one stressed syllable followed by an un-stressed syllable (e.g. picture, flower)

Homer

• dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two un-stressed syllables (e.g.annotate an-no-tate)

• anapest – two unstressed syllables followed by onestressed syllable (e.g. comprehend com-pre-hend)

• spondee – two stressed syllables together (e.g. e-nough)

• pyrrhic – two unstressed syllables together (rare,usually used to end dactylic hexameter)

There are a wide range of names for other types of feet,right up to a choriamb, a four syllable metric foot witha stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllablesand closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is de-rived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry.*[46]Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation ratherthan or in addition to syllabic accents in determining me-ter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have con-cepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe commoncombinations of long and short sounds.*[49]Each of these types of feet has a certain“feel,”whetheralone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, forexample, is the most natural form of rhythm in the En-glish language, and generally produces a subtle but sta-ble verse.*[50] Scanning meter can often show the basicor fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does notshow the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differingpitches and lengths of syllables.*[51]There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different“feet”is in describingmeter. For example, Robert Pinskyhas argued that while dactyls are important in classical

2.2 Rhyme, alliteration, assonance 5

Illustration by Henry Holiday to Lewis Carroll's "The Hunting ofthe Snark", which is written mainly in anapestic tetrameter.

verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularlyand can be better described based on patterns of iambsand anapests, feet which he considers natural to the lan-guage.*[52] Actual rhythm is significantly more complexthan the basic scanned meter described above, and manyscholars have sought to develop systems that would scansuch complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaidon top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressedsyllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of ac-cents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words,and suggested that the term“scud”be used to distinguishan unaccented stress from an accented stress.*[53]

2.1.3 Metrical patterns

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use dif-ferent meters, ranging from the Shakespearean iambicpentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to theanapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. How-ever, a number of variations to the established meter arecommon, both to provide emphasis or attention to a givenfoot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example,the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause)may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress),or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine end-

ing to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to empha-size it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such asiambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while otherpatterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly ir-regular.*[54] Regularity can vary between language. Inaddition, different patterns often develop distinctively indifferent languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrame-ter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the useof accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur,or occurs to a much lesser extent, in English.*[55]

Alexander Pushkin

Some common metrical patterns, with notable examplesof poets and poems who use them, include:

• Iambic pentameter (John Milton in Paradise Lost,William Shakespeare in his Sonnets)*[56]

• Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; Virgil,Aeneid)*[57]

• Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His CoyMistress"; Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin,Robert Frost, Stopping by Woods on a SnowyEvening)*[58]

• Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "TheRaven")*[59]

• Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre)*[60]

2.2 Rhyme, alliteration, assonance

Main articles: Rhyme, Alliterative verse and AssonanceRhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are waysof creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may beused as an independent structural element in a poem,

6 2 ELEMENTS

TheOld English epic poemBeowulf is written in alliterative verse.

to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental el-ement.*[61] They can also carry a meaning separatefrom the repetitive sound patterns created. For exam-ple, Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old Englishverse and to paint a character as archaic.*[62]Rhyme consists of identical (“hard-rhyme”) or similar (“soft-rhyme”) sounds placed at the ends of lines or at pre-dictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). Lan-guages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures;Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permit-ting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughouta lengthy poem. The richness results from word end-ings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregularword endings adopted from other languages, is less richin rhyme.*[63] The degree of richness of a language'srhyming structures plays a substantial role in determin-ing what poetic forms are commonly used in that lan-guage.*[64]Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds atthe beginning of two or more words immediately suc-ceeding each other, or at short intervals; or the recurrenceof the same letter in accented parts of words. Alliterationand assonance played a key role in structuring early Ger-manic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The allit-erative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave me-ter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that

the metrical pattern determines when the listener expectsinstances of alliteration to occur. This can be comparedto an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern Eu-ropean poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formalor carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularlyuseful in languages with less rich rhyming structures.Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds withina word rather than similar sounds at the beginning orend of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, butgoes back to the Homeric epic.*[65] Because verbs carrymuch of the pitch in the English language, assonance canloosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and sois useful in translating Chinese poetry.*[66] Consonanceoccurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout asentence without putting the sound only at the front of aword. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than al-literation and so is less useful as a structural element.*[64]

2.2.1 Rhyming schemes

Main article: Rhyme schemeIn many languages, including modern European lan-

Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by an-gels. A Doré illustration to the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto28.

guages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns asa structural element for specific poetic forms, such asballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, theuse of structural rhyme is not universal even within theEuropean tradition. Much modern poetry avoids tradi-tional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin po-etry did not use rhyme.*[67] Rhyme entered Europeanpoetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the in-fluence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modernSpain).*[68] Arabic language poets used rhyme exten-

2.3 Form 7

sively from the first development of literary Arabic inthe sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas.*[69]Some rhyming schemes have become associated with aspecific language, culture or period, while other rhymingschemes have achieved use across languages, cultures ortime periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistentand well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royalor the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variablerhyme schemes.*[70]Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that cor-respond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourthlines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the thirdline does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an“a-a-b-a”rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used,for example, in the rubaiyat form.*[71] Similarly, an“a-b-b-a”quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") isused in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet.*[72] Sometypes of more complicated rhyming schemes have devel-oped names of their own, separate from the“a-b-c”con-vention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima.*[73] Thetypes and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussedfurther in the main article.

2.3 Form

Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured thanin previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschewrecognisable structures or forms, and write in free verse.But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form;some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will befound in even the best free verse, however much suchstructures may appear to have been ignored.*[74] Sim-ilarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles therewill be departures from strict form for emphasis or ef-fect.*[75]Among major structural elements used in poetry are theline, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combi-nations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. Also some-times used are broader visual presentations of words andcalligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are oftencombined into larger structures, called poetic forms orpoetic modes (see following section), as in the sonnet orhaiku.

2.3.1 Lines and stanzas

Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These linesmay be based on the number of metrical feet, or may em-phasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines mayserve other functions, particularly where the poem is notwritten in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate,compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units,or can highlight a change in tone.*[76] See the article online breaks for information about the division betweenlines.

Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, whichare denominated by the number of lines included. Thusa collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), threelines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, and so on.These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhymeor rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines withidentical meters which rhyme or two lines held togetherby a common meter alone.*[77]

Alexander Blok's poem, "Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" (“Night,street, lamp, drugstore”), on a wall in Leiden

Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, inwhich regular rhymes with established rhythms are notused, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collec-tion of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established inparagraph form.*[78] Many medieval poems were writ-ten in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes andrhythms were used.*[79]In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so thatthe rhyming scheme or other structural elements of onestanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Exam-ples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example,the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in thecase of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the firststanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Relatedto the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to sepa-rate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe,antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separatedinto one or more stanzas.*[80]In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry suchas some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are con-structed according to strict rules and then combined. Inskaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, eachhaving three“lifts”produced with alliteration or asso-nance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the oddnumbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dis-similar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of theword; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syl-lables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in atrochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far lessrigid rules than the construction of the individual drót-tkvætts.*[81]

8 3 FORMS

2.3.2 Visual presentation

Visual poetry

Main article: Visual poetry

Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearanceof poetry often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poemsconveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in let-ters at other specific places in a poem.*[82] In Arabic,Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation offinely calligraphed poems has played an important part inthe overall effect of many poems.*[83]With the advent of printing, poets gained greater con-trol over the mass-produced visual presentations of theirwork. Visual elements have become an important partof the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to usevisual presentation for a wide range of purposes. SomeModernist poets have made the placement of individuallines or groups of lines on the page an integral part ofthe poem's composition. At times, this complements thepoem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths,or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning,ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aestheticallypleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead toconcrete poetry or asemic writing.*[84]*[85]

2.4 Diction

Main article: Poetic diction

Poetic diction treats the manner in which language isused, and refers not only to the sound but also tothe underlying meaning and its interaction with soundand form.*[86] Many languages and poetic forms havevery specific poetic dictions, to the point where dis-tinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for po-etry.*[87]*[88] Registers in poetry can range from strictemployment of ordinary speech patterns, as favoured inmuch late-20th-century prosody,*[89] through to highlyornate uses of language, as in medieval and Renaissancepoetry.*[90]Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such assimile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such asirony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that “the great-est thing by far is to be a master of metaphor.”*[91]Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted fora poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, at-tempting instead the direct presentation of things and ex-periences and the exploration of tone.*[92] On the otherhand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to theirlimits, making frequent use of catachresis.*[93]Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction ofmany cultures, and were prominent in the West duringclassical times, the lateMiddle Ages and the Renaissance.Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse andprose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., areperhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetrythrough the ages.*[94] Other notables examples includethe Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem,William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century,and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's)in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical,however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions thatdeepen the meaning or effect of its words without con-structing a full allegory.*[95]Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vividimagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected orimpossible images is, for example, a particularly strongelement in surrealist poetry and haiku.*[96] Vivid imagesare often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Manypoetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either ashort phrase (such as Homer's“rosy-fingered dawn”or“the wine-dark sea”) or a longer refrain. Such repetitioncan add a sombre tone to a poem, or can be laced withirony as the context of the words changes.*[97]

3 Forms

See also: Category:Poetic form

Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cul-tures. In more developed, closed or“received”poeticforms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elementsof a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from therelatively loose rules that govern the construction of an

3.2 Shi 9

elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazalor villanelle.*[98] Described below are some commonforms of poetry widely used across a number of lan-guages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in thediscussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods andin the glossary.

3.1 Sonnet

Main article: SonnetAmong the most common forms of poetry through the

Shakespeare

ages is the sonnet, which by the 13th century was a poemof fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logi-cal structure. By the 14th century, the form further crys-tallized under the pen of Petrarch, whose sonnets werelater translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas Wy-att, who is credited with introducing the sonnet form intoEnglish literature.*[99] A sonnet's first four lines typi-cally introduce the topic, the second elaborates and thethird posits a problem - the couplet usually, but not al-ways, includes a twist, or an afterthought. A sonnetusually follows an a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f-gg rhyme pat-tern. The sonnet's conventions have changed over itshistory, and so there are several different sonnet forms.Traditionally, in sonnets English poets use iambic pen-tameter, the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets be-ing especially notable.*[100] In the Romance languages,the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widelyused meters, though the Petrarchan sonnet has been usedin Italy since the 14th century.*[101]Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and

often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery,but the twists and turns associated with themove from oc-tave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful anddynamic form for many subjects.*[102] Shakespeare'ssonnets are among the most famous in English poetry,with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of EnglishVerse.*[103]

3.2 Shi

Main article: Shi (poetry)

Shi (simplified Chinese: 诗; traditional Chinese: 詩;pinyin: shī ; Wade–Giles: shih) Is the main type ofClassical Chinese poetry.*[104] Within this form of po-etry the most important variations are“folk song”styledverse (yuefu),“old style”verse (gushi),“modern style”verse (jintishi). In all cases, rhyming is obligatory. TheYuefu is a folk ballad or a poem written in the folk bal-lad style, and the number of lines and the length of thelines could be irregular. For the other variations of shipoetry, generally either a four line (quatrain, or jueju) orelse an eight line poem is normal; either way with the evennumbered lines rhyming. The line length is scanned byaccording number of characters (according to the con-vention that one character equals one syllable), and arepredominantly either five or seven characters long, with acaesura before the final three syllables. The lines are gen-erally end-stopped, considered as a series of couplets, andexhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device.*[105]The“old style”verse (gushi) is less formally strict thanthe jintishi, or regulated verse, which, despite the name“new style”verse actually had its theoretical basis laidas far back to Shen Yue, in the 5th or 6th century, al-though not considered to have reached its full develop-ment until the time of Chen Zi'ang (661-702)*[106] Agood example of a poet known for his gushi poems is LiBai. Among its other rules, the jintishi rules regulate thetonal variations within a poem, including the use of setpatterns of the four tones of Middle Chinese The basicform of jintishi (lushi) has eight lines in four couplets,with parallelism between the lines in the second and thirdcouplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain con-trasting content but an identical grammatical relationshipbetween words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction,full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, in-cluding history and politics.*[107]*[108] One of the mas-ters of the form was Du Fu, who wrote during the TangDynasty (8th century).*[109]

3.3 Villanelle

Main article: VillanelleThe villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of fivetriplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterizedby having two refrains, initially used in the first and third

10 3 FORMS

W. H. Auden

lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at theclose of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain,which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaininglines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme.*[110]The villanelle has been used regularly in the Englishlanguage since the late 19th century by such poets asDylan Thomas,*[111]W. H. Auden,*[112] and ElizabethBishop.*[113]

3.4 Tanka

Main article: Tanka

Tanka is a form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, with fivesections totalling 31 onji (phonological units identical tomorae), structured in a 5-7-5-7-7 pattern.*[114] Thereis generally a shift in tone and subject matter betweenthe upper 5-7-5 phrase and the lower 7-7 phrase. Tankawere written as early as the Asuka period by such po-ets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, at a time when Japanwas emerging from a period where much of its poetryfollowed Chinese form.*[115] Tanka was originally theshorter form of Japanese formal poetry (which was gen-erally referred to as "waka"), and was used more heav-ily to explore personal rather than public themes. By thetenth century, tanka had become the dominant form ofJapanese poetry, to the point where the originally gen-eral term waka (“Japanese poetry”) came to be usedexclusively for tanka. Tanka are still widely written to-day.*[116]

3.5 Haiku

Main article: Haiku

Haiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry,which evolved in the 17th century from the hokku, oropening verse of a renku.*[117] Generally written in asingle vertical line, the haiku contains three sections to-talling 17 onji, structured in a 5-7-5 pattern. Tradition-ally, haiku contain a kireji, or cutting word, usually placedat the end of one of the poem's three sections, and a kigo,or season-word.*[118] The most famous exponent of thehaiku was Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694). An example ofhis writing:*[119]

富⼠の⾵や扇にのせて江⼾⼟産

fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage

the wind of Mt. FujiI've brought on my fan!a gift from Edo

3.6 Ode

Main article: OdeOdes were first developed by poets writing in ancientGreek, such as Pindar, and Latin, such as Horace. Formsof odes appear in many of the cultures that were influ-enced by the Greeks and Latins.*[120] The ode gener-ally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and anepode. The antistrophes of the ode possess similar met-rical structures and, depending on the tradition, similarrhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with adifferent scheme and structure. Odes have a formal po-etic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. Thestrophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different,often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving toa higher level to either view or resolve the underlying is-sues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung bytwo choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting thestrophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together theepode.*[121] Over time, differing forms for odes havedeveloped with considerable variations in form and struc-ture, but generally showing the original influence of thePindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form whichresembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry.*[122]

3.7 Ghazal

Main article: Ghazal

The ghazal (also ghazel, gazel, gazal, or gozol) is a form ofpoetry common in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Azerbaijani,Urdu and Bengali poetry. In classic form, the ghazal hasfrom five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain

11

Horace

Rumi

at the end of the second line. This refrain may be of oneor several syllables, and is preceded by a rhyme. Eachline has an identical meter. The ghazal often reflects on atheme of unattainable love or divinity.*[123]As with other forms with a long history in many lan-guages, many variations have been developed, includingforms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu.*[124]Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and anumber of major Sufi religious works are written inghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use ofthe refrain produce an incantatory effect, which com-plements Sufi mystical themes well.*[125] Among themasters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-century Persianpoet.*[126] One of the most famous poet in this typeof poetry is Hafez. Themes of his Ghazal is expos-ing hypocrisy. His life and poems have been the sub-ject of much analysis, commentary and interpretation,influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing morethan any other author.*[127]*[128] West-östlicher Di-wan of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that is a collectionof lyrical poems, has been inspired by the Persian poetHafez.*[129]*[130]*[131]

4 Genres

In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is oftenthought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. Apoetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of po-etry based on the subject matter, style, or other broaderliterary characteristics.*[132] Some commentators viewgenres as natural forms of literature. Others view thestudy of genres as the study of how different works re-late and refer to other works.*[133]

4.1 Narrative poetry

Main article: Narrative poetryNarrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term“narrative

12 4 GENRES

poetry”is often reserved for smaller works, generally withmore appeal to human interest. Narrative poetry may bethe oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of Homer haveconcluded that his Iliad andOdysseywere composed fromcompilations of shorter narrative poems that related indi-vidual episodes. Much narrative poetry—such as Scottishand English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oraltradition. It has been speculated that some features thatdistinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliterationand kennings, once served as memory aids for bards whorecited traditional tales.*[134]Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, JuanRuiz, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões,Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Fernandode Rojas, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, EdgarAllan Poe and Alfred Tennyson.

4.2 Epic poetry

Main article: Epic poetry

Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form ofnarrative literature. This genre is often defined as lengthypoems concerning events of a heroic or important natureto the culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuousnarrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythologicalperson or group of persons.*[135] Examples of epic po-ems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, theNibelungenlied, Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, the Cantarde Mio Cid, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata,Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, Nizami (orNezami)'s Khamse (Five Books), and the Epic of KingGesar. While the composition of epic poetry, and of longpoems generally, became less common in the west afterthe early 20th century, some notable epics have contin-ued to be written. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize to agreat extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros.*[136]

4.3 Dramatic poetry

Main articles: Verse drama and dramatic verse, Theatreof ancient Greece, Sanskrit drama, Chinese Opera andNoh

Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spo-ken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes relatedforms in many cultures. Greek tragedy in verse datesto the 6th century B.C., and may have been an influenceon the development of Sanskrit drama,*[137] just as In-dian drama in turn appears to have influenced the devel-opment of the bianwen verse dramas in China, forerun-ners of Chinese Opera.*[138] East Asian verse dramasalso include Japanese Noh. Examples of dramatic po-etry in Persian literature include Nizami's two famous

Goethe

dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow andShirin, Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab,Rumi'sMasnavi, Gorgani's tragedy ofVis and Ramin, andVahshi's tragedy of Farhad.

4.4 Satirical poetry

Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romanshad a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written forpolitical purposes. A notable example is the Roman poetJuvenal's satires.*[139]The same is true of the English satirical tradition. JohnDryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in1682 Mac Flecknoe, subtitled “A Satire on the TrueBlue Protestant Poet, T.S.”(a reference to ThomasShadwell).*[140] Another master of 17th-century En-glish satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl ofRochester.*[141] Satirical poets outside England in-clude Poland's Ignacy Krasicki, Azerbaijan's Sabir andPortugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage.

4.5 Light poetry

Main article: Light poetryLight poetry, or light verse, is poetry that attempts to behumorous. Poems considered“light”are usually brief,and can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often

4.6 Lyric poetry 13

John Wilmot

Lewis Carroll

feature word play, including puns, adventurous rhyme andheavy alliteration. Although a few free verse poets haveexcelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition,

light verse in English is usually formal. Common formsinclude the limerick, the clerihew, and the double dactyl.While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel,or thought of as poetry composed casually, humor of-ten makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way.Many of the most renowned“serious”poets have alsoexcelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry in-clude Lewis Carroll, Ogden Nash, X. J. Kennedy,WillardR. Espy, and Wendy Cope.

4.6 Lyric poetry

Main article: Lyric poetryLyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic

Christine de Pizan

poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is ofa more personal nature. Poems in this genre tend to beshorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than de-picting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's ownfeelings, states of mind, and perceptions.*[142] Notablepoets in this genre include John Donne, Gerard ManleyHopkins, and Antonio Machado.

4.7 Elegy

Main article: Elegy

An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem,

14 4 GENRES

especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. Theterm “elegy,”which originally denoted a type of po-etic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poemof mourning. An elegy may also reflect something thatseems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The el-egy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrowmore generally,or on something mysterious, may be classified as a formof lyric poetry.*[143]*[144]Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have includedPropertius, Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, ChidiockTichborne, Edmund Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Mil-ton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Turner Smith, WilliamCullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann Wolfgangvon Goethe, Evgeny Baratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, WaltWhitman, Louis Gallet, Antonio Machado, Juan RamónJiménez, Giannina Braschi, William Butler Yeats, RainerMaria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.

4.8 Verse fable

Ignacy Krasicki

Main article: Fable

The fable is an ancient literary genre, often (though notinvariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that fea-tures anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate ob-jects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a"moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter andrhyme patterns.*[145]Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, VishnuSarma, Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson,

Biernat of Lublin, Jean de La Fontaine, Ignacy Krasicki,Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás de Iriarte, Ivan Krylovand Ambrose Bierce.

4.9 Prose poetry

Main article: Prose poetryProse poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of

Charles Baudelaire, by Gustave Courbet

both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable fromthe micro-story (a.k.a. the "short short story", "flash fic-tion"). While some examples of earlier prose strike mod-ern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regardedas having originated in 19th-century France, where itspractitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baude-laire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé.*[146]Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gainedincreasing popularity, with entire journals, such as TheProse Poem: An International Journal,*[147] Contempo-rary Haibun Online,*[148] and Haibun Today*[149] de-voted to that genre and its hybrids. Latin American po-ets of the 20th century who wrote prose poems includeOctavio Paz and Giannina Braschi*[150]*[151]

4.10 Speculative poetry

Main article: Speculative poetry

Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry, (ofwhich weird or macabre poetry is a major subclassifica-tion), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with sub-jects which are 'beyond reality', whether via extrapolationas in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as inhorror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modernscience fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Al-lan Poe is sometimes seen as the“father of speculativepoetry”.*[152]

15

5 See also

• Glossary of poetry terms

• List of poetry groups and movements

• Outline of poetry

• Poetry reading

• Rhapsode

6 Notes[1] “Poetry”. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.

2013.

[2] “Poetry”. Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc.2013.

[3] “Poetry”. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, LLC. 2013—Based on the Random House Dictionary

[4] Strachan, John R; Terry, Richard, G (2000). Poetry: anintroduction. Edinburgh University Press. p. 119. ISBN978-0-8147-9797-6.

[5] Eliot, TS (1999).“The Function of Criticism”. SelectedEssays. Faber & Faber. pp. 13–34. ISBN 978-0-15-180387-3.

[6] Longenbach, James (1997). Modern Poetry After Mod-ernism. Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 103. ISBN 0-19-510178-2.

[7] Schmidt, Michael, ed. (1999). The Harvill Book ofTwentieth-Century Poetry in English. Harvill Press. pp.xxvii–xxxiii. ISBN 1-86046-735-0.

[8] Hoivik, S; Luger, K (3 June 2009). “Folk Me-dia for Biodiversity Conservation: A Pilot Projectfrom the Himalaya-Hindu Kush”. Interna-tional Communication Gazette 71 (4): 321–346.doi:10.1177/1748048509102184.

[9] Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, HannahM (1996). The OdysseyRe-Formed. Cornell University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 0-8014-8335-2.. Others suggest that poetry did not neces-sarily predate writing. Goody, Jack (1987). The InterfaceBetween the Written and the Oral. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-33794-1.

[10] Ebrey, Patricia (1993). Chinese Civilisation: A Source-book (2nd ed.). The Free Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-0-02-908752-7.

[11] Sanders, NK (trans.) (1972). The Epic of Gilgamesh (Re-vised ed.). Penguin Books. pp. 7–8.

[12] Mark, Joshua J. (13 August 2014).“The World's OldestLove Poem”.

[13] ARSU, SEBNEM.“Oldest Line In The World”. NewYork Times. New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2015.

[14] Abondolo, Daniel (2001). A poetics handbook: verbal artin the European tradition. Curzon. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7007-1223-6.

[15] Gentz, Joachim (2008). “Ritual Meaning of TextualForm: Evidence from Early Commentaries of the His-toriographic and Ritual Traditions”. In Kern, Martin.Text and Ritual in Early China. University of WashingtonPress. pp. 124–148. ISBN 978-0-295-98787-3.

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[21] Kant, Immanuel; Bernard, JH (trans.) (1914). Critiqueof Judgment. Macmillan. p. 131. Kant argues that thenature of poetry as a self-consciously abstract and beau-tiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbalarts, with tone or music following it, and only after thatthe more logical and narrative prose.

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[26] Wimsatt, WilliamK, Jr; Brooks, Cleanth (1957). LiteraryCriticism: A Short History. Vintage Books. p. 374.

[27] Johnson, Jeannine (2007). Why write poetry?: modernpoets defending their art. Fairleigh Dickinson UniversityPress. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-8386-4105-7.

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16 6 NOTES

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[33] Fussell 1965, pp. 20–21

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[36] Fussell 1965, p. 12

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[71] Fussell 1965, p. 27

[72] Adams 1997, pp. 88–91

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[75] Hollander 1981, pp. 50–51

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[104] Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Po-etry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York:Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-231-03464-4, 1

[105] Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Po-etry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York:Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-231-03464-4, 1-2and 15-18

[106] Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Po-etry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York:Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-231-03464-4, 111and 115

[107] Faurot, Jeannette L (1998). Drinking with the moon.China Books & Periodicals. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8351-2639-7.

[108] Wang, Yugen (1 June 2004).“Shige: The Popular Poeticsof Regulated Verse”. T'ang Studies 2004 (22): 81–125.doi:10.1179/073750304788913221.

[109] Schirokauer, Conrad (1989). A brief history of Chineseand Japanese civilizations (2nd ed.). Harcourt Brace Jo-vanovich. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-15-505569-8.

[110] Kumin, Maxine (2002).“Gymnastics: The Villanelle”.In Varnes, Kathrine. An Exaltation of Forms: Contempo-rary Poets Celebrate the Diversity of Their Art. Universityof Michigan Press. p. 314. ISBN 978-0-472-06725-1.

[111] "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night" in Thomas, Dy-lan (1952). In Country Sleep and Other Poems. New Di-rections Publications. p. 18.

[112]“Villanelle”, in Auden, WH (1945). Collected Poems.Random House.

[113]“One Art”, in Bishop, Elizabeth (1976). Geography III.Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

[114] Samy Alim, H; Ibrahim, Awad; Pennycook, Alastair, eds.(2009). Global linguistic flows. Taylor & Francis. p. 181.ISBN 978-0-8058-6283-6.

[115] Brower, Robert H; Miner, Earl (1988). Japanese courtpoetry. Stanford University Press. pp. 86–92. ISBN 978-0-8047-1524-9.

18 6 NOTES

[116] McCllintock, Michael; Ness, Pamela Miller; Kacian, Jim,ed. (2003). The tanka anthology: tanka in English fromaround the world. RedMoon Press. pp. xxx–xlviii. ISBN978-1-893959-40-8.

[117] Corn 1997, p. 117

[118] Ross, Bruce, ed. (1993). Haiku moment: an anthologyof contemporary North American haiku. Charles E. TuttleCo. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-8048-1820-9.

[119] Etsuko Yanagibori. “Basho's Haiku on the theme ofMt. Fuji”. The personal notebook of Etsuko Yanagibori.Archived from the original on 3 August 2007.

[120] Gray, Thomas (2000). English lyrics from Dryden toBurns. Elibron. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-1-4021-0064-2.

[121] Gayley, Charles Mills; Young, Clement C (2005). En-glish Poetry (Reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. p. lxxxv.ISBN 978-1-4179-0086-2.

[122] Kuiper, edited by Kathleen (2011). Poetry and drama lit-erary terms and concepts. Britannica Educational Pub.in association with Rosen Educational Services. p. 51.ISBN 978-1-61530-539-1.

[123] Campo, Juan E (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase.p. 260. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.

[124] Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt (Autumn 1990). “Mu-sical Gesture and Extra-Musical Meaning: Wordsand Music in the Urdu Ghazal”. Journal of theAmerican Musicological Society 43 (3): 457–497.doi:10.1525/jams.1990.43.3.03a00040.

[125] Sequeira, Isaac (1 June 1981). “The Mystique of theMushaira”. The Journal of Popular Culture 15 (1): 1–8.doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1981.4745121.x.

[126] Schimmel, Annemarie (Spring 1988). “Mystical Poetryin Islam: The Case of Maulana Jalaladdin Rumi”. Reli-gion & Literature 20 (1): 67–80.

[127] Yarshater. Accessed 25 July 2010.

[128] Hafiz and the Place of Iranian Culture in theWorld by AgaKhan III, November 9, 1936 London.

[129] Shamel, Shafiq (2013). Goethe and Hafiz. ISBN9783034308816. Retrieved 29 October 2014.

[130] “Goethe and Hafiz”. Retrieved 29 October 2014.

[131] “GOETHE”. Retrieved 29 October 2014.

[132] Chandler, Daniel. “Introduction to Genre Theory”.Aberystwyth University. Retrieved 10 December 2011.

[133] Schafer, Jorgen; Gendolla, Peter, eds. (2010). Beyondthe screen: transformations of literary structures, interfacesand genres. Verlag. pp. 16, 391–402. ISBN 978-3-8376-1258-5.

[134] Kirk, GS (2010). Homer and the Oral Tradition (reprinted.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–45. ISBN 978-0-521-13671-6.

[135] Hainsworth, JB (1989). Traditions of heroic and epicpoetry. Modern Humanities Research Association. pp.171–175. ISBN 978-0-947623-19-7.

[136] “The Nobel Prize in Literature 1992: Derek Walcott”.Swedish Academy. Retrieved 10 December 2011.

[137] Keith, Arthur Berriedale Keith (1992). Sanskrit Drama inits origin, development, theory and practice. Motilal Ba-narsidass. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-81-208-0977-2.

[138] Dolby, William (1983). “Early Chinese Plays and The-atre”. In Mackerras, Colin. Chinese Theater: From ItsOrigins to the Present Day. University of Hawaii Press. p.17. ISBN 978-0-8248-1220-1.

[139] Dominik, William J; Wehrle, T (1999). Roman versesatire: Lucilius to Juvenal. Bolchazy-Carducci. pp. 1–3.ISBN 978-0-86516-442-0.

[140] Black, Joseph, ed. (2011). Broadview Anthology ofBritish Literature 1. Broadview Press. p. 1056. ISBN978-1-55481-048-2.

[141] Treglown, Jeremy (1973). “Satirical Inversion of SomeEnglish Sources in Rochester's Poetry”. Review of EnglishStudies 24 (93): 42–48. doi:10.1093/res/xxiv.93.42.

[142] Blasing, Mutlu Konuk (2006). Lyric poetry : the pain andthe pleasure of words. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-0-691-12682-1.

[143] Pigman, GW (1985). Grief and English Renaissance el-egy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–47. ISBN 978-0-521-26871-4.

[144] Kennedy, David (2007). Elegy. Routledge. pp. 10–34.ISBN 978-1-134-20906-4.

[145] Harpham, Geoffrey Galt; Abrams, MH. A glossary of lit-erary terms (10th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p.9. ISBN 978-0-495-89802-3.

[146] Monte, Steven (2000). Invisible fences: prose poetry asa genre in French and American literature. University ofNebraska Press. pp. 4–9. ISBN 978-0-8032-3211-2.

[147] "The Prose Poem: An International Journal". ProvidenceCollege. Retrieved 10 December 2011.

[148] "Contemporary Haibun Online". Retrieved 10 December2011.

[149] {cite web|url=http://haibuntoday.com/pages/about.html|title=Haibun Today}]

[150] cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/octavio-paz|title= Poetry Foundation: OctavioPaz|quote= Aguila o sol? (prose poems), Tezontle(Mexico City, Mexico), 1951, 2nd edition, 1973,translation by Eliot Weinberger published as Aguila osol?/Eagle or Sun?(bilingual edition),

[151]“Modern Language Association Presents GianninaBraschi”. Circumference Magazine: Poetry in Trans-lation, Academy of American Poets. January 1, 2013.Considered one of the most revolutionary Latin Americanpoets writing today, Giannina Braschi, author of the epicprose poem 'Empire of Dreams'.

7.1 Anthologies 19

[152] Allen, Mike (2005). Dutcher, Roger, ed. The alchemyof stars. Science Fiction Poetry Association. pp. 11–17.ISBN 978-0-8095-1162-4.

Bibliography

• Adams, Stephen J (1997). Poetic designs: an intro-duction to meters, verse forms and figures of speech.Broadview. ISBN 978-1-55111-129-2.

• Corn, Alfred (1997). The Poem's Heartbeat: AManual of Prosody. Storyline Press. ISBN 1-885266-40-5.

• Fussell, Paul (1965). Poetic Meter and Poetic Form.Random House.

• Hollander, John (1981). Rhyme's Reason. Yale Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-300-02740-0.

• Pinsky, Robert (1998). The Sounds of Poetry. Far-rar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-26695-6.

7 Further reading

• Brooks, Cleanth (1947). The Well Wrought Urn:Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt Brace& Company.

• Finch, Annie (2011). A Poet's Ear: A Handbookof Meter and Form. University of Michigan Press.ISBN 978-0-472-05066-6.

• Fry, Stephen (2007). The Ode Less Travelled: Un-locking the Poet Within. Arrow Books. ISBN 978-0-09-950934-9.

• Pound, Ezra (1951). ABC of Reading. Faber.

• Preminger, Alex; Brogan, Terry VF;Warnke, FrankJ (eds.). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetryand Poetics (3rd ed.). Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-02123-6.

7.1 Anthologies

Main article: List of poetry anthologies

• Ferguson, Margaret; Salter, Mary Jo; Stallworthy,Jon, eds. (1996). The Norton Anthology of Poetry(4th ed.). W.W.Norton&Co. ISBN 0-393-96820-0.

• Gardner, Helen, ed. (1972). New Oxford Book ofEnglish Verse 1250–1950. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-812136-9.

• Larkin, Philip, ed. (1973). The Oxford Book ofTwentieth Century English Verse. Oxford UniversityPress.

• Yeats, WB, ed. (1936). Oxford Book of ModernVerse 1892–1935. Oxford University Press.

20 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text• Poetry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry?oldid=698183596 Contributors: Derek Ross, Mav, Uriyan, The Anome, Ap, Mag-

nus~enwiki, -- April, RK, Eclecticology, Rmhermen, Atorpen, Deb, HelmutLeitner, William Avery, SimonP, Daniel C. Boyer, Camem-bert, KF, Tzartzam, Hephaestos, Olivier, Ericd, Renata, DennisDaniels, Thomas Mills Hinkle, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Wshun,Llywrch, Wm, Jahsonic, Tjfulopp, MartinHarper, Red Bowen, Gabbe, Sam Francis, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Sannse, Arpingstone, Paul A,NuclearWinner, Ihcoyc, ArnoLagrange, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, BevRowe, Angela, Brettz9, Darkwind, Ijon, Mi-hai~enwiki, Cyan, Susurrus, Jiang, Dod1, Rl, Raven in Orbit, Vargenau, Nikola Smolenski, Johnkamla, Alex S, Charles Matthews, Guaka,Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Dino, Jwrosenzweig, Greenrd, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, BennieBoops, ErikStewart, Radiojon, DJ Clay-worth, Tpbradbury, Saltine, Mj~enwiki, Ed g2s, Phoebe, Bevo, Fvw, Raul654, Olathe, Jusjih, Proteus, Adam Carr, UninvitedCompany,Jeffq, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoffer, Nufy8, Robbot, Ke4roh, Palnu, Fredrik, Korath, Jredmond, R3m0t, RedWolf, Jma-bel, Altenmann, Psychonaut, Romanm, Seglea, Postdlf, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Mrs.Medha, Flauto Dolce, Rholton, Lite-fantastic, DHN, Ani07l, Robinoke, Doidimais Brasil, Hadal, Dehumanizer, JesseW, Nerval, Wereon, Ebeisher, Mushroom, Ruakh, Jer-ryFriedman, MavrickWeirdo, Wayland, Sho Uemura, David Gerard, Marc Venot, Ancheta Wis, Wikilibrarian, Kenny sh, Netoholic, Peo-plesyak, Aphaia, Zigger, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Michael Devore, Idril, Chinasaur, Maroux, Aalahazrat~enwiki, Sundar,Eequor, Bonzaialsatian, Solipsist, Chameleon, LiYan~enwiki, Bobblewik, James Crippen, Gadfium, Andycjp, Geni, Antandrus, Over-lordQ, Irpond, Heman, IYY, Oneiros, DragonflySixtyseven, Tothebarricades.tk, Harry R, Bodnotbod, Icairns, Tail, SatyrEyes, Rellis1067,Neutrality, Ukexpat, JoseBlanco, Alexander Piperski, Cwoyte, Adashiel, Moxfyre, Mike Rosoft, CALR, Prestonmarkstone, Discospin-ster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Kdammers, Vsmith, Silence, YUL89YYZ, User2004, Notinasnaid, Ivan Bajlo, Kennnesbitt, Dbach-mann, Mani1, ESkog, Bayang, Deborah-jl, Livajo, El C, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Summer Song, Phoenix Hacker, Aude, Shanes, Roy-Boy, Jpgordon, Adambro, Bobo192, Stesmo, John Vandenberg, BrokenSegue, Filiocht, Maurreen, Jguk 2, Guiltyspark, Alf7e, Man vyi,Nk, Obradovic Goran, Espoo, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Bismarck~enwiki, Stephen G. Brown, Danski14, Grutness, Alansohn, Gary, Mo0,ChristopherWillis, 119, Mcduarte2000, Inky, Craigy144, Logologist, AzaToth, Calton, Hoary, Lightdarkness, Sarah the poet, Mac Davis,Kocio, Olaf Simons, Mysdaao, Spangineer, Malo, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Velella, BanyanTree, Keepsleeping, Suruena, IMeowbot, Inge-Lyubov, Mikeo, BlastOButter42, Kusma, Jguk, SteinbDJ, HenryLi, Kay Dekker, Shimeru, Hijiri88, Hojimachong, Dr Gangrene, Angr,OwenX, Woohookitty, Xover, Sandius, TigerShark, CWH, Etacar11, SunTzu2, Crackerbelly, Drostie, Before My Ken, TheoClarke, Jere-myA, Fraterm, Eleassar777, Tabletop, Optichan, SCEhardt, Massimamanno, Wayward, Cedrus-Libani, Stefanomione, DL5MDA, A3r0,Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, SilhouetteSaloon, DaveTheRed, Saposcat, Graham87, Marskell, Magister Mathematicae, Ilya, BD2412, Kb-dank71, FreplySpang, Bikeable, Mendaliv, Icey, BorgHunter, Josh Parris, Jdcooper, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Tangotango,Bruce1ee, Feydey, SMC, Mitul0520, Crazynas, Slac, Brighterorange, The wub, Dar-Ape, AySz88, Cassowary, Yamamoto Ichiro, Lost-socks, Rats, Moskvax, TagarSpinebreak, RobertG, Existent80, RexNL, Whateley23, Maltmomma, Alphachimp, Ahunt, King of Hearts,Kirloo, Michaelritchie200, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Cornellrockey, Arc108, Banaticus, Satanael, TexasAndroid, Sceptre, Jimp, Tznkai,RussBot, Michael Slone, Amckern, Anonymous editor, Conscious, Zafiroblue05, WayneRay, Akamad, Stephenb, Rincewind42, GaiusCornelius, Eleassar, JonONeill, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, BigCow, The Ogre, Grafen, Chick Bowen, Harksaw, Justin Eiler,Icelight, Will Dockery, Haranoh, Irishguy, Brandon, Cholmes75, Globalpax2003, Alex43223, Bucketsofg, Aaron Schulz, Zirland, BOT-Superzerocool, Wangi, DeadEyeArrow, Taylan, Rob117, Brisvegas, Black Falcon, Tomisti, Wknight94, Ms2ger, Igiffin, Sandstein, Nikki-maria, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Spondoolicks, Arthur Rubin, Dspradau, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, JoanneB, RobotF, Tyrenius, Willtron,JLaTondre, Eaefremov, PMHauge, Allens, Jonathan.s.kt, Profero, Red Darwin, Nathparkling, Iago Dali, Stumps, DVD R W, Finell, Wik-iFew, Marquez~enwiki, タチコマ robot, Luk, Sintonak.X, SmackBot, Amcbride, WilliamThweatt, Monocrat, David Kernow, Reedy,KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, McGeddon, Pavlovič, AndyZ, Max Blinkhorn, Bomac, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged 85, Dell-dot, Rouenpucelle, Mdd4696, Paxse, AnOddName, Hongshi, Edonovan, Edgar181, Alsandro, Jwestbrook, Khepidjemwa'atnefru, CTA,Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, ERcheck, MonteChristof, Chris the speller, CardboardCup, Bluebot, Persian PoetGal, Postoak, Iosimcash, Miquonranger03, Greatgavini, SchfiftyThree, Bigbear590, Baa, Gracenotes, Irfali, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, LukasPietsch, Ioscius, OrphanBot, Onorem, Snowmanradio, Adrian fine, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Chcknwnm, Celarnor,Phaedriel, Theintrepid, The tooth, COMPFUNK2, Aldaron, Cybercobra, Jwy, AdamWeeden, Nakon, Cara1, Jiddisch~enwiki, Thes en-tinel, GumTree, AnPrionsaBeag, Dreadstar, IrisKawling, Jon Awbrey, DMacks, A.N.K., Jóna Þórunn, Kukini, Theonejanitor, Will Beback,Cast, Mwienken~enwiki, Mukadderat, Rory096, Harryboyles, Wildtornado, Valfontis, Dbtfz, Euchiasmus, Mriduldas, Dan Havega, Silk-Tork, Bydand, Shlomke, Llamadog903, PseudoSudo, Ckatz, Stoa, Delire, Greenagain, A. Parrot, Tasc, Beetstra, D granderson@yahoo.com,NJMauthor, Mr Stephen, Kyoko, SandyGeorgia, Battem, Martian.knight, KirrVlad, EEPROM Eagle, Prosty, Miss W, Zepheus, Shak-ingSpirit, YOLO Swag, Politepunk, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Gaohoyt, CranstonShenir, JoeBot, Wjejskenewr, Pegasus1138, Ladyof-Shalott, Phoenixrod, Adambiswanger1, Courcelles, Anger22, Fdp, Radiant chains, Angeldeb82, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127,JGoldman9, Joshuagross, AbsolutDan, Lahiru k, MightyWarrior, Szfski, Cyrusc, JForget, Wolfdog, Avg, CmdrObot, Porterjoh, Ale jrb,Wafulz, Dycedarg, Triage, Makeemlighter, Chooper, JamesSutton, JohnCD, Kylu, Dgw, Sax Russell, NickW557, ShelfSkewed, Out-riggr (2006-2009), Leujohn, Lazulilasher, Neelix, Bhabing, Mempv, MrFish, Bobnorwal, Equester, Qrc2006, Icarus of old, Ethanhawke,Cydebot, Cahk, Ntsimp, JackDaniels1982, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Ryan, Poeticbent, Steel, Aristophanes68, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Huys-man, Michelle2005, Julian Mendez, Dancter, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Aintsemic, Chrislk02, Asenine, Optimist on the run, In Defenseof the Artist, Kozuch, Brad101, A Musing, Jlpspinto, Omicronpersei8, Zalgo, Dark Samus, Lolaness, FrancoGG, JamesAM, Epbr123,Ph.D.Nikki, Btball, Interested2, TheMoustache, Figureground, Gamer007, Mojo Hand, Ichthys58, Paulisfat, Clcaswell, Uhnday, Marek69,John254, A3RO, NorwegianBlue, Folantin, PaperTruths, Dddinardi, E. Ripley, Abhi.20dec, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, LunaSantin, Ansett, Seaphoto, Mikecowell, Opelio, Jj137, Modernist, Malcolm, MECU, RedCoat10, Jgroom, Wayiran, Gökhan, Sluzzelin,JAnDbot, Husond, Coveritus, MER-C, The Transhumanist, The risen sun, Poeticmic, Midnightdreary, Roleplayer, Hut 8.5, Leolaursen,PhilKnight, PSALT, Jarkeld, Mintmonkey, Geniac, Naval Scene, Sangak, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mjw65, Wikidudeman, JNW, EOBeav,JamesBWatson, Bradcis, Jéské Couriano, Lucyin, Dinosaur puppy, Steven Walling, Midgrid, AmericanCitizen, KConWiki, Theroadislong,Indon, Raisethirty, Thernlund, Animum, Ensign beedrill, Jobleblue, Silentaria, Glen, DerHexer, JaGa, Danielph23, Edward321, Grantsky,Esanchez7587, Tony in Devon, Khalid Mahmood, Lousir, Tom Zart, Aish1108, SquidSK, MartinBot, Arjun01, Pupster21, R'n'B, Com-monsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, S.dedalus, Watchguy, Printguy, Smokizzy, Pomte, LedgendGamer, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of theWizards, DrKay, Trusilver, Adavidb, Uncle Dick, Geekbot1964, Ginsengbomb, Johnrwilfred2003, WarthogDemon, Андрей Романенко,Gzkn, Katalaveno, DarkFalls, Ncmvocalist, McSly, Grayoshi, Thomas Larsen, Samtheboy, Christian Storm, Skier Dude, Nkosho, Balthaz-arduju, AdamBMorgan, JayJasper, Rocket71048576, AntiSpamBot, The Transhumanist (AWB), Darrendeng, NewEnglandYankee, Knul-clunk, Thomami, KCinDC, Christophore, Entropy, Evb-wiki, Jamesontai, Lakeman23, Tauseefriaz, TopGun, Bonadea, Useight, Richard-perle, Leumas123456, OriginalJay, Xiahou, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Duderonimus, Deor, Thedjatclubrock, VasilievVV, Soliloquial,

8.2 Images 21

Pparazorback, Ryan032, WOSlinker, QuackGuru, Mcewan, Philip Trueman, Abadone, Mtcpoetry, DoorsAjar, Davehi1, The E.P.Y Foun-dation, Brambo 42, Calwiki, Cath reen, DarrynJ, Anonymous Dissident, Porkrind, Arnon Chaffin, Qxz, Mary Sayler, Brie4381, Auto24,Dendodge, Eldaran~enwiki, ANSIZIN, Qwerty815, Wassermann~enwiki, Noformation, Mannafredo, Eragon2000, Hrundi Bakshi, Wiae,Nave.notnilc, Banana Concoction, Enviroboy, Snake152, Mohitmisra, Lily15, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Symane, Angelastic, OMGitsCTC,Demize, Daveh4h, Newbyguesses, Bfpage, Micomico, SieBot, StAnselm, K. Annoyomous, Nihil novi, WereSpielChequers, Legion fi,Dawn Bard, Matthew Yeager, Rirusso, Shelda292, Keilana, Bentogoa, Happysailor, Thanku4theven0m4, Radon210, Arbor to SJ, Jet-Lover, VeLi33~enwiki, Oxymoron83, Judicatus, Nuttycoconut, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, MasterVageSha, Poindexter Propellerhead,Iain99, Deskruns, Alex.muller, St.marg, Fratrep, Jozosalt, WildgrassRd, Dillard421, Onopearls, Wikifire, Dickinson56, Youknowwho123,Peir 69 - The Salty Seaman Bar, Dcattell, Jacob.jose, Rocanlover, Dust Filter, MAntoni, Highmind89, Pkelly80, Dabomb87, Townblight,Pinkadelica, Phil wink, Denisarona, JL-Bot, Finetooth, LarRan, Tomahiv, DaTKiDDaMiEN, Rawdon Crozier, ClueBot, Potency, Idealgas equation, Ctiefel, SchwarzeSonne, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chocoforfriends, Raresoul, DionysosProteus, Krapenhoef-fer, Ark2120, Poetryrus, Raim95, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, R000t, P0mbal, Arakunem, Ukabia, Danielpaiva~enwiki, Arabesques2~enwiki,Sevilledade, TheOldJacobite, Cyanothus, Nelsonsa, 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22 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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